 Translator's preface and prologue of The Emancipation of South America. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Piotr Natter. The Emancipation of South America by Bartolome Mitre. Translated by William Pilling. Translator's preface and prologue. Translator's preface. The title of this translation is the second title of the original History of San Martin. This transposition of title is an index to the relation which the translation bears to the original. This latter is truly a biography of San Martin, whose life could not be understood unless very full accounts were given of the events in which he took so prominent a part, therefore the biography is also a history. No man who plays a prominent part in the history of a revolution can escape becoming involved in disputes with his contemporaries, and in many intricate questions which are of interest only to a very small number of their successors. These disputes and these questions greatly affect the career of a man, but have small influence upon the history of a nation. Of such troubles San Martin has his full share. His biographer has entered fully into them and with much detail has given proofs of the correctness of the view he takes of them. These details are, for the most part, suppressed in the translation and all matters concerning San Martin himself are greatly curtailed, while prominence is given to the events of the times in which the scene passes. The translation is thus a history in which enter the biographies of the two principal personages, San Martin and Bolivar. This translation is intended only for the general mass of English-speaking readers to whom minute details are wearisome, and is thus in every part a condensation of the copious accounts which are given in the original of the staring events described. The student of history will not find in it that ample information which he requires in order fully to understand the subject in all its bearings. For him the original provides a mine of historic wealth enriched as it is with notes and with a voluminous appendix. William Pilling, London, March 1893 Prologue. The object of this book is to give a biography of General José de San Martín combining therewith the history of the emancipation of South America. It is a necessary complement to the history of Belgrano written 30 years ago. These two histories display the Argentine Revolution in its two principal aspects. One relates the development of a nation, the other the effect of this development upon the emancipation of a continent. The history is based, for the most part, upon documents hitherto unpublished, some of which are truly posthumous revelations which throw new light upon mysterious or little-known events or current errors resulting from defective information. I believe I have consulted all the books, pamphlets, newspapers and fly sheets which have ever been printed concerning San Martín and of manuscripts I have a collection of at least 1000 documents bound in 73 thick volumes which it is my purpose to deposit in the National Library. The most important of these sources of information has been the archive of General San Martín himself which was placed at my disposal by his son-in-law, the late Don Mariano Balcarce. I have also consulted the archives of this city from the year 1812 to the year 1824 without which it would have been impossible to compile a complete history. The archives of the director Puere Don which were given to me by his son have also been of great service to me as also those of General Ojíns, Don Tomás Godoy, Cruz, General Las Eras and others. I have also acquired much verbal information from conversations held with many of the contemporaries of San Martín and with some of his companions and arms. In addition to consulting all available maps and plans relating to the campaigns of San Martín I have inspected in person the routes followed by the Army of the Andes and have made sketches myself of the scene of memorable events when plans were not forthcoming. This book will not be the historical monument which posterity will someday consecrate to the immortal memory of San Martín but those could do at some future date erected will herein find abundant materials? Stones finished or but roughly cut with which solidly to lay out the foundations. Bartolome Mitre, Buenos Aires, 1887. Here follows on 25 pages a list of unpublished manuscripts consulted in the compilation of this work which manuscripts will be deposited in the National Library of Buenos Aires, William Pilling. End of Translator's Preface and Prologue of The Emancipation of South America. Chapter 1, Part 1 of The Emancipation of South America by Bartolome Mitre, translated by William Pilling. This liberox recording is in the public domain. Recording by Pietronater. Chapter 1, Part 1 Historical Introduction The argument of the book. Three great names stand forth conspicuous in the annals of America. Those of Washington, Bolivar, San Martín. Of Washington, the great leader of the democracy of the north, of Bolivar and of San Martín who are the emancipators of the southern half of the continent. The story of the life work of the latter of these two is the argument of this book. The scene of action passes on a vast theater, a territory extending for more than 50 degrees of latitude from Cape Horn to the Tropic of Cancer and occupies 20 years of strife. The starting point of this history is the Argentine Revolution. It follows the course of this revolution as it spreads over the continent and its object is to explain the laws which governed the establishment of a family of the New Republics and the fundamental principles from which they sprang. This argument is dual and complex, for it treats both of political revolution and of social evolution. It shows how the Argentine Revolution became a propaganda to the world outside of the principles upon which it was based and how under these auspices independent and sovereign nations sprang into existence with forms and tendencies in the same likeness and similitude. It shows the proclamation of a new international law which only permits of alliance against an enemy in the name of a common destiny and forbids conquests and annexations. It shows also the failure of the attempt in Colombia to unite the emancipated colonies artificially into a monocracy in opposition to natural law and to the new idea of the rights of men inaugurated by the Argentine Revolution. The two hegemonies, the Argentine and the Colombian, unite to set the seal upon the emancipation of South America. San Martin and Bolivar crossed the continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific by different routes, giving liberty to enslaved peoples, founding new nations and meeting as together they enclose the colonial system in its last entrenchments. They bring the two opposing systems face to face, the shock resulting in the triumph of the superior principle. Thus considered, the history of the emancipation of South America presents a homogenous character with unity of action and with one dominant idea which in the midst of accidental deviations reveals the existence of a law giving one a cordoned significance to facts accomplished. The study of the theatre of the War of Independence shows that the scene passes in two distinct revolutionary areas, one at the south, comprehending the united provinces of the river plate, Chile and Upper Peru, the other at the north, comprehending Venezuela, New Granada and Quito. The strife and the triumph proceed simultaneously in each area until the two revolutions, like the two masses obeying a reciprocal attraction, converge towards the center. This plan, drawn up and carried out by the two great liberators, emancipates South America by the combined military action of the revolted colonies, which action has advanced the ideal unity of a poem and the precision of a machine. The unity of this action is clearly displayed in the general lines of the life of San Martin and gives to his historic figure an importance far transcending both his deeds and his designs. He was born in an obscure American town which disappeared as he commenced to figure upon the scene, thus America in its entirety became his country. He grew up as a soldier in the old world fighting by sea and on land in company with the first soldiers of the age and so prepared himself for his war-like mission, unwitting of his destiny. In the new world he commenced his career by establishing tactics and discipline as his base of operations and from there combination produced his machine of war. He consolidated the independence of the United provinces of the river plate as the point from which he might start for the conquest of South America. In command of the Army of the North his name is associated with the revolution of Upper Peru. As he passes the Andes in prosecution of his own plan he became identified with the revolution of Chile and after consolidating the independence of this country he initiated the first international alliance in America. He secured the command of the Pacific without which the independence of America was at that time impossible and gave liberty to lower Peru. He then carried the revolutionary standard of the allies to the foot of Pichincha where he met the liberator of Colombia. Under the equator which devised the two theaters of the war he clasped hands with Bolivar. Thus ended his great campaign. At the apogee of his power he disappeared from the scene knowing that his mission was fulfilled, that his strength was exhausted and condemned himself to exile faithful to the ruling maxim of his life. Serás lo que debes ser, si no, no serás nada. Quote, thou shalt be that which thou oughtst to be, if not thou shalt be nothing. End quote. From exile he looked upon the results of his life work, the definitive political organization of South America in accordance with geographical divisions, the foundation of a new constellation of independent states in obedience to natural laws as by him instinctively foreseen. He saw without envy that Bolivar with whom he shared the glory of the redemption of a new world wore the crown of the final triumph, though he knew that both as a politician and as a soldier he was his superior. Then the wild dream of Bolivar that he could found an empire of dependent republics under the auspices of Columbia faded away and gave place to the Argentine plan of independent republics heralded by San Martin. Synopsis of the South American Revolution It has been said that posterity will look upon the emancipation of South America as the most important political phenomenon of the 19th century, both in itself and from the probable extent of its future consequences. The immediate result was to bring into existence a new group of independent nations founded on democratic principles in open opposition to the right of conquest and to the dogmas of monarchy and absolutism which he had prevailed in the old world. These new nations were organized on the principle of equality and were emancipated from privilege and thus offered an entirely fresh field for experiment in the development of the physical and moral faculties of man. This movement thus constitutes one of the most drastic changes ever affected in the condition of the human race. The first throes of this revolution were felt at the two extremities and in the center of South America in the year 1809. In 1810 all the Spanish-American colonies rose up in rebellion as by one innate impulse and proclaimed the principle of self-government. Six years later all save one of these insurrections were quelled. The United Provinces of the River Plate alone maintained their position and after declaring their own independence they gave to the conquered colonies the signal for the great and final struggle by making common cause with them. In 1817 the Argentine Revolution drew up a plan for the emancipation of the continent, took the offensive, crossed the Andes and liberated Chile. In union with Chile obtained command of the Pacific, liberated Peru and carried her arms to the equator in aid of the revolution of Colombia. This vigorous impulse was felt in the extreme north of this southern continent which in its turn defeated and expelled the champions of the old system went through a similar revolution and crossed the Andes to the point where the two forces united. The highlands of Peru became the scene of the final struggle. Then the Spanish-American colonies were free by their own strength and from the chaos sprang up a new world. During the progress of these events the United States of the North, the pioneers of the Republican era recognized the independence of the new republics in 1822 as an expression of the simple truth and declared the peoples of South America have a right to break the chains which bind them to their mother country to assume the rank of nations among the sovereign nations of the world and to establish institutions in accordance with natural laws dictated by God himself. As a consequence of this recognition the United States in the year 1823 promulgated the famous Monroe Doctrine which in a position to the bowl of Alexander VI established a new principle of the international law under the formula America for the Americans. Free England, who at first looked favorably upon the revolution, began in 1818 to lean towards Spain and the Holy Alliance advocating an arrangement on the basis of the commercial freedom of the colonies. The diplomatists of Washington interfered in favor of their complete emancipation and Lafayette in support of this idea declared to the government of France quote any opposition which may be made to the independence of the new world may cause suffering but will not impede the idea end quote. Thus much before the final triumph the emancipation of the new continent was accepted as an accomplished fact and the attitude of the United States supported by England turned the scales of diplomacy in its favor in 1823 when at the Congress of Verona the party of reaction proposed a contrary policy cunning Prime Minister of Great Britain wrote to Grenville those memorable words which re-echoed through two hemispheres quote the battle has been fierce but it is one the nail is clenched Spanish America is free Novos Sechlorum Nastitur Ordo end quote the battle of Iacuccio was the response to these words and cunning could then exclaim quote I have called a new world into existence to redress the balance of the old end quote the action of America upon Europe land discovered by Christopher Columbus which completed the physical world was destined to re-establish its general equilibrium at the moment the base the rough was shaken before the end of the 15th century Europe had lost its moral and political equilibrium after the invasion of the barbarians which imbued it with a new principle of life without destroying the germ of decay left by the fall of the Roman Empire its civilization was again on the point of collapse not one homogeneous nation there existed her productive energy was exhausted liberty was but a latent hope privilege was the dominant law politics were founded on the principles of Machiavelli all healthy evolution in the path of progress was impossible a fresh invasion from the east advanced under the standard of Decrescent and the despotism of musulman fanaticism was the last hope of the people Europe shut in between the Danube and the pillars of calculus seemed lost the discovery of a new world alone could save her this discovery restored harmony to the discordant elements gave new life to Christianity and saved the liberties of mankind the reformation which came immediately afterwards engrafted upon the consciences of men the germ of the democratic principles of the Bible which transplanted to a new world later on regenerated the defeat civilization brought from Europe and spread it as a vital principle of politics all the world over the popular belief that the fountain of eternal youth was to be found on the new continent discovered by Columbus was no vain imagination the decrepit civilization of the old world drew fresh youth and strength from the virgin soil of America the genius of progress therein latent developed rapidly in the genial air the opening of this new and vast fields to human activity was truly a renovation of social order in accordance with natural law and resulted in the organization of a democracy based upon labor to this end it was only necessary that the European leaving his old traditions behind him should on a vacant continent work out his own destiny under the guidance of healthy instinct the colonization of Spanish America in the repetition of the new continent the worst lot fell to the southern hull Spanish and Portugal carried their feudal absolutism to their colonies but they could not plant there their systems of privilege of aristocracy or of social inequality the good and the bad seed alike were modified by cultivation and a new soil the natural product being democracy the mode of colonization contributed to this result the most trustworthy annals of the Indies recognized the fact that the conquest was achieved at the expense of the conquerors without any drafts on the royal treasury hence arose that spirit of self-reliance which they bequeathed to their descendants a rebel world grew up under the auspices of absolutism the colonial constitution which inculcated a personal despotism and excluded the idea of a common country contributed fatally to this result Spanish America was looked upon as the personal property of the Spanish monarch in virtue of the bowl of Alexander VI thus the colony did not form a part of the nation and was united to her only by allegiance to a common sovereign when the monarch disappeared his power lapsed to his vassals the logical and legal result being the separation of the colonies from the mother country the government of the colonies was entrusted to the council of the Indies represented politically by a viceroy and in law by the audiencia the bounds of whose authority were ill-defined in municipal affairs the cabildos the rights from the free communities of the mother country were nominally the representatives of the people in them lay the germs of democracy as they possessed the right to call public meetings for the settlement of their own affairs by vote which right for long and abeyance became an active power when supported by popular force the great extent of the country the want of moral cohesion the admixture of races the general corruption of manners the absence of an ideal the lack of political and industrial activity and the profound ignorance of the masses all contributed to produce a state of semi-barbarism by the side of a weekly civilization and vitiated the entire social organism from this embryo was to spring a new republican world the product of the gems latent within it the colonization of North America North America more fortunate was colonized by a nation which had practical notions of liberty and by a race better prepared for self-government the process commenced a century later the colonists easily adapted themselves to a climate similar to that of the mother country and founded there a new home to which they were bound by free institutions originally the English colonies were looked upon as crown provinces and were ruled by privileged companies by a council similar to that of the indies the monarch reserving to himself as in Spain the supreme legislative authority and the right of appointment without giving any legislative rights the colonists of Virginia by their own energy soon acquired some political rights which were secured to them by royal charters this example was followed by the colonists of Maryland colonial assemblies absorbed the privileges of the companies and the royal charters formed later on the basis of republican institutions after the planters of Virginia and Maryland came the pilgrim fathers of New England who flying from persecution in Europe sought liberty of conscience in the new world authors of the great revolution they were deeply imbued with the republican spirit and with the democratic spirit of Switzerland and of the Netherlands in which latter country they had seen their ideal of the ruler of the free people in the austere person of William of Orange the anti-type of Washington in accordance with these ideals they established at once a form of popular government hitherto unknown based upon just laws finally came the Quakers who proclaimed freedom of the intellect as an inmate and inalienable right and drew up their constitution on the basis of democratic equality absolute and universal in this anticipating the most advanced of the modern era under William Penn they established the representative colony of Pennsylvania the nucleus and the type of the great republic of the United States such was the genesis of democratic liberty destined to become universal colonial policy in both Americas the commercial monopoly which Spain adopted as a system on the discovery of America had an influence quite as evil upon herself as upon her colonies the intention was that Spain should draw to herself the wealth of the new world by keeping in her own hands the exchange of European manufacturers for the products of America every industry which might compete with those of the peninsula was prohibited in America at first Seville and afterwards Cadiz was declared to be the only port from which ships laden with merchandise could sail or at which they could land cargoes of colonial produce all direct trade between the colonies themselves was forbidden the restrictive system was completed by collecting all the merchant vessels into annual or biennial convoys sailing in charge of ships of war to or from Portobello and Panama merchandise so introduced was carried across the Isthmus and distributed by way of the Pacific and by land to Potosi where the southern and Atlantic provinces could supply themselves at prices five or six hundred percent over the original cost such a system could only spring from a mind enfeebled by the possession of absolute power and could only be tolerated by a race of slaves before one century had elapsed the population of Spain was reduced by one how her manufacturing industries were ruined her mercantile marine no longer existed her trade was in the hands of foreign smugglers and the gold and silver of the new world went everywhere except to Spain note the sole purpose for which the Americans existed was held to be that of collecting together the precious metals for the Spaniards and if the wild horses and cattle which overrun the country could have been trained to perform this office the inhabitants might have been all together dispensed with and the colonial system would then have been perfect unfortunately however for that system the South Americans finding that the Spaniards neither could nor would furnish them with an adequate supply of European products invited the assistance of other nations to this call the other nations were not slow to listen and in process of time there was established one of the most extraordinary systems of organized smuggling which the world ever saw this was known under the name of the contraband or forced trade and was carried on in armed vessels well manned and prepared to fight their way to the coast and to resist the coast blockades of Spain this singular system of war like commerce was conducted by the Dutch Portuguese French English and laterally by the North Americans this way goods to an immense value were distributed over South America and along with the goods no small portion of knowledge found entrance in spite of the increased exertions of the inquisition many foreigners too by means of bribes and other arts succeeded in getting into the country so that the progress of intelligence was encouraged to the utter despair of the Spaniards who knew no other method of governing the colonies but that of the good force from the journal of Captain Basil Hall Royal Navy Fellow of Royal Society on the coast of Chile Peru and Mexico in the years 1820 1821 1822 end of note when Spain thought by experience such to remedy the evil it was already too late her colonies on the southern continent were lost to her neither force nor love nor common interest bound the disinherited children to their parent the separation was complete and the independence of the colonies a question of time and of opportunity the colonial system of Spain was not an invention it was an ancient tradition was the economic theory of the epoch reduced to practice England followed the same system committing even greater errors in the establishment of privileged companies such as the East India colony giving territories to them on a feudal basis the monarch reserving absolute authority over commercial relations in practice these errors furnished their own remedies tyrannical laws fell into disuse from the resistance of colonies armed with municipal rights thus the results sought by England were achieved without great violence and with advantage both to the mother country and to her colonies 1650 to 1666 gave supremacy to the mercantile marine of England and by shutting out foreign competition from her markets monopolized the trade with the colonies this monopoly in skillful hands colonized North America and corrected to some extent the errors of the system in 1652 under Cromwell freedom of commerce was established between England and her colonies the right being given to the government to tax themselves by the votes of their representatives and to regulate their own customs duties this was almost independence even when their charters were mutilated or abrogated by the stewards this doctrine was respected by common consent when England disregarded it came the revolution the emancipation of North America a special question of constitutional law concerning customs duties immediate cause of the revolution in North America the revolution of South America arose from a question of fundamental principles the stamp tax imposed by England on her colonies was repute on the ground that it was an internal law but parliament sanctioned the imposition of customs duties on the ground that they were an external tax the produce of the colonies being subject to the will of the king the colonists arrested and took a further step declaring that the mutiny act had nothing to do with them as it was sanctioned by a parliament in which they were not represented they called out their municipal militia and so in 1774 commenced the great struggle for the emancipation of America during ten years their resistance had been kept within the limits of the laws but from this moment they took their stand on the wide basis of natural and ideal right independent of law and of tradition the declaration of independence on the 4th of July 1776 was the proclamation of an innate universal human right of a new theory of government independent of president inspired by natural law by philosophy and by political science this declaration became as has been said quote the profession of faith of all the liberals of the world end quote the echo of these theories was heard in France and by her it was transmitted to the Latin nations of both hemispheres the people embraced them with enthusiasm up to that time two schools of politics had divided the empire of free thought the historical school led by Montesquieu looked upon the constitution of England as the finished work of experience and of human logic the philosophical school led by Rousseau denied the value of experience and thought to establish liberty and the sovereignty of the people by seeking quote the best form of association for the defense and protection of each associate against the force of all so that each one should obey only himself and remain free as before end quote the second doctrine formulated in the constitution of the United States became a new principle in political science and as such made with general acceptance throughout the colonies of South America the most important feature of the revolution of North America is not the achievement of her national independence but her emancipation political intellectual and moral in the name of human rights and in constitutional form from this moment English constitutionalism ceased to be a model and the English constitution to be the ideal even amongst the English themselves who have had to recognize their descendants and political pupils as their masters the spirit of free England anticipating the verdict of posterity justified insurrection in America statesmen and thinkers such as Chatham and Burek sympathized in the movement declaring quote there is no monopoly of principle end quote but its effect upon France was still more marked being the outcome of the reasoning of her philosophers thus it was that America reacted for the second time upon Europe with most beneficial effect on the third occasion the part of teacher is played by South America the affiliation of the revolution of South America hardly was Peru conquered by the Spanish race then it became the theater of civil war the conquerors headed by Gonzalo Pizarro rebelled against their king in the name of their rights as conquerors cut off the head of the king's representative and burned the royal standard hardly had one generation time to grow up in America here a son of Herman Cortez in whose veins flowed the blood of the celebrated Indian Donia Marina inspired to give independence to Mexico in the name of the same territorial rights invoked by Pizarro the far off colony of Paraguay was from the first a turbulent municipal republic the colonists deposed their royally appointed governors with shouts of death to tyrants elected rulers of their own and did as they liked for more than 25 years 1535 to 1560 these and many other similar facts prove that the colonization of South America was imbued from the commencement with the principle of individuality and with the instinct of independence which naturally resulted in emancipation and democracy these insurrections were outbursts of Castilian spirit but early in the 18th century Creoles began to call themselves with pride Americans and for the first time is carried in Potosi the cry of liberty in 1711 the half-breeds proclaimed a mulatto king of Venezuela. In 1733 the Creoles rose in arms and compelled the abrogation of the commercial monopoly of the company Agipuzcoran de Caracas. In 1730 two thousand half-breeds of Cochabamba in Upper Peru made armed protest against the poll tax and acquired the right to elect Creoles as officers of justice to the exclusion of Spaniards in 1765 the Creoles of Quito rose and armed insurrection against the imposition of direct taxes none of these outbreaks had as yet any definite political character the embryonic republic of Paraguay gave the first example of a revolutionary movement based upon the sovereignty of the people José Antequera by birth an American but educated in Spain appeared on the scene during a dispute between the governor of Paraguay and the cabildo of Asuncion the people named him governor by acclamation he placed himself at their head in a position to the theocratic rule of Jesuits who were ruining the country he fought pitched battles against the royal troops and was blessed as a savior but died on the scaffold as a traitor to his king after his death his pupil Fernando Montpox organized the popular party under the name of Comuneros deposed another governor and established a governing junta but was also overcome in 1781 the Comuneros broke out in insurrection in New Granada but the movement was suppressed these were not events of great historical importance but they show that throughout the period of Spanish domination the rule of the mother country was irksome to the Spaniards themselves and was hateful to all Americans the moral revolution of South America there can be no revolution until the ideas of men become the conscience of the mass and until the passions of men become a public force because it is men and not events which constitute the world the revolution was accomplished in the man of South America before the end of the 18th century after that all his actions have one object and one meaning his domination was no longer an instinct it became an active passion Spanish through jealousy of England joined France in aiding the rebels of the north and her recognition of the independence of the new republic was virtually the abdication of her own authority over the south Aranda one of the first statesmen of his time advised his sovereign in 1783 to forestall the inevitable future by making one infant king of Mexico one king of Peru and one king of the mainland taking to himself the rank of emperor the king of Spain shut his ears to these councils the revolution of 1789 proved that the ideas embodied in the declaration of independence were of universal application the monarchs of Europe took the alarm and formed reactionary leagues to South America these leagues were conveyed by educated creals who traveling in Europe learned them from French writers the rights of men was translated printed in secret and circulated through new Granada by Antonio Narinio charged with this as a crime no proof could be brought against him as no copy of the book could be found tortures failing to extract information from suspects he was banished to Africa his property confiscated and his original copy of the work was burned by the public executioner from the man of culture the new ideas filtered to the masses transforming their minds by the creation of an ideal which each one interpreted in accordance with his own talents interests and prejudices and of part one of chapter one chapter one part two of the emancipation of South America by Bartolome Mitre translated by William Pilling this LibriVox recording is in the public domain recording by Pietronater historical introduction part two the precursor of the emancipation of South America during some years previously an ardent apostle of human liberty had wondered about the world he was a dreamer with confused ideas and undisciplined attainments a generous minded warrior above all a man of strong will a soldier of Washington a comrade of Lafayette a general under Dumourie a companion of Madame Colant in her prison a confidant of Pitt in his schemes of insurrection in the colonies of Spanish America distinguished by Catherine II of Russia whose favors he put aside in deference to his austere mission looked upon by Napoleon as a lunatic with a spark out of the sacred fire Francisco Miranda a native of Caracas was the first to foresee the great destinies of Republican America and the first to raise the banner of freedom on the southern continent he it was who organized the revolutionary efforts of South Americans in Europe establishing an understanding with the creoles of the colonies it was he who towards the close of the 18th century founded in London the political society the Grand Union Americana to which they were all affiliated in this society were initiated in the mysteries of future liberty of Higgins of Chile Nariño of New Grenada Montufar and Trocafuerte of Quito Caro of Cuba who represented the Patriots of Peru Alvear and Argentine and others who later on became illustrious here the two great liberators Bolivar and San Martín took an oath to work out the triumph of the cause of the emancipation of South America this society was the type of the secret societies which transplanted to the theater of action impressed its seal upon the characters of those who directed the revolution of South America they inoculated it with the true American idea which heedless of frontiers and disregarding all obstacles looked upon the enslaved colonies as one with one aspiration with one love and with one hatred of their common master this gave cohesion to the revolution in America and ensured triumph by the union of all forces to one common end here was the point of contact of all Creoles wherever they might work for independence and for liberty here is the explanation of the identity of the original movements in spite of the isolation of each colony Miranda sought to interest the whole world in the cause of independence and briefly he sought the help of England three times from 1790 to 1801 he obtained the promise of moral and material support from Pitt with the cooperation of the United States European complications and the hesitation of the cabinet at Washington prevented the fulfillment of these promises in 1791 he published a letter to the Americans in which he attacked the colonial system of Spain declaring that nature had separated from Spain by the interposition of the ocean thus emancipating her sons from the mother country and that day were free by natural right received from the creator that the moment had arrived for opening up a new era of prosperity and with the aid of Providence to raise up in America a grand family of brothers united by a common interest failing in his attempt to secure the help of England and the United States Miranda ventured upon the enterprise by himself in the year 1806 he made two attempts to kindle the fire of revolution in his native country he ended on the mainland at Okumare with 200 men and at Vela de Coro with 500 none responded to his call but the cry was heard and its eco resounded throughout two worlds England on the death of the United States abandoning his projects for the emancipation of the colonies of Spanish America attempted to conquer them for herself and was twice defeated at Buenos Aires in 1806 and 1807 Miranda was pleased at this defeat and in 1808 wrote to congratulate the Cabildo of Buenos Aires at the same time he wrote to the Cabildo of Caracas giving notice of the invasion of Spain by Napoleon advising them to take charge of the United States and to send deputies to London to arrange the future course of the new world at the same time he published in London a pamphlet written in English by an Englishman in which from the defeat of the English was drawn a lesson based upon the opinion of General Okmati that the Creoles would only make alliance with England on condition of their own independence Miranda translated this pamphlet into Spanish and added a sketch for the new states proposed the dominant idea of which was a federal republic on a basis of independent Cabildos as the victory of Buenos Aires made a great noise in the world and more especially in the hearts of Americans this propaganda fell in with the new sentiment of nationality disclosed in the words of Don Cornelio Saavedra in his address to the Patricias of Buenos Aires in 1807 translator's note in the 18th Regiment which had taken a prominent part in the repulse of the English quote those born in the Indies whose spirits are undaunted are in no way inferior to the Spaniards of Europe and in valor give place to none end quote the races of South America the Creole five races which for historic purposes may be looked upon as three only people to the southern continent at the outbreak of the war of independence the European Spaniards the Spanish American Creoles and the half breeds also the indigenous Indians and the Negroes from Africa the Spaniards formed a privileged class and by reason of their origin enjoyed both political and social preeminence the Indians and the Negroes formed the Servile class the half breeds derived from a mixture of three races formed an intermediate class and in some places were in a large majority the Creoles direct descendants of Spaniards of pure blood but modified in character by contact with the half breed were the true sons of the soil and constituted the basis of society generally the most numerous they were always the civilizing force of the colony they were the most energetic the most intelligent and imaginative and with older inherent vices and their want of preparation for freedom were the only ones animated by an innate sentiment of patriotism those born in South America thus formed a race apart an oppressed race who saw in their ancestors and in their contemporaries not fathers and brothers but masters the colonial system placed to a certain extent all natives of the soil upon the same level and drew a broad line of distinction between the Spanish American colonists and their mother country Spain by reason of distance yielded to her colonists greater freedom and more municipal rights than she gave to her own sons in their own land but her absolute government could not bind her colonies to her by the tie of nationality men of Spanish birth looked upon the colonies as feudal territory over which they as beings of a superior race were the natural lords and thought that if only a shoemaker remained in Castile that this shoemaker had the right to govern all America the natural aspiration of slaves is for freedom and that of oppressed races who know their own strength is to assume their place in the human family in this double aspiration laid the germ of revolution in America in 1780 the indigenous race under Tupac Amaru a descendant of the Incas rose Hermas in Peru against their oppressors but were naturally defeated they possessed no great social force and did not represent the cause of civilized America the day of the Creos had not yet come but they saw nothing to admire to love or to respect in Spain an absolute king generally an imbecile was the sole point of contact between them their mother country was to them neither a country nor a mother the instinct of independence became a passion even more vehement in those who resided in Spain than in those who had never left their own hearths thus it was that the leaders who did most for the revolution came from Spain in the struggle each race took its own special part the Creos formed the vanguard and directed the movements the indigenous races formed the first line in Mexico but elsewhere they were only useful as auxiliaries in South America the half-breeds formed the rank and file of the armies of the revolution the Argentine Gaucho with the fatalism of the Arab and the strength of the Cossack gave the type to the cavalry renowned for the impetuosity of their charge from La Plata to Chimborazo the Llaneros of Venezuela translator's note men of the plains from Liano a plain and note half-breeds for the most part formed the famous squadrons of Colombia whose feats were celebrated from the Orinoco to Potosi translator's note countrymen and note of Chile mostly of Indian blood formed with Argentines in solid battalions who measured their strength with Spanish regiments victors over the soldiers of Napoleon in the peninsula the manumitted tigros gave their contingent to the American infantry showing the war-like qualities of their race in Upper Peru the indigenous races kept alive for 10 years the Patriot armies were defeated the cholos of the highlands of Peru espoused the cause of the king and were highly esteemed as infantry by the Spanish generals more especially on account of the extraordinary rapidity of their marches the Creole of South America is a sturdy offshoot of that civilizing Indo-European race to which is reserved the government of the world it is his mission to complete the democratization of the American continent to found a new order of things destined to live and progress he has impressed the peculiarities of his character upon the new nationalities when the revolution broke out in 1810 it was said that South America would become English or French when it triumphed that the continent would sink back to barbarism by the will and the work of the Creole it became American republican and civilized the initial outbreaks of the year 1809 were in some parts of a more radical character than were those of the following year when the first political formula of the rebellion was merely a demand for relative and provisional independence for a compromise between democracy and monarchy upon the basis of autonomy the doctrine that on the disappearance of the monarch his sovereignty reverted to his people was for the first time boldly proclaimed in Mexico from this it was deduced that they had the right to appoint governing juntas for their own security and owed no allegiance to those established in Spain at the time of the French invasion hence arose disputes between the Creoles and the Spaniards and between the Audiencia and the Viceroy which at the end of 1809 changed the movement into a conspiracy for independence in Quito the commotion assumed more definite terms the colonial authorities were overturned and the governing junta was set up which took to itself the attributes of sovereignty and raised troops for its own defense they exhorted the peoples of America by a proclamation to follow the example announcing that quote law has resumed its authority under the equator and quote and that quote the rights of men were by the disappearance of despotism no longer at the mercy of arbitrary power and quote the authors of this premature revolution were overcome and put to death in prison in upper Peru the city of Chukisaka was the first to move in May 1809 the Creoles at the instigation of the Audiencia tumultuously deposed the constituted authorities and set up an independent government in July the city of La Paz followed the example under the name of Punta Tuitiva an independent government composed exclusively of Americans was established which raised an army and hung on the gallows those who denied its authority both these revolts were suppressed by the combined arms of the neighboring vice royalties of Peru and La Plata the leaders of the insurrection of La Paz died either on the field of battle or on the gallows one of the latter before being thrown off cried out quote which I have lighted shall never be quenched and quote their heads and limbs were nailed to the posts which mark out the public roads in that country but before they had rotted away the fire was again burning in the upper Peru by the quelling of these conspiracies it was thought that the danger was averted but as was said by the vice-roy of Peru 50 years before on the first revolt of the Comuneros of Paraguay quote it was but covering up the fire with ashes end quote the growth of the revolution in the year 1810 the drama of revolution unfolded itself upon a vast continental scene with a unity of action which from the first attracted the attention of the world all the Spanish American colonies with the exception of lower Peru arose in rebellion simultaneously and proclaimed one political doctrine some historians have thought that this movement was the result of external impulse and that the subsequent separation was as the falling of unripe fruit others being informed looked upon this separation as a necessity quote the union of Spain with America possible under an absolute regime was incompatible with representative government and with the political equality of the citizens end quote the truth is that the South American revolution was inspired by an innate sentiment of patriotism in obedience to conservative instinct and by its nature tended to independence the divorce of the colonies from the mother country took place at a critical moment when their union was hurtful to them both if America was not prepared for self-government and if her attempts at self-government almost exhausted the forces already weakened by the struggle what would then have been her condition had remained under the rule of unnatural laws which condemned her to a lingering death a prey to vices inoculated by an evil system it cannot be denied that without the invasion of Spain by Napoleon in 1808 and the consequent disappearance of the dynasty of Spain the revolution would have been delayed but this does not imply that America was not ripe for emancipation the opportunity was nothing more than the spark setting fire to the combustibles already prepared for burning the provisional government established in Spain anticipated the complaints of the colonists and recognized by its acts the justice of their cause fomenting their resistance as much by its concessions as by its refusals the Regency of Cadiz called upon Americans to join the national Cortes thus raising them to the rank of free men but at the same time gave them only one deputy chosen by itself for each million of inhabitants while to the natives of the peninsula for the most part under the yoke of the foreigner it gave one deputy for each hundred thousand the essential difference lay in the divergence of their political opinions the Regency maintained quote the American dominions are an integral part of Spain and quote from which it deduced the ride of Spain to rule America in the absence of the sovereign Americans as we have already seen maintained that the crown was the only link between them take away the fundamental divergence of opinion and the reason for the revolution disappears the insurrection loses its legality and the question becomes one of national representation having no relation either to independence or to autonomy the colonial authorities were deposed without resistance by the force of public opinion and new ones were instituted without any rupture of relation with the mother country though all foresaw the logical end of the process in answer to this moderate policy the Regency refused to the colonies that freedom of trade which it had proposed to give them avoided the mediation of England and without attempting to arrive peacefully at an understanding stigmatized the Americans as rebels and declare war against them punishing as high treason in them that which the Spaniards themselves had done in Spain it was then in 1811 that Venezuela declared herself independent and gave herself a republican institution South America was ill prepared for the struggle she had neither soldiers nor politicians she had to improvise all she needed Spain in alliance with England and supported by the first nations of the world was mistress of the seas her armies triumphant in Europe were stronger than before the French invasion nevertheless South America unaided accepted the challenge and triumphed all alone the meeting of the Cortes and the promulgation of the constitution of 1812 instead of reconciling the mother country with her colonies found the flames of insurrection and by concessions encouraged the spirit of independence when in 1814 the king was restored South America was still governed in his name and the movement having been crushed in Venezuela the revolution was placed in a false position the refusal of America to surrender without conditions to absolute power was replied to by the proclamation of a war of conquest and amicable arrangement was no longer possible in 1820 despotism triumphed in Europe under the banners of absolute kings allied against the liberties of the people but in South America the cause of independence fostered by the example of the United States was successful from this epoch the reaction of American thought is felt in the parliament of England and influences even Spain herself where the armies collected to stamp out revolution in America turn against the absolute king and reestablish a constitutional regime this is a critical moment upon the triumph of the revolution in South America depended the destinies of two worlds five years later on victory crowned her efforts America is republican, independent and free from this movement the current of history which has for three centuries carried despotism from the east to the west now turns back the action of the principles of American regeneration flows from west to east and spreads over Europe until stopped by the barrier of Islamism Greece cries out for emancipation and Europe instead of joining to crush her aspirations runs to help her Portugal becomes free by the example and influence of her American colonies who send back to her her absolute kings transformed into constitutional rulers in France the revolution of 1789 revives in a compromise between monarchy and the republic its champions being a comrade of Washington and an immigrant prince who had studied American democracy at close quarters take away the South American revolution of the year 1810 supposed to be suppressed in 1820 or eliminate the final triumph of 1825 and the republic of the United States remains the sole representative of liberty and the world even with the help of free England lies groveling under this way of absolutism attempts at monarchy in South America. Had the idea of Aranda been adopted in 1783 it is probable that a bastard monarchy would have been established in America upon which time would have impressed the seal of democracy had the king of Spain removed his throne to America in 1808 as did he of Portugal it is possible that the course of the revolution might have been changed under dynastic auspices delaying the advent of the republic hence accelerating constitutional stability these two opportunities being lost the revolution could only develop in accordance with its own nature and become essentially a republican movement the pilgrim fathers of New England and the Quakers of Pennsylvania carried with them the seed of republicanism the Cavaliers who colonized Virginia became republicans by founding a new country of a distinct type which produced Washington the Spanish colonists of South America brought with them no such ideas but only germs of individualism from which time developed desires for independence and for equality the indigenous races knew nothing of any form of government except monarchy the Creoles were born republicans the idea of establishing a monarchy never sprang from a Creole brain and when proposed was looked upon by them only as a compromise the initial expedient when it was not a folly in 1808 the English constitution was the ideal of thinkers trained in the school of Montesquieu in 1810 the social contract of Rousseau was their gospel and the revolution of that year assumed spontaneously a popular form producing municipal republics whereby the course of opinion became exclusively democratic when early reverses dumped the republican hopes of independent leaders they looked to the establishment of a monarchy under the protection of the great powers as a means of securing independence and constitutional freedom in 1814 it was proposed to crown an infant of Spain king of La Plata in 1816 the same congress which declared the independence of the Argentine provinces embraced the idea of crowning a descendant of the Incas at Cusco and uniting Peru and the river plate under this rule a proposition quenched in ridicule the same congress in 1819 after swearing to and promulgating a republican constitution sought in Europe for a king lowering their character in the eyes of the world and bringing accusation of treachery upon themselves from their own countrymen this reaction took place precisely at the time when the perseverance of the republicans had gained for them universal sympathy the United States threw her shield over the infant peoples to protect them from the attacks of the holy alliance and when England after declaring that she would not recognize quote the revolutionary governments of America and quote became convinced of her mistake the agents of this policy were men such as Rivadavia who stands in America second alone to Washington as the representative statesmen of a free people such as Belgrano the type of republican issue and such as San Martin who a republican at heart had no faith in democracy yet founded republics which by natural law became democracies when San Martin ignored this law his career as a liberator came to an end so also later on fell bolivar in the attempt to convert democracy into monocracy the only American liberator who in his folly crowned himself emperor iturbide in Mexico died on the scaffold a presage of the sad end of another emperor whose corpse was sent back to Europe as a protest against the imposition of monarchy the empire of Brazil is apparently a proof of the possibility of establishing monarchy in America but the contrary is the fact Brazil is a democratic empire founded upon the principle of sovereignty of the people without any privileged class or hereditary nobility and has nothing monarchical about it except the name retrospection when the war was over and the continent at peace bolivar exclaimed quote I blush to say it independence is the only good we have achieved at the cost of all else end quote even at this price independence was solid gain for it was life the continuance of the colonial system was death by the composition independence was moreover the establishment of the democratic republic a system under which all losses may be retrieved south America has no reason to complain of the task allotted to her in working out the destiny of humanity in the first decade of this century the republic of the united states was a sun without satellites the apparition of a group of new nations from the colonial nebula of the south formed for the first time in the political world a planetary system of republics governed by natural laws an entire continent almost one half the globe extending from pole to pole and washed by the two greatest of the oceans became republican at that time there were about two republics in the world in Europe Switzerland in America the united states the influence of the latter was not yet felt but the new system of republics soon became a power of the first rank the republics of south America were strong enough to conquer their independence but they lacked the elements of self-government they had passed at one bound from slavery to freedom and it took them more than one generation to eradicate evils produced by three centuries of misgovernment in the war they had expanded not only their blood their treasure and their vital energy but also their intellectual strength wealth came to them with independence but the want of the elements of self-government made them an easy prey to anarchy and despotism from which the conservative instinct at length saved them still they suffered the evils of inexperience but nothing is lost while republican institutions the great work of the revolution are preserved no people so ill-prepared for the change could have done better even the united states passed through a critical period of transition which imperiled their existence as an organized nation the republics of self-america have suffered greatly from misgovernment but the instincts of the people have ever been superior to the incapacity of their rulers had they continued subject to Spain they would have died of Inanition had the English invasion been successful they might now be colonies of England such as Australia and Canada and might possibly be richer in material they are but they would not be independent nations charged with the mission of creating new elements of progress they would but feebly reflect the far of light South America would but exist as an appendage of Europe and Europe would be subject to the holy alliance of absolute kings if South America has not realized all the hopes awakened by the revolution still it cannot be said that she has faltered in her course she has resolved for herself the problem of life educated herself in the hard school of experience and by sorrow has purged away her vices giving the lie to sinister presage which condemned her to absorption by inferior races the energetic Creole has assimilated them giving them freedom and dignity or when necessary had suppressed them with help from the most superior races of the world acclimatized upon her hospitable shores the reins of government have been secured to him her regenerated population doubles itself in 20 or 30 years before the end of the next century South America will number 400 millions of free men North America 500 million and all America will be Republican and Democratic to these great results following the example of Washington and equal to Bolivar will have contributed with such events as he possessed the founder of three republics the emancipator of one half of South America whose history will now be told end of chapter one part two chapter two of the emancipation of South America by Bartolomé Mitre translated by William Pilling this liberal recording is in the public domain recording by Piotr Natter chapter two San Martin in Europe and in America in 1778 1812 Jose de San Martin was born on the 25th of February 1778 at the town of Iapeo in Misiones and was the fourth son of Captain Don Juan de San Martin who was at that time lieutenant governor of the department of Iapeo when he was eight years old the family went to Spain and he became a pupil in the seminary of nobles at Madrid where he remained only two years he learned lupu beyond the rudiments of mathematics and something of drawing before he was 12 years old he joined the Mosia regiment as a cadet the uniform of this regiment was white and blue the same colors the mature soldier afterwards carried in triumph over half a continent his first campaign was in Africa where he received his baptism of fire in the battle against the Morse when in Garrison at Oran in 1791 the city at that time besieged by the Morse was destroyed by an earthquake in 1793 he joined the army of Aragon and served under Ricardos against the republicans of France on their own territory this experience was of great value to him as Ricardos was the best tactician among the Spanish generals on that day after two successful actions at Mazdel and Truye Ricardos was forced to retire to the foot of the mountains he maintained his position for 20 days against the constant attacks of the enemy and Saint Martin so distinguished himself that he was promoted to the rank of sublutanums in the following bay after the death of Ricardos the Murcia formed part of the Garrison of Port Vendres which after beating off two attacks of the French was forced to retreat to Coyouve and their surrendered Saint Martin gained another step by his conduct in these affairs in 1795 the peace at Basilea freed the Aragon lieutenant from his parole in the following year his father died and the Treaty of San Nildefonso brought Spain as an ally of the French Republic into collision with Great Britain on the 14th of February 1797 the Murcia on board the Spanish Mediterranean squadron took part in the disastrous affair of Cape St. Vincent on the 15th of August 1798 Saint Martin was marine officer on the Santa Dorotea when that ship was captured after a desperate defense by the English 64 gunship Lyon and being thus for the second time the bard from active service he devoted his leisure to the study of mathematics and drawing in the year 1800 at the head of a company of his old regiment he took part in the Syria comic war with Portugal known as the war of the foreigners and was present at the siege of Oliveensa after the peace of Amiel in 1802 his regiment was employed in the blockade of Gibraltar and Ceuta and in 1804 we find him in Gaison at Cadiz as second captain of a light infantry regiment where his conduct during a pestilence was as honorable to him as had been his conduct in the field by the Treaty of Fontenblu in 1807 Spain divided Portugal and her colonies between them and a column of six thousand Spanish troops under Solano invaded Portugal the regiment to which Saint Martin was attached captured the town of Yelve but took no further part in the campaign the Amet of the 2nd of May at Madrid gave the signal for an odd break of popular indignation against the usurpations of Napoleon the news reached the army of Solano when on the march for Cadiz Solano was at first undecided what course to adopt but his appointment as captain general of Andalusia and governor of Cadiz being confirmed by the French he on the 28th of May issued a proclamation condemning their insurrection the people flocked in crowds to the palace shouting for an immediate attack upon the French squadron lying in the harbour in the confusion some shots were fired Saint Martin who was officer of the guard withdrew his troops into the house and closed the door it was blown in by a cannon shot but time had been gained for the escape of Solano across the roof to a neighbouring house where however he was soon afterwards found and cruelly butchered this tragedy was never erased from the memory of Saint Martin and without doubt greatly affected his policy on many subsequent occasions in spite of his love of liberty he ever after looked with horror upon mobs and upon governments who relied upon them he considered that intelligence supported by orderly strength should hold the government of the world nevertheless his reason and his heart must have told him that the cause of Spain was just and that the executions on the Prada of Madrid on the 2nd of May were more barbarous and less justifiable than was the murder of Solano about this time it is said that Miranda visited Cadiz in disguise but for this report we can find no foundation he was the founder and organiser of the secret societies to which South Americans throughout Europe were already affiliated but Spain was the last country in Europe in which such societies were established Cadiz being the one port open to American trade became naturally at this time the centre of the revolutionary propaganda in the early years of the 19th century an association styled Sociedad de Lautaro or Caballeros Racionales had ramifications all over Spain and was affiliated with the Grand Reunion Americana established in London by Miranda the society had in Cadiz alone in the year 1808 more than 40 members some of them grandees of Spain those of the first grade were pledged to work for the independence of America those of the second swore to recognize no government in America as legitimate unless it was elected by the free and spontaneous will of the people and to work for the foundation of the republican system of this society San Martin became a member an American by birth a revolutionist by instinct and a republican by conviction he was perchance without knowing it an adept of Miranda and was destined to make the dream of the master a reality when the bones of that master lay rotting on the mad banks upon which his eye might at the time often rest at the same time with San Martin three other members joined the lodge Alvear who was his confidence to he became jealous of his fame Jose Miguel Carrera who was to die cursing him and most modest of all talent Mattias Tapiola who was afterwards his right arm on many a hard fought field San Martin was the least brilliant and the poorest of them all his comrades recognized the superiority of his talents as a soldier and said that he did the thinking for them all but in the great revolutionary drama that all foresaw they assigned to him only the place of a stern warrior Alvear and Carrera the most arrogant and the most ambitious were to be the heroes the general rising in Spain found San Martin in his place as an officer of light infantry under the command of colonel Menaccio he was soon promoted and his regiment joined the second division of the army of Andalusia commanded by Marquis de Coupini when the French under the crossed the Sierra Morena he was placed in charge of the line of the Guadalquivir on the 22nd of June 1808 he led a mixed column against the advanced guard of the enemy and charged a detachment of cavalry with such impetuousity at the head of 21 Hussars that he killed 17 of the enemy took four prisoners and all their horses and retired in triumph in the face of very superior numbers this action was greatly applauded by the whole army a batch of honor was given to all who charged with him and he was appointed captain in the Bourbon Regiment quote on account of distinguished conduct in the action at Argonia end quote the small triumph was the precursor of one of the greatest victories of the epoch before one month had elapsed the imperial eagles of Napoleon were beaten by the army of records inspired by patriotism and captain San Martin was mentioned with distinction in the order of the day of the battle of Bailén to Madrid being opened by this victory the army of Andalusia entered the capital in triumph and San Martin received with his commission as lieutenant colonel a gold medal for his conduct in the battle he was afterwards present at the disaster of Tudela and in the retreat to Cadiz and in 1810 was appointed aid the camp to the marquis of Coupigny in 1811 he took part in the bloody battle of Albuera where the French were defeated by an allied army against General Beresport the same who five years previously had capitulated to Inea at Buenos Aires the same year he joined the Sagunto Regiment the escutcheon of which was a son with this motto, hoe nubila tollund obstantia solvents dissipates clouds and removes obstacles this was the last Spanish standard under which San Martin fought and its symbol was identical with that of the flag of the yet unthought of army of the Andes the prophecy of the dying pit was realized Napoleon had stirred up against himself a national war and was irredeemably lost Spain allied with Great Britain in saving herself saved Europe from his brutal domination and the American Creole having paid with usury his debt to the mother country and now honorably leave her San Martin had fought under her flag for twenty years he had seen the strategy of great generals had learned the tactics of every arm in the service the pupil was now a master able to give lessons he turned his eyes to his own country and seeing her in difficulty resolved to return and consecrate his life to her service the confident of his projects and sentiments on this occasion was a singular personage Lord Magda, afterwards Earl of Five, was a scotch noble descended from that Shakespearean hero who slew Magbeth he was in Vienna when the Spanish insurrection broke out in 1808 he came over at once and enlisted as a simple volunteer as such he took part in most of the great battles of the time in one of which he was seriously wounded and was given the rank of a general of Spain for his services then it was that San Martin and Magda became acquainted their generous natures had a profound sympathy each for the other their friendship was enhanced by the dangers they shared and continued so long as both lived by his help and by the interposition of Sir Charles Steward a diplomatic agent in Spain San Martin obtained a passport for London he received from his friend letters of introduction and letters of credit of which he made no use in London he met his comrades Alviar and Sapiola and other South Americans who were there at the time all belonged to the secret society founded in London by Miranda in which Bolivar had just taken the oath before leaving for Venezuela in company with the illustrious master San Martin and his two comrades were initiated in the fifth and last grade and in January 1812 embarked on the George Canning for the River Plate on the 9th of March they reached Buenos Aires accompanied by various officers who came to offer their swords in the cause of independence the moment was a critical one in the history of the American Revolution the serious work was just commencing the real struggle between patriots and royalists was yet to come and the discordance of the various elements of society only now became apparent the Argentine Revolution had provoked insurrection in Chile both by diplomacy and by example her first army of volunteers had marched to Upper Peru with the object of striking the enemy in the center of his power and in November 1810 had won the first victory of the war at Swipacha but was eight months later defeated at Waki and compelled to retreat to Tucumán Buenos Aires had attempted to gain command of the rivers by arming a small squadron which was destroyed by the enemy in the Paraná a Portuguese army of 4000 men held the line of Uruguay Paraguay had commenced the system of isolation almost of hostility the movement in Chile at first successful was in 1812 threatened by an expedition from Peru and the young republic unfortunately put her trust in José Miguel Carrera who, with some attractive qualities, possessed no solid talents either military or political in this same month of March an earthquake destroyed the city of Caracas reaction triumphed over Miranda in Venezuela only in New Granada did the revolutionary cause maintain a footing for some time longer in 1815 all the insurrections in South America had been suppressed save only the Argentine revolution which was never overpowered meantime the vice-royalty of Peru holding a central position with a strong army and the command of the sea was the center of reaction and the masses of the people not yet implicated in the revolution began to look unfavorably upon it as their eyes were opened to the perils it invoked and to the sacrifices it involved the Argentine revolution has as yet no fixed plan in so rudimentary a state of society the actual leaders had but little power to direct the latent strength of the people and even among themselves opinions were divided some believing that the decentralization of power in the city of Buenos Aires was the only means of ensuring the success of the revolutionary movement while to others decentralization seemed the only necessary condition of national life the revolution arose in the city its legality was based upon municipal rights and could not long maintain its original form it could only live by a wider popularity based upon the sovereignty of the people at large fortunately the men at this time at the helm were the most intelligent, energetic and foreseeing whoever acted together on this stage the first executive government installed on the 25th of May 1810 was a junta in imitation of those established in Spain to resist the domination of the French modified a year later by the admission of deputies from the provinces it became a many-headed monster useless alike for debate and for administration it was succeeded by a triumvirate under the name of the executive government which by the aid of those men saved the state from shipwreck such was the situation of the united provinces of the river plate when San Martín landed on Argentine soil 26 years before, while he had a child he had left his native land now he returned in the ripeness of manhood tempered in the struggles of life tutored in the art of war initiated in the mysteries of secret societies formed for the propagation of the new ideas of liberty the new champion brought to the American cause tactics and discipline applied both to politics and to war and in Embryo a vast plan for a continental campaign which should embrace half a world and should result in its independence it has been said that San Martín was not a man but a mission and in truth seldom has the influence of one man upon the destinies of humanity been greater than his he was at once the arm and the head of the Argentine hegemony he combined the evolutions of armies with those of nations marking each evolution with some achievement either political or military obtained great results with the least possible means and without waste of strength and showed how a people may be redeemed without being oppressed his character is even yet an historical enigma the grandeur of those whose names attain immortality is measured not so much by their deeds or by their talents as by the effects their memory has upon the consciences of man causing them to vibrate from one generation to another in sympathy with an idea or with a passion the moral grandeur of San Martín consists in this that nothing is known of the secret ambitions of his life that he was in everything disinterested that he confined himself strictly to his mission and that he died in silence showing neither weakness, pride, nor bitterness at seeing his work triumphant and his part in it forgotten San Martín was a man of stalwart frame his face was the reflex of his mind a fiery spirit hidden under a studious reserve of manner which at times exploded his head, which was of medium size, he carried very erect his thick black hair he always wore cut short the straight high forehead indicated the presence of a strong and healthy brain the darkness of his complexion was deepened by exposure his large black eyes were fringed by long lashes and overhung by heavy eyebrows which met when he frowned these eyes were the characteristic feature of his face disclosing the intensity of his nature but hiding his purpose his nose was long, aquiline and prominent mouth small with firm red lips teeth strong and wide his chin and jaw showed strength of will and the absence of animal passions his voice was rough his gestures simple full person inspired at once respect and sympathy note Captain Basil Hall who paid a visit to San Martín in the month of June 1821 on board the Schooner Montezuma then at Angkor in the Kayao roads thus describes his personal appearance quote General San Martín is a tall, erect, well proportioned, handsome man with a large aquiline nose, thick black hair and immense bushy whiskers extending from ear to ear under the chin his complexion is deep olive and his eye which is large, prominent and piercing jet black his whole appearance being highly military he is thoroughly well bred and unaffectedly simple in his manners exceedingly cordial and engaging and possessed evidently of great kindness of disposition in short I have never seen any person the enchantment of whose address was more irresistible end quote, end of note San Martín gave verbal orders with great precision and an ordinary conversation was fond of a joke he wrote laconically in a style of his own and was much given to reading French authors very reserved and of warm affection he was a great observer of men studying how he made best avail himself of such talents as they possessed haughty by nature, unobtrusive both by temperament and by system he forced upon himself a stoical disregard of injuries he was studiously moderate and patient in the elaboration of his plans as slave to duty himself he was tolerant of human frailty in others but could be severe when severity was requisite he was, as with truth and with posthumous justice he has been styled by Vicuna MacKenya he wrote the greatest of the creals of the new world end quote End of chapter 2 Chapter 3 of the Emancipation of South America by Bartolome Mitre translated by William Pilling this LibriVox recording is in the public domain recording by Piotr Natar Chapter 3, The Lautaro Lodge 1812-1813 The Provisional junta which was established at Buenos Aires on the 25th of May 1810 was a simple evolution of historic and municipal rights and was legalized by the election of deputies to it from the Cabildos this body was subsequently reconstructed but this measure and the creation of Provincial junta were retrograde movements arising from a latent tendency to decentralization in which lay the germ of the federal system of the later day the next step was the creation of a triumvirate which, being a more centralized form of government responded to the immediate needs of the revolution and was a necessity of the time in the junta the conservative and revolutionary elements of society were both represented but the triumvirate represented no party and was merely an anonymous dictator the revolution had as yet no defined policy and thus afforded no basis for the development of the democratic idea a legislative assembly was convened formed of deputies from the various provinces which drew up a constitution which virtually gave back the executive power to the Cabildos this assembly was dissolved by the triumvirate a measure greatly applauded by the public but which attacked the fundamental principle of government the triumvirate then drew up and decreed a constitution of its own providing for the periodical election of the executive by a mixed assembly of notables and the representatives of different towns who should also act as a legislative council until the convention of a national congress these measures were far from satisfying the requirements of the democratic party who called for the immediate convocation of a national congress which would give form and life to the republic though government was still carried on in the name of the king the triumvirate opposed the convocation of a constituent assembly considering the time for this had not yet come hence came about a fourth political revolution more dangerous and more important than any of the others San Martin returned to his native country a man unknown but with a certain repute as a brave soldier and a skillful tactician his comrade Aldear on the contrary came of a family already well known in the river plate ambitious of glory and of power and of brilliant imagination he was a great contrast to San Martin and assumed an attitude of protection to him recommending him to the government of the United Provinces as a good soldier eight days after his arrival San Martin was confirmed in his rank as a lieutenant colonel and was entrusted with the organization of a squadron of cavalry in which Aldear held the rank of major and topiola that of captain this was the origin of the famous regiment of mounted grenadiers which fought in all the battles of the war of independence which gave to America 19th generals and more than 200 officers and of which after shedding its blood and spreading its bones across the continent from La Plata to Picincia a remnant returned under the command of a trooper who in 13 years had fought his way up to the rank of colonel and brought back their old standard with them the experience of San Martin in Spain had taught him that success is not possible in a long war without a solid military organization he had seen the Spanish armies ever routed in spite of their heroism when remoulded under English discipline triumph over the first soldiers of Europe he knew that Spain, once free from war in the peninsula would send her best troops and her best generals to America coolly he studied the situation and came to the conclusion that the war was bad commencing that the armies of the revolution had no consistence that there was no plan of operations and no preparation for future emergencies he said nothing of this publicly but quietly set to work to found a new military school under his command the first squadron of the mounted grenadiers became the school of a generation of heroes he did as Cromwell did in his day he made one regiment the model for an army under strict discipline which did not repress individual energy he formed soldier and officer alike one by one instilling into them a passion for duty and that cool courage which is the secret of success his first work was to instruct the officers who under his guidance became the monitors of the future school to the companions of his voyage he added men who had already seen service in the war preferring those who had risen from the ranks but took none of higher ranks than lieutenant to them he added cadets chosen from respectable families of the city of Buenos Aires he was their master both in tactics and in the use of arms and taught them both to study and to maneuver with heads erect their nerves he tried by nocturnal surprises those who failed being dismissed as he wished quote to have only lions in the regiment end quote he also established a sort of vigilance committee among them and in extreme cases gave permission to fight duels on the first Sunday in each month they decided at a meeting of this committee in the adjoining room each officer wrote on a blank ticket an account of any misconduct he had observed these tickets were folded and dropped into the head of the major and were then inspected by himself if among them was any accusation the accused was sent from the room while the matter was discussed the committee of inquiry was named and directed to report at a special meeting each officer gave his opinion in writing and a secret ballot decided whether the accused should remain in the core or not in the first case the president in the name of the committee and in their presence gave the full apology to the accused in the second a special committee was appointed to wait upon him and procure his resignation he being at the same time notified that if he continued to wear the uniform he would be forcibly stripped of it by the first officer he met this tribunal had a concise and severe code which classified transgressions worthy of punishment from the act of ducking the head in danger to that of refusing to fight a duel be it just or unjust also striking a woman even if insulted by her and included all sorts of personal misconduct the troopers were all carefully selected short men not being admitted he subjected them to strict discipline and armed them with the long sabre of Napoleon's Curaciers telling them that with this weapon they could split like a melon the head of any goth they met translator's note a term of a problem given at that time to Spaniards end of note in their first skirmish they gave practical proof of the truth of this lesson finally he gave to each trooper a war name forbidding him to answer to any other other squadrons were formed on the model of this one till a regiment was embodied and the government sent San Martin his commission as colonel with these words quote government sends you a commission as colonel of the mounted grenadiers and hopes that by the continuance of your steadiness and zeal you may present the country with a core capable alone of securing the liberties of your fellow citizens end quote meantime San Martin had married Osremedios Escalada a beautiful girl of one of the first families of the city San Martin made no pretense of being a politician but among friends he spoke plainly his opinions quote until now the united provinces have fought for no one knows what without a flag and without any about principles to explain the origin and tendency of the insurrection we must declare ourselves independent if we wish to be known and respected end quote with these ideas he did not hesitate to join those who desired the convocation of the constituent congress but he saw the necessity of establishing some powerful nucleus of political force which should bring superior intelligence to influence popular movements preparing among a few that which should be apparent will of all this idea he aided by Alvear carried into effect by the installation of the celebrated secret society known as the Lautaro Lodge which exercised so great and so mysterious and influenced upon the destinies of the revolution this lodge was established in Buenos Aires about the middle of the year 1812 its members were of all political parties but the majority were of the party at that time dominant in the state the society was organized in various grades in the first neophytes were initiated according to the ritual of the Masonic lodges which were introduced into Buenos Aires prior to the outbreak of the revolution in the higher grades there were initiated into the higher purposes of the society and behind these was hidden the central lodge, Locha Matriz in which lay the supreme power of the society the declared object of the lodge was quote to work systematically for the independence and happiness of America with honor and justice end quote thus membership was exclusively confined to men of American birth by its constitution if any of the brotherhood was elected supreme ruler of the state he could take no important step without consulting the lodge he could not appoint a diplomatic agent general in chief, governor of a province judge of an upper court high church dignitary nor general officers or brotherhood by his own authority it was a law of the society that all the members should mutually assist each other in all the exigencies of civil life that at the risk of life they should uphold the decrease of the lodge and should inform it of anything which could influence public opinion or affect the public security to reveal the secret of the existence of the lodge, quote by word or by sign, end quote was punishable by death by such means quote as might be found convenient end quote this penalty was however only intended to have a moral effect by the addition of the constitution it was arranged that when any brother of the Lochia Matryth was named general of an army or governor of a province he should have power to establish an affiliated society with a smaller number of members the society failed to secure the adhesion of the members to the then government but most of the popular leaders joined the lodge and its ramifications soon extended to all classes the most notable adherent being Dr. Don Bernardo Montearguro who had great influence among the younger citizens very exaggerated ideas have been held as to the influence of the Lautaro lodge events have been attributed to its action and it had been held responsible for executions and crimes with which the society had nothing whatever to do it has been made the scapegoat of all the mistakes and errors of the epoch the lodge of Lautaro was not a machine of government or of speculative propaganda it was an engine of revolution of war against a common enemy and of defense against internal dangers in this sense it greatly contributed to give tone and direction to the revolution concentrating the forces of government giving unity and regularity to political evolutions and a vigorous impulse to military operations under its auspices was created the first popular assembly which gave form to the sovereignty of the people to it was due that spirit of propaganda which characterized the Argentine revolution and the maintenance of the alliance with Chile which gave independence to half the continent but there was danger in the secrecy of its debates and in the ability of its collective power which was manifest when it became a tool in the hands of personal ambition the limited sphere in which its influence was felt proofs that the Argentine revolution was impelled by forces of much greater power and obeyed general laws over which it had no control the Portuguese army then holding the left bank of the Uruguay had agreed to retire within the frontier in pursuance of an armistice arranged on the 26th of May 1812 by the interposition of the English minister between the United Provinces and the court of Rio de Janeiro the Spanish flag yet floated on the walls of Montevideo but the road was now open and a strong patriot army was concentrated on the right bank of the Uruguay in Buenos Aires public spirit revived on the discovery of a vast conspiracy of European Spaniards under Alsaga which was to have broken out on the 5th of July in concert with the forces of Montevideo and the Spanish squadron in the roadstead aided by the Portuguese army which had not yet retired the triumvirate punished the conspirators with great severity and the base of operations was solidly secured in the north the situation was less promising the royalist army after completing the subjugation of Upper Peru advanced in triumph to the heart of the United Provinces and invaded the province of Tucumán the relics of the patriot army were in retreat under command of Belgrano and it was only hoped that they might reach Cordoba in safety at this critical juncture Belgrano, disregarding the positive orders of government turned on the enemy who were double in number to his own forces and completely routed them on the 24th of September near to the city of Tucumán capturing flags and cannon and thus saved the Argentine Revolution by the constitution drawn up by the triumvirate it was established that one of their number should retire every six months on the expiration of the first six months they convened another assembly to elect one in place of the outgoing triumvir this assembly repeating the errors of the previous one took upon itself the attributes of the representative body government dissolved it as it had the former one and called upon Don Manuel Martín Pueyredón to fill the vacant chair but the national spirit was no longer confined within the limits of the municipality of Buenos Aires and demanded the immediate convocation of a national congress elected by the people the triumvirate proposed that the third assembly should devote itself to drawing up a plan for the congress this assembly accordingly met on the 6th of October in the midst of the excitement caused by the news of the victory of Tucumán and elected as triumvir a nominee of the executive public opinion saw in this only a continuance of the provisional system and was greatly incensed both against the triumvirate and against the assembly behind the popular movement was the Lautaro Lodge in the direction of Monte Agudo who secured the concurrence of San Martín and his Grenadiers as also that of Alvear the movement was much more carefully prepared than that on the 25th of May 1810 or than that of the 5th or 6th of April 1811 the leaders drew up a plan of operations defining the parts to be played by the people, by the corporations and by the troops they chose beforehand the numbers and even made a program of the policy they should pursue at half past 11 on the night on the 7th of October the troops of the garrison commenced to defile into the Plaza Victoria and took up positions in front of the Cabildo the Grenadiers with sabers sheathed were headed by San Martín and Alvear after them came Colonel Ortiz Ocampo with the 2nd Regiment and Lieutenant Colonel Pinto at daybreak on the 8th the bell of the municipality was run and the people commenced to assemble soon 300 persons among whom were the principal members of the religious orders occupied the galleries of the chamber and presented to the Cabildo a petition with more than 300 signatures asking under protection of the military for the suspension of the assembly and the deposition of the triumvirate so that the Cabildo, reassuming the authority delegated to it by the people on the 22nd of May 1810 might immediately create a new executive in charge to convene a truly national assembly end quote the Cabildo acceded to everything declaring by proclamation that the assembly, when convened should have supreme power within limits defined by the towns in order to draw up a constitution they also appointed an executive consisting of Don Juan Jose Passo Don Nicolás Rodríguez Peña and Don Antonio Alvarez-Jonte under the rules of the provisional statute all which was submitted to the people and approved by the acclamation this revolution which was municipal in its form was essentially national and democratic in its tendency the principle of the sovereignty of the people was recognized by calling a general congress the old constitution which gave supremacy to the capital were set aside and the first bold step was taken in the path of independence the new triumvirate lost no time in setting about their appointed task the constituent assembly was speedily convened the victorious army of Tucumán was strongly reinforced and another army was dispatched to besiege Montevideo thus in the space of seven months from the arrival of San Martín in Buenos Aires the aspect of affairs was completely changed government was consolidated its policy defined public spirit was aroused and the revolution with two armies boldly displayed the flag of the independence but the military situation was precarious everything depended upon the result of a battle Montevideo was a fortress of the second class was defended by 355 guns of which 175 were in battery was garrisoned by more than 300,000 troops and by 2000 militia and was further protected by a squadron of 14 ships of war mounting 210 guns and by a flotilla while the united provinces had not even a gunboat here was the center of reaction and the natural base for any expedition from the peninsula while the state of relations with Brazil increased the danger from this quarter the royalist army beaten at Tucumán had been strongly reinforced and lay entrenched at Salta waiting the arrival of another party from upper Peru government summoned the council of military chiefs of whom San Martín was one and of influential citizens to aid the cabildo in devising measures to meet these threatening dangers it was decided that Montevideo must be taken at any cost and that Belgrano should be instructed to drive the enemy from Salta in order to open the road to the center of the Spanish power at Lima End of chapter 3