 In this topic, we are going to particularly discuss about the transfer of managerial know-how and human resource management practices across national borders in various different countries within multinationals, headquarters, and subsidiaries. And in this topic, we are going to discuss what are the vehicles of transfer of this managerial know-how and human resource practices. So, vehicles of transfer means that through knowledge, managerial or human resource management practices transfer in multinational corporations. So, there are two major vehicles, one is the multinational companies themselves. multinational companies are the vehicle of the transfer of human resource management practices and managerial know-how to their subsidiaries. And then another important vehicle of transfer is formal and informal education. So, people who get educated on a particular management or human resource management subject, they get a degree on that knowledge about human resource management practices is transferred to those people in the form of formal education. multinational countries, when we talk about them, they are a powerful source of knowledge transfer. multinational companies, they transfer knowledge to a number of entities, they don't just transfer knowledge to their own subsidiaries, first of all, they transfer knowledge to their own subsidiaries, so the subsidiaries who are managed by a multinational corporation, the management practices, the way of doing work, the human resource management standards and practices, all of them, they are to some extent replicated from the multinational to the subsidiary. But that is not the only place where the knowledge from the multinational is transferred in the local context, the knowledge of multinational, particularly about management practices and human resource practices, that is also transferred to the local suppliers because who are the local suppliers who provide you input, who provide you raw material, basic input. So, until they are on your standard and your quality standards are not fulfilled, they cannot be your suppliers. So, to do that, it is necessary to teach them how to do work. So, the local suppliers also learn from your multinational. For example, if the plant of Honda or Toyota is planted in Pakistan, then there are many things that local suppliers provide to them. So, Honda and Toyota make sure that the local suppliers adopt their quality standards and their work practices so that the product that they need to fit in their cars, that is something which is up to the mark and up to the particular standard. So, local suppliers also gain knowledge from the multinational. And then these multinational, they become role model for the other firms. So, if a multinational corporation is successful, a local corporation or a firm will also look at them and will try to replicate their best practices. So, the best practices of multinational, they also adopt local firms. And this means that knowledge transfer is not only happening in the multinational, but other firms, so this starts developing on a managerial culture. The culture of management practices starts developing in that particular locality where more than one multinational models their best practices. So, multinational companies, they are a very strong vehicle of knowledge transfer across the subsidiaries for their local suppliers and also as role model for the local firms. So, the parent companies, they export their management practices through the subsidiaries and they can shape the company's human resource management in major issues and at least up to the level of how many employees to be employed, then what would be the broad training requirements of people who are employed in an organization then they are able to change the working patterns that you have to get a 9-to-5-week job, or you have to keep flexible working hours, or you have to keep a participative management style. So, what would be the working pattern? And then, the multinational, they can provide broad performance criteria where the performance criteria will be evaluated, individually evaluated, team performance evaluated, collectively evaluated, how many times it will be evaluated, what criteria will be evaluated. So, all these things, although multinational exists in the local context, but the company can shape its human resource management practices accordingly and through that, your organizational culture, your organizational work practices, the way you do the work, you can transfer all those things to the subsidiary. Management practices, they can also be transferred from one subsidiary to another subsidiary and multinational companies, they help by providing a nexus to both the firms. So, it is possible that in Indonesia, a company implements the best practices in its subsidiary. So, a subsidiary of the same company is in China or Japan, so the Indonesian subsidiary has developed the best practices. The multinational will provide an umbrella, it will provide a nexus to both the firms to actually transfer that best practices which were developed in the Indonesian firm, Indonesian subsidiary, to transfer them to the Chinese or the Japanese subsidiary. So, if the multinational's overarching umbrella is not present, then what is happening in the Indonesian firm? What does it know? What does the Chinese firm know? But since the multinational is their connective tissue, it is a nexus to provide connectivity to both the firms operating in different geographical areas. That is something which is possible. So, knowledge transfer and management practices, they can be transferred from one subsidiary to the other. However, some countries do not allow the establishment of multinational companies and therefore develop their own ways of doing things. So, some countries, for example, Russia before its disintegration, they were a very closed culture. Similarly, China before they started commercialization, they were a very closed country where they did not import their management practices from other parts of the world. So, they have developed a way of doing work from their own and they do not get the help from other parts of the world to develop their management practices. They have their own way of developing their own of their work. So, this is about the multinational corporations. Multinational corporations transfer knowledge from one place to the other. They transfer knowledge on various different dimensions. They transfer knowledge between one subsidiary to the other. But some countries, they may not allow the transfer of knowledge because they do not allow the establishment of multinational in their cultural context. Then the other vehicle of transfer is education. And we know that education has so many different ways of transferring knowledge. Business schools are there from which people can go and get educated. Then there are books on business subjects which are available which people can read and they can educate themselves. Then business magazines in which best practices and advice and suggestions about running your business well, they are published and on the basis of that people learn from that. For example, Howard Business Review is a magazine which is read all over the world and people learn a lot about how to manage their business from that particular publication. And then there are conferences on which people can go from all over the world and can learn knowledge about how business is done in different parts of the world and can adopt the different practices from different parts of the world. So, education, formal education and informal education is also a very important aspect of knowledge transfer and it serves as a vehicle of knowledge transfer from one place to the other.