 English Walnuts, Compiled by Walter Fox Allen. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Read and recorded by Betsy Bush. Marquette, Michigan, February 2006. English Walnuts. What you need to know about planting, cultivating, and harvesting this most delicious of nuts. Compiled by Walter Fox Allen. Copyright 1912. Forward. Realizing the tremendous interest that is now being directed by owners of country estates everywhere to the culture of the Persian or English Walnut, I have compiled this little book with the idea of supplying the instruction needed on the planting, cultivation, and harvesting of this most delicious of all nuts. I have gathered the material herein presented from a large number of trustworthy sources, using only such portions of each as would seem to be of prime importance to the intending grower. I am indebted to the United States Department of Agriculture and numerous cultivators of the nut in all sections of the country. I am aimed at accuracy and brevity, and hope the following pages will furnish just that practical information which I have felt has long been desired. The Compiler. English Walnuts. Viewed as a comparatively new industry, the culture of the Persian or English Walnut is making remarkable strides in this country. Owners of farms and suburban estates everywhere are becoming interested in the raising of this delicious article of food, thousands of trees being set out every year. There are two important reasons for the rapidly growing enthusiasm that is being manifested toward the English Walnut. First, its exceptional value as a food property is becoming widely recognized, one pound of walnut meat being equal in nutriment to eight pounds of steak. Secondly, its superior worth as an ornamental shade tree is admitted by everyone who knows the first thing about trees. For this purpose, there is nothing more beautiful. With their wide spreading branches and dark green foliage, they are a delight to the eye. Unlike the leaves of some of our shade trees, those of this variety do not drop during the summer, but adhere until late in the fall, thus making an unusually clean tree for lawn or garden. In addition to all this, the Walnut is particularly free from scale and other pests. Up to the present time, the English Walnut has been more largely in demand as a shade tree than as a commercial proposition. In fact, so little attention has been given to the nuts themselves that there are comparatively speaking few large producing orchards in the United States. The greater portion of the total yield of walnuts being procured from scattered field and roadside trees. It is a little difficult to understand why they should have been so neglected when there are records of single trees bearing as much as 800 pounds of nuts in one year. In 1895, this country produced about 4 million pounds and more than 16 million pounds of English walnuts in 1907 with a proportionate annual increase each year to the present. But when it is known that the United States is consuming yearly about 50 million pounds of nuts, with the demand constantly increasing, thereby necessitating the importation annually of something more than 25 million pounds, the wonderful possibilities of the industry in this country from a purely business viewpoint will readily be appreciated. And of course, the market price of the walnut is keeping step with the consumption, having advanced from 15 to 20 cents a pound in the past few years. Arrival of the Orange In California, the nut industry is becoming a formidable rival of the orange. In fact, there are more dollars worth of nuts, all varieties, shipped from the state now per year than oranges. One grower is shipping $136,000 worth of English walnuts a year, while another man, with an orchard just beginning to bear, is getting about $200 an acre for his crop. No standard estimate can at present be placed on the yield per acre of orchards in full bearing, but the growers are confident that they will soon be deriving from $800 to $1,600 per acre. This figure being based on the number of individual trees which are already producing from $90 to $120 a year. The success with the nut in California can be duplicated in the East, providing certain hardy varieties are planted. And in the few instances where orchards have been started in the East, great things have already been done and still greater are expected in the next few years. Origin of the English Walnut But where did this walnut originate? What is its history? Jughlin's regia, nut of the gods, Persian walnut, called also Madeira nut, and English walnut, is a native of western, central, and probably eastern Asia, the home of the peach and the apricot. It was known to the Greeks who introduced it from Persia into Europe at an early day as Persicon or Persian nut, and Brazilcon or royal nut. Carried from Greece to Rome, it became Jughlin's, named derived from Jovis and Glans and acorn, literally Jupiter's acorn, or the nut of the gods. From Rome it was distributed throughout continental Europe, and according to Loudon, it reached England prior to 1562. In England, it is generally known as the Walnut, a term of Anglo-Saxon derivation signifying foreign nut. It has been called Madeira nut, presumably because the fruit was formally imported into England from the Madeira Islands, where it has yet grown to some extent. In America it has commonly been known as English walnut to distinguish it from our native species. From the fact that all of the names applied to this nut, Persian seems to have been the first in common use, and that it indicates approximately the home of the species. The name Persian walnut is regarded as most suitable, but in as much as English walnut is better known here, we shall use that name in this treatise. As a material for the manufacture of gun stocks and furniture, the timber of the nut was long in great demand throughout Europe, and high prices were paid for it. Early in the last century, as much as $3,000 was paid for a single large tree for the making of gun stocks. Planting and Cultivation Everything depends upon the planting and cultivation of English walnuts, as indeed it does of all other fruits, from which the very best results are desired. The following general rules should be thoroughly mastered. Plant English walnut trees on any well-drained land where the subsoil moisture is not more than 10 or 12 feet from the surface. Wherever oaks, black walnuts, or other tap-root nut trees will grow. 40 to 60 feet apart. In holes 18 inches in diameter and 30 inches deep. 2 inches deeper than the earthmark showing on the tree. And remember that the trees need plenty of good, rich soil about their roots. That the trees should be inclined slightly toward prevailing winds. That the trees should not be cut back. That the ground cannot be packed too hard around the roots and the tree. That the trees should be mulched in the fall. That the ground should be kept cultivated around the trees during the spring and summer. That English walnut trees should be transplanted while young. As they will often double in size the year the tap-root reaches the subsoil moisture. That is the moist earth. That tap-root trees are the easiest of all to transplant if the work is done while the trees are young and small. That trees sometimes bear the third year after transplanting three-year-old trees where the subsoil moisture is within six or eight feet of the surface. That the age of bearing depends largely on the distance the tap-root has to grow to reach the subsoil moisture. Peculiarities of growth. The growth of the English walnut is different from that of most fruit trees. The small trees grow about six inches the first year. Tap-root the same. The second year they grow about 12 inches. Tap-root the same. The third year they grow about 18 inches. Tap-root nearly as much. For the first three years the tap-root seems to gain most of the nourishment. And at the end of the third year or about that time the tree itself starts its real growth. After the tap-root reaches the subsoil moisture the tree often grows as much in one year as it has in the preceding three or four. If the trees are transplanted previous to the time that the tap-root reaches this moisture and before the tree starts its rapid growth very few young trees are lost in the process of transplanting. Orchard planting. For orchard planting the trees should be placed from 40 to 60 feet apart and by staggering the rows a greater distance is gained between individual trees. Any other small fruits may be planted in the orchard between the walnut trees or any cultivated crop can be raised satisfactorily on the same land. Many orchardists gaining triple use of the soil in this way. Besides the cultivation of the earth in proximity to the walnuts proves of great benefit to the trees. Before trees are planted the tap-root should be trimmed or cut back and most if not all the lateral branches trimmed from the tree. The tree itself should not be cut back as is customary with either fruit trees but by leaving the terminal bud intact a much better shaped tree is developed. It is not necessary to prune English walnut trees except in cases where some of the lower branches interfere with cultivation. Cultivation in the north should be stopped about the first of August thus halting the growth of the trees and giving them a chance to harden their wood for winter. This is a good plan to follow in the cultivation of nearly all the smaller fruit trees. When planting on the lawn for ornamental purposes a ring about two to three feet in diameter should be cultivated about the base of the tree. Selection of varieties The tender varieties that have been used in Southern California must not be experimented with in the north as they bloom too early and are almost certain to be caught by the frost. These varieties have been tried in Northern California without success and the venture is quite likely to be disastrous in any but the warmest climates. The uncertainty of a crop is often due to the very early blooming of the kinds planted. These start to grow at the first warm spell in the latter part of the winter or at the first blush of spring and almost invariably become victims of frost and consequently produce no fruit. Planting in the northwest and the east until recently has been limited to an extremely narrow area. There was need of a variety possessing strong distinct characteristics hardy, late to start growth and with the pistolate and staminate blossoms maturing at the same time and bearing a nut of good quality and flavor with a full rich meat. This variety has now been found as will later be shown. English walnuts grown in the north command from three to five cents more a pound than the other nuts in the markets as the meat is plumper and the flavor better. Most fruit is at its best at the northern limit of its range. One experienced grower in reference to transplanting has said I have transplanted all the way from a year to six and the trees have grown and done well but so far as my experience goes I prefer to move them at three years of age or about that time. The best trees I have were transplanted at this age. Fall or spring planting. The following extract on tree planting in general pertaining to all kinds of trees is contributed by OK White of the Michigan Experiment Station. The advisability of fall or spring planting depends upon several conditions. Fall planting has the advantage over spring planting in that the trees become firmly established in the soil before winter sets in and are able to start growth in the spring before the ground can be marked and put in condition for planting. This is important because the trees get a good growth in the early part of the season before the summer droughts occur. On the other hand there is more or less danger from winter injury during a severe season or from the drying out of the trees if the winter is long and dry. Fall planting is much more successful with the hardy apples and pears than it is with the tender plums, cherries and peaches. The convenience of the season will determine in a majority of cases whether or not the planting shall be done in the fall or spring. Very often the rush of the spring work induces the grower to hurry his planting or to do it carelessly and as a result a poor start is secured with crooked rows. Others have large crops to harvest in the fall and would find it more convenient to do the planting in the spring. If there is any doubt as to the best time to plant let it be in the spring. Fertilizing. We now come to the subject of fertilization. Up to the time when the young trees come into bearing, cultivation and fertilization will help them enormously. The cultivation keeping the soil in condition to hold the moisture of the tree. In fertilizing a mulch of stable manure in the fall is considered by most growers to be the best but the following preparation is thought to be exceptionally good for all young orchards. Dried blood one thousand pounds. Bone meal five hundred and fifty pounds. Sulfate of potash three hundred and fifty pounds. Total two thousand pounds. This should be applied close up and about the tree extending out each year in a circle somewhat beyond the spread of the branches. This provides a quickly available plant food rich in nitrogen and especially recommended for rapid growth. After the tap root reaches the subsoil moisture it is well able to take care of the tree and both cultivation and fertilization may then be stopped. In fact by this time practically no further care is needed in the nut orchard with the exception of that required at the harvesting time and this is a pleasant and easy occupation especially in the northern and eastern states where the frost opens the shuck and the nuts drop free upon the ground where they may be picked up and put into sacks of a hundred and ten to a hundred and twenty pounds each ready for the market. Just before the first frost it is a very good idea to remove all leaves from the ground so that when the nuts fall they can be readily seen and preserved. An excellent method of accomplishing this is by means of a horse and rake. The nuts may be left on the ground to dry or may be removed to any convenient place for that purpose. The different kinds. There are three distinct kinds of English walnuts hard shell soft shell and paper shell the soft shell being the best. Each of three is divided into a number of varieties the names of some of the more popular ones being the Barthair, Chebert, Cluster, Drew, Ford, Franquette, Gant or Bijou, Grand Noblesse, Landfrey, Mammoth, Maillot, Wiltsmaillot, Missong, Mellon, Mission, Parisienne, Poorman, Proeparterians, Santa Barbara, Pomeroy, Serotina, Sexton, Vouret, Concord, Chase and the Eureka. The question of the best varieties for planting in the North as well as in the South is somewhat open to discussion due largely to a lack of sufficient information in regard to some of the more promising kinds. There is but little question that the best proven variety for the Northwest is the Franquette and for the East and Northeast the Pomeroy. Both of these are good producers bearing a fine nut well filled with a white meat of excellent flavor and of good shape and commanding the highest market prices. The two varieties are also very late in starting in the spring making them safe against the late frosts. Their pistolate and staminate blossoms mature at the same time. The white-meated nut is far superior to any other. The browning or staining is caused by the extremely dry heat and sun in the far South. In the North or where the tree has an abundant thick foliage the meat is invariably whiter. The Mission Nut The Mission Nut was introduced by the priests of Los Angeles and is the pioneer Persian nut of California. Most of the bearing orchards of the state are composed of seedling trees of this type. The nut is medium-sized with a hard shell of ordinary thickness. It succeeds admirably in a few favored districts of Southern California but fails in productiveness farther north. Its most prominent faults are early blooming in consequence of which it is often caught by the late frosts. The irregular and unequal blooming of its pistolate and staminate blossoms and the consequent failure of the former to be fertilized and to develop nuts and lateness in ripening its wood in the fall and consequent liability to injury by frost at that time. The Santa Barbara Nut The Santa Barbara English Walnut, soft shell, variety, is about ten days later than the Mission in starting growth and in blooming in spring. It fruits from four to six years from seed and usually produces a full crop every year. It is not as strong a grower as the Mission and more trees can be grown to the acre. The shells are thin and easily broken, therefore the nuts are sometimes damaged in long shipment. The kernel is white and of very fine quality. The Pomeroy Nut The Pomeroy variety was started in a most peculiar and interesting way. The late Norman Pomeroy of Lockport, New York made the discovery quite by accident. When he was in Philadelphia in 1876 visiting the Centennial Exposition he awoke one morning to be greeted by the leaves of a gorgeous tree which just touched the window and through which the sun shone brightly. He soon was examining a magnificent English walnut tree. On the ground directly under he found the nuts which had fallen during the night. Their flavor was more delicious and the meat fuller than any he had ever before tasted. The shell was unusually thin and Mr. Pomeroy was astonished for he never believed the walnut grew in the east. Knowing the varieties grown in California could not be raised in the east or north he questioned his landlord and found that this particular tree had been brought from northern Europe. Mr. Pomeroy determined at once that possibly this variety would be hardy enough for cultivation in New York State. He procured some of the nuts and put them in his satchel which he entrusted to a neighbor who was about to start home. The neighbor reached home all right and so did the nuts but the neighbor's children found the rare delicacies and ate all but seven. They would doubtless have eaten those too but fortunately they had slipped into the lining of the satchel where Mr. Pomeroy found them on his return to Lockport. These seven nuts which had so narrow an escape from oblivion are now seven beautiful English walnut trees sixty or more feet high and the progenitors of the Pomeroy orchards all of which are now producing nuts like the originals a very fine quality. Some uses of English walnuts. English walnuts to be used for making pickles, ketchup, oil and other culinary products are gathered when the fruit is about half mature or when the shell is soft enough to yield to the influence of cooking. The proper stage can be determined by piercing the nut with a needle a certain degree of hardness being desired. The nut is often utilized for olive oil in some parts of Europe. It takes one hundred pounds of nuts to make eighteen pounds of oil. In England the nuts are preserved fresh for the table where they are served with wine. They are buried deep in dry soil or sand so as not to be reached by frost the sun's rays or rain or by placing them in dry cellars and covering with straw others seal them in tin cans filled with sand. Examples of hardiness. As an illustration of the hardiness of the English walnut there is a tree at Red Hill Virginia which was brought from Edinburgh, Scotland when six months old. Planted in New York where it remained three years. Then removed to Staunton, Virginia and after two years taken to Red Hill. In consequence of so many changes the tree at first died back but is now thrifty twenty feet high trunk eight inches in diameter at the ground. During several severe winters the thermometer fell so low that some peach trees and grapevines growing near English walnuts on the Pomeroy farm near Lockport, New York were killed while the nut trees were not in the least injured. The English walnut at its best. A smooth soft shelled nut. Meat full with sweet hickory nut flavor. Nuts fall clean and free from outside shuck. Frost harvest the nuts in October. They are self pruning. Require no care after arrival at bearing age. An alkali sap keeps scales and pests from the trees. Blossoms immune from late frosts as they start late. Pistolate and staminate blossoms mature at same time in the best varieties ensuring perfect fertilization and productivity. Bears more regularly than other nut trees. Bears heavier crops the older it becomes unlike other fruit trees the size and quality of which fruit degenerates with age. Interesting figures about the English walnut. In Spain and southern France there are trees believed to be more than 300 years old which bear from 15 to 18 bushels of nuts each annually. In Whittier, California is a famous tree which has been least for a term of years at $500. Orchards seven and eight years old bring all the way from $1,000 to $2,000 per acre and are a fine investment yielding from 15 to 125% according to age. The total cost of producing and harvesting an English walnut crop is about one and one half cents a pound. Kernels of fact about the English walnut. The United States consumes more than 50 million pounds a year. The United States imports about 27 million pounds a year. The price is advancing steadily with the demand. Besides being profitable the English walnut is a clean highly ornamental shade tree. The leaves remain on the tree until late in the fall not littering up the ground during the summer. English walnuts are not only a rare table delicacy but may be utilized for ketchup, pickles and oil. One pound of walnut meat equals eight pounds of steak in nutriment and is a far more healthful food. What Luther Burbank has to say. When you plant another tree why not plant the English walnut? Then besides sentiment, shade and leaves you may have a perennial supply of nuts. The improved kind of which furnish the most delicious, nutritious and healthful food which has ever been known. The consumption of nuts is probably increasing among all civilized nations today faster than that of any other food and we should keep up with this growing demand and make it still more rapid by producing nuts of uniform good quality with a consequent increase in the health and a permanent increase in the wealth of ourselves and neighbors. From a dress at Santa Rosa, California in the fall of 1905. End of English Walnuts, compiled by Walter Fox Allen. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer visit LibriVox.org. Read by Mark Nelson. An account of the extraordinary medicinal fluid called Ether by M. Turner Surgeon. The publisher of the following short account of the Ether, having prepared and successfully made use of it in his private practice for several years, has at length determined to endeavor to extend its utility by thus making it public. As he knows of no one who has ever published its medicinal virtues or offered it to sale its perfection, or given the criteria by which they who are unacquainted with it might distinguish the genuine from the spurious. And he doubts not, but every candid person who examines it will agree with him that it carries with it the strongest marks of a valuable addition to the materia medica and therefore ought to lie no longer in obscurity. An account of the Ether, etc. This truly extraordinary chemical preparation is not a new discovery, having been known and esteemed as a valuable curiosity by many of the greatest chemists and philosophers, both ancient and modern, particularly by Sir Isaac Newton and the Honorable Mr. Boyle, who both mention it in their works, though not by this name. And therefore, before anything is said of its virtues as a medicine, it may not be improper to explain the nature of it and enumerate a few of its remarkable properties considered as a curiosity in chemistry in which light chiefly it has hitherto been viewed by those who have been acquainted with it. It is a kind of ethereal oil, produced by the decomposition of the Vinus spirit by means of the vitriolic acid, and differs essentially both from Vinus spirits and essential oils in several respects, and it agrees with them in some as will appear hereafter. But as the Vinus spirit may be decomposed by means of all three mineral acids, namely the vitriolic, the nitrous, and the marine, and as these all act differently on the spirit, they will of course produce three different kinds of Ether, which, from the name of the acid employed in making them, are termed marine nitrous or vitriolic. The last only is the kind here understood, its properties being more singular and extraordinary, and as an Ether more perfect than either of the others. The reason of which seems to be that the vitriolic acid is a much stronger agent on the spirit, and more perfectly decomposes it than either the nitrous or marine. It is the most light, most volatile, and most inflammable of all known liquids. It swims upon the highest rectified spirit of wine as oil does upon water, and flies away so quickly as hardly to wet a hand it is dropped upon. From which properties it probably has obtained its name. It is so readily inflammable as to take fire at the approach of a candle before the flame touches it. Any electrified body will also produce the same effect. It is one of the most powerful solvents known in chemistry. It is neither acid nor alkaline, and therefore is perfectly free from that saline acrimony with which all the common volatile spirits abound. It has a greater affinity with gold than Aquaregia has, although it will not dissolve it in the mass or whilst in its metallic form. But if you add Ether to a solution of gold in Aquaregia, it presently takes all the gold from its former solvent, keeping it perfectly dissolved and suspended without the least precipitation and becomes of a yellow color. The Ether, thus saturated with the gold, does not mix with the Aquaregia, but may readily be separated from it by simple decantation, and thus a true and safe aurum potable is readily prepared for those who want such a medicine. The union of these two substances is very remarkable, one being the heaviest solid body we know, the other the lightest liquid. The Ether is remarkably cold when dropped upon the hand, and it affects the thermometer in an extraordinary manner. For if the ball of either a mercurial or a spiritualist thermometer be immersed in it, the spirit or mercury immediately sinks considerably, though both the Ether and the thermometer have stood a sufficient time together to be brought to the temperature of the room before the experiment was made. The thermometers dipped into water or spirit of wine in the same manner suffer not the least alteration. They who choose to see a further account of the singular effects which this curious fluid produces may peruse what Dr. Frobenius, a German chemist, has published concerning it in the philosophic transactions for the years 1733 and 1741. But the most valuable qualities of the Ether are its medicinal ones. It having been found by repeated experience to be an excellent remedy in most nervous diseases, particularly in fits of all sorts, whether epileptic, convulsive, hysteric, hypochondriac, or paralytic. In habitual headaches, gout, rheumatism, pains in the stomach, windy disorders of the stomach and intestines, hooping cough, asthma, pleuritic pains, and deafness, all which diseases have in a singular manner been removed by it. And that the publisher may contribute all the assistance he can in extending the use of this medicine the following methods of applying it are given, which have been attended with success. A fit of the headache is almost instantly removed by applying the Ether externally to the forehead, by means of a bit of linen rag in the manner hereafter directed for its external application. Or it may be applied to any other part of the head where the pain lies, being first shaved if necessary. If the pain is violent, a dose of it should be also taken inwardly. In stubborn cases, it will likewise be serviceable to snuff a little of the Ether up the nostrils, either alone or mixed with equal parts of lavender water, hungry water, or brandy. Or it may be more convenient to apply a bit of linen rag wedded with Ether up the nostrils. Any of these means, or all of them, must be repeated if the pain is so urgent as to require it. To cure this disorder radically, when it is of long standing and to prevent its return, the medicine must be taken inwardly for a considerable time, every night at bedtime, or in violent cases, every night and morning in a small draft of cold water, according to the general direction for taking it inwardly, given page 11. In some particular cases, vomits are very serviceable. A vertigo A vertigo, giddiness, or swimming in the head will generally be removed by proceeding in the same manner as for the headache. The epilepsy. No disease is more difficult to cure than the epilepsy, or falling sickness. Yet, several instances have occurred where the most violent degrees of it have been cured, even in grown persons, by taking a dose of this medicine regularly every night and morning for a considerable time. The dose must be regulated according to the age of the patient, as mentioned in the general direction, page 11. If a pain is felt in any part of the head, the ether must be applied to that part occasionally, and it must be previously shaved if necessary. It will be proper to give a small dose to the patient, taking Turisacra, or of the pill roofie, at proper intervals, as once a week or fortnight. It will also, in most cases, be necessary to give now and then a vomit. If it be suspected that the patient has worms, proper medicines to destroy them ought also to be given. In convulsions In convulsions, or convulsive disorders, particularly, a dose two, three times a day, or oftener according to the exigence of the case. And it should also be applied externally to the forehead, or any other part of the head during the fit. If the patient is full of blood, bleeding is necessary. And if costive, a dose of Manicena, or any gentle laxative or a Kleister should be given. This medicine has excellent effect in hysteric fits, and in all the train of symptoms which hysteric and hypochondriac persons are subject to, such as risings in the throat, threatening suffocation, difficult breathing, flutterings and palpitations of the heart, frequent fainting, lowness of spirits, violent pains in the head, languor of the whole body, dullness of the mind and senses, with constant anxieties and iniquitude, etc. The dose must be repeated according to the urgency of the symptoms, and the medicine must be continued some time after the complaints disappear to prevent a relapse. It will be serviceable during the use of the ether, especially in cases of costiveness, to take at proper intervals a gentle purge, such as tinctura sacra, pill roofie, rhubarb, or globbers salts. Bodily exercise of all sorts contributes greatly to the cure of these complaints, especially riding on horseback. Palsy In palsies and all paralytic complaints, the patient, if a grown person, must take the quantity of a teaspoonful of the ether every night and morning. The dose must be lessened in young people according to their age. It will also be proper to snuff a little of it up the nostrils once or twice a day, or apply a bit of reg, wedded with it up the nostrils. The ether must also be applied externally to the part affected, at least once every day. It should likewise be applied now and then to the forehead or any other part of the head, especially of the tongue, eyes, or any part of the face or head be affected. If your hands are paralytic, the application should be made to the lower and back part of the neck as well as to the part affected. If the disease has seized the thighs, legs, or feet, the application must not only be made to them, but likewise to the backbone at the loins. As this medicine cannot, on account of its volatility and pungency, be properly applied to the whole of a paralytic limb at once, but only to a small part. The application, therefore, may be made sometimes to one part and sometimes to another as shall be thought proper. This disease will require a longer or shorter continuance of these means according to the degree of it, and the time it has continued. A vomit should be given and repeated now and then as the patient can bear it. But if vomits seem too fatiguing, a dose of tinctura sacra should be given in their room. Paralytic patients should use as much bodily exercise as possible, and the head, neck, and whole spine as well as the parts affected should be frequently rubbed with a hot and dry cloth till they appear red. Gout This medicine is of singular service in the gout. Not only while it continues in the limbs, but particularly when it flies inwards with a head, stomach, or any of the internal parts. In which cases a few doses will not fail to give present relief. It should be taken in the quantity of a teaspoonful two or three times every day, or oftener if the case be violent during the gouty fit. It carries off the gouty matter by urine, which it renders very thick and turbid. At any time when there is a necessity to abate the excessive pain in the part affected, the ether may be applied to it externally according to the method given page 12. It will be proper to continue taking the ether once or twice a day for some time after the fit is gone, and to begin taking it again about the time of its expected return. By which means, though it may not prevent the return of the fit, which in many cases perhaps ought not to be desired, yet it will shorten its continuance and moderate the pain of it. Rheumatism In rheumatic complaints the patient must take a dose of this medicine every night and morning, or oftener if the pains are violent, and it must continue till the disease is removed or longer to prevent a relapse. If the pain is fixed in any particular part, the ether must be applied to it twice a day as directed hereafter. It must be observed that bleeding very much conduces to the cure of obstinate chronic rheumatisms must be repeated at proper intervals if necessary, the blood in this disease being generally very sizey. Disorders of the stomach and intestines This medicine presently cures flatulent colics, removes all windy disorders of the stomach and intestines, and corrects acidities lodged there. It is also found to have excellent effect in correcting that weakness or bad habit of the stomach and intestines which studious persons, such as lead sedentary lives, are particularly subject to, and is attended with sour belchings, heartburn, windy distensions, pain and uneasiness in the stomach and bowels. It must be taken every night and morning, according to the general directions below. Care should be taken to prevent costiveness in these cases, which is best removed by chewing rhubarb or taking it any other way, or by a dose of manna or globber salts taken occasionally. The ether is an extraordinary diuretic in dropsies. It is an excellent medicine in an asthma and a hiccup and may be looked on as a specific in that disease of children called the hooping cough or chin cough. In all which cases it must be taken inwardly, according to the general directions below, and the repetition of the dose must be regulated by the violence of the disease. A dose of it taken at going to bed after drinking too freely has been found to prevent the headache, sickness, etc., which usually follow next morning. It has removed deafness and hardness of hearing by moistening a little cotton with a few drops of it, putting it into the ear and holding the finger for a few minutes over it. At the same time, snuffing a few drops of it, mixed with spirit of lavender, up the nostrils, or putting a bit of rag wet with the ether up the nostrils. It has frequently removed a temporary dimness of sight, and attended with a swimming or uneasiness in the head by external application to the forehead and is a promising medicine in that sort of a blindness called a gutta serena and in beginning cataracts, in which cases it should be taken inwardly as well as apply to the forehead and up the nostrils. It is likewise found to be of great service in removing pleuridic pains and stitches in the side by applying it to the affected part in the manner directed for external application. The method of taking the ether inwardly. The general dose for a grown person is a common teaspoonful and the best vehicle to take it in is a draft of cold water. If it be only stirred in the water with the spoon and the mixture drank immediately it strikes the nostrils by its volatility, but may be thought by some as agreeable when so taken as when the two liquors are more intimately mixed by shaking them in a file and from thence pouring them into a glass to be drank. For though it has but little smell in this manner it is more warm to the palate than in the other. The patient may use the way of mixing he likes best and if he has any objection to water may take it in any other agreeable cold liquor. Children in the month may take two or three drops for a dose. Those of a year old may take seven or eight drops. Those of five or six years old may take from twenty to twenty-five drops and so increasing according to their years. Or it may perhaps be better in giving it to children to mix a teaspoonful of ether with a convenient quantity of water and shaking it well, give at a dose about one twentieth part of this mixture to a child a month old about one eighth part to a child twelve or fourteen months old to those about five years old one third part of the mixture half of the mixture to those about seven years old and two thirds of it to those about fourteen years old the method of applying the ether externally. To apply it externally you must procure a bit of linen rag of such a dimension as to be conveniently covered by the palm of the hand. Moisten this rag with a little of the ether as it lies upon your palm and instantly apply it to the part affected, pressing it very close so as to prevent the escape of its fumes for two or three minutes in which time the rag will be found dry and maybe taken away. It will be more convenient on some occasions as in applying it to paralytic parts, rheumatic pains and the gout to place the rag upon a piece of soft thin bladder and when moistened with ether to bind it gently upon the part. A slight redness usually appears upon the part after the application but it quickly vanishes. But it may sometimes happen where the skin is very tender and too much ether has been applied to the forehead or within the ears that it may affect the skin more than the patient chooses which is avoided by applying a less quantity for the future. This is the secret of a present famous practitioner who having a method sometimes of concealing his application is said to cure the headache, fixed rheumatic pains, etc. by the touch of his hand. It is very easy to conceive from the extreme subtly of this medicine that it must produce many excellent results in such diseases as those above mentioned, as it is converted into vapor by a much less heat than the common animal one. So that being swallowed it can hardly subsist in any part of the human body under any form but that of an extremely penetrating, volatized vapor. And it is perceptible by its smell as it passes through the pores of the skin several hours after taking. So that it stay in the body is longer and its effects are more durable than might be expected from such a subtle substance. Notwithstanding the extreme subtly of the ether it is perfectly innocent and safe to take as it contains nothing that is acrimonious or corrosive. So that it may be given even to the youngest children without hesitation. It neither purges nor vomits nor does it increase any of the sensible evacuations except that of urine and sometimes that of sweat if taken in bed. But as it is so distinctly perceived by the smell passing through the cutaneous pores of those who take it, it is probable that it increases insensible perspiration. Another observable property in this medicine is that it does not coagulate or thicken the serum of the blood but thins it and therefore has direct contrary effects to all the common spirituous compositions when either taken inwardly or externally applied and is essentially different from the most subtleized Vinus spirits for though the spirit of wine is used in making it yet it is so far decomposed by the process that its nature is entirely changed. In consequence of this quality in the ether the publisher has successfully dissolved some particular obstinate tumors by applying it to them when other means have failed. This hint he hopes will not pass unnoticed by the gentleman of the faculty as it is evident no application whatever can equal it in subtlety and dissolving power. The medicine so much celebrated in Germany and so frequently commended and used in practice by the late famous Professor Hoffman under the title of his liquor, mineralis and a dinus was nearly of the same nature with the ether but not so powerful, not so highly subtleized. Repeated experience has confirmed the efficacy of this medicine in all the diseases before mentioned and from the consideration of its uncommon qualities it may be presumed to be an excellent remedy in many others if judiciously given. Hence it seems surprising that so valuable in addition to the materia medica as the ether doubtless is should have been so much neglected or so little known. But the reasons are that the process whereby it was made was kept secret by some who rated the preparation at a very extravagant price and not sufficiently attended to by others who considered it only as a chemical curiosity, not as a medicine. The chief merit the publisher of this account pretends to is the ascertaining the medicinal virtues of this curious preparation by several years' experience and making them more publicly known. The reducing its price, which has hitherto been so extravagant that had its virtues and properties been known only a small number of the afflicted could have enjoyed the benefit of it and the bringing to it a greater degree of perfection than any hitherto sold, what he offers being a perfectly rectified vitriolic ether. It may not be improper to give the marks by which good ether may be known. It is perfectly colorless, except it has received some accidental tinge from the cork of the file in which it has been kept and so volatile as to strike the nose very powerfully. Its smell is more or less sulfurous according to the management of some part of the process. Wedding the finger with it, or dropping a little upon the hand, it vanishes instantly and leaves no moisture behind so that the part scarcely seems to have been wet. Half a dozen drops drop together upon a table will disappear in a few seconds of a minute and leave only the appearance of a large oily ring behind. But if it leaves the least watery or a spirituous moisture or does not evaporate in much less than a minute, it is not good. The best ether will dissolve in, or mix with, a certain quantity of water, and that is the best which requires the largest quantity of water to dissolve it. If, therefore, to fix teaspoons full of water in a small file, you add one of the ether to be examined, cork up the file, and shake them very well together, and on standing a little while some part of the ether appears at top in the form of oil sufficient to cover the surface of the mixture it may be pronounced good, provided it also answers in the other methods of trial. And the more appears the better is the ether. But if none appears, or not enough to cover the surface of the mixture it was either adulterated or not well rectified. If to this mixture of ether you add a little salt of tartar and any fermentation ensues the ether was not well rectified. Upon shaking briskly a file containing ether, if the bubbles, or proof as they are usually called, do not disappear in less time and in larger bubbles than any other liquor, the Vinus alcohol perhaps accepted, tis not genuine. It is the more necessary to observe these rules of proving the quality of the ether as the imperfect sorts have been found to disagree with the stomach and produce other bad effects besides disappointing the patient's expectation. The ether that has the four mentioned properties for there are preparations sold by the same name which are very imperfect imitations of it is made and sold by M. Turner, surgeon in Liverpool. The ounce file, two shillings. The half ounce one shilling. The files are square, the word ether inscribed on one side and M. Turner on the opposite and sealed with a lion garden, etc. Proper abatement will be made to drugists, apothecaries, or the gentlemen of the faculty who use any considerable quantity. To prevent its escape and loss a small quantity of water is put into each file which should be kept with the cork words by which means the ether is prevented by the interposition of the water from evaporating. The end of an account of the extraordinary medicinal fluid called ether by M. Turner, surgeon. This recording is in the public domain. Section 5 of the concept of nature by Alfred North Whitehead. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org. Space and Motion The topic for this lecture is the continuation of the task of explaining the construction of spaces as abstracts from the facts of nature. It was noted at the close of the previous lecture that the question of congruence had not been considered nor had the connection of a timeless space which should correlate the successive momentary spaces of a given time system. Furthermore it was also noted that there were many spatial abstractive elements which we had not yet defined. We will first consider the definition of some of these abstractive elements namely the definitions of solids, of areas and of roots. By a root I mean a linear straight or curved. The exposition of these definitions and the preliminary explanations necessary will, I hope serve as a general explanation of the function of event particles in the analysis of nature. We note that event particles have position in respect to each other. In the last lecture I explained that position was quality gained by a spatial element in the overview of the intersecting moments which covered it. Thus each event particle has position in this sense. The simplest mode of expressing the position in nature of an event particle is by first fixing on any definite time system. Call it alpha. There will be one moment of the temporal series of alpha which covers the given event particle. Thus the position of the particle in the temporal series alpha is defined by this moment which we will call M. The position of the particle in the space of M is then fixed in the ordinary way by three levels which intersect in it and in it only. This procedure of fixing the position of the event particle shows that the aggregate of event particles forms a four-dimensional manifold. A finite event occupies a limited chunk of this manifold in a sense which I now proceed to explain. Let E be any given event. The manifold of event particles falls into three sets in reference to E. Each event particle is a group of equal abstractive sets and each abstractive set towards its small end is composed of smaller and smaller events. When we select from these finite events which enter into the make-up of a given event particle those which are small enough one of three cases must occur. Either one all of these small events are entirely separate from the given event E or two. All of these small events are parts of the event E or three all of these small events overlap the event E and are not parts of it. In the first case the event particle will be said to lie outside the event E. In the second case the event particle will be said to lie inside the event E and in the third case the event particle will be said to be a boundary particle of the event E. Thus there are three sets of particles namely the set of those which lie outside the event E the set of those which lie inside the event E and the boundary of the event E which is the set of the boundary particles of E. Since an event is four-dimensional the boundary of an event is a three-dimensional manifold. For a finite event there is a continuity of boundary. For a duration the boundary consists of those event particles which are covered by either of the two bounding moments. Thus the boundary of a duration consists of two momentary three-dimensional spaces an event will be said to occupy the aggregate of event particles which lie within it. Two events which have junction in the same sense in which junction was described in my last lecture and yet are separated so that neither event either overlaps or is part of the other event are said to be adjoined. This relation of adjunction issues in a peculiar relation between the boundaries of the two events. The two boundaries must have a common portion which is in fact a continuous three-dimensional locus of event particles in the four-dimensional manifold. A three-dimensional locus of event particles which is the common portion of the boundary of two adjoined events will be called a solid. A solid may or may not lie completely in one moment. A solid which does not lie in one moment will be called a vagrant. A solid which does lie in one moment will be called a volume. A volume may be defined as the locus of the event particles in which a moment intersects an event provided that the two do intersect. The intersection of a moment and an event will evidently consist of those event particles which are covered by the moment and lie in the event. The identity of the two definitions of a volume is evident when we remember that an intersecting moment divides the event into two adjoined events. A solid as thus defined, whether it be vagrant or be a volume is a mere aggregate of event particles illustrating a certain quality of position. We can also define a solid as an abstractive element. In order to do so we recur to the theory of primes explained in the preceding lecture. Let the condition named sigma stand for the fact that each of the events of any abstractive set satisfying it has all the event particles of some particular solid meaning in it. Then the group of all the sigma primes is the abstractive element which is associated with the given solid. I will call this abstractive element the solid as an abstractive element and I will call the aggregate of event particles the solid as a locus. The instantaneous volumes in instantaneous space which are the ideals of volumes as abstractive elements. What we really perceive with all our efforts after exactness are small events far enough down some abstractive set belonging to the volume as an abstractive element. It is difficult to know how far we approximate to any perception of vagrant solids. We certainly do not think that we make any such approximation. But then our thoughts in the case of people who do think about such topics are so much under the control of the materialistic theory of nature that they hardly count for evidence. If Einstein's theory of gravitation has any truth in it vagrant solids are of great importance in science. The whole boundary of a finite event may be looked on as a particular example of a solid as a locus. Its particular property of being closed prevents it from being definable as an abstractive element. When a moment intersects an event it also intersects the boundary of that event. This locus which is the portion of the boundary contained in the moment is the bounding surface of the corresponding volume of that event contained in the moment. A two-dimensional locus. The fact that every volume has a bounding surface is the origin of the Dedekindian continuity of space. Another event may be cut by the same moment in another volume and this volume will also have its boundary. These two volumes in the instantaneous space of one moment may mutually overlap in the familiar way described in detail and thus cut off portions from each other surfaces. These portions of surfaces are momental areas. It is unnecessary at this stage to enter into the complexity of a definition of vagrant areas. Their definition is simply enough when the four-dimensional manifold of event particles has been more fully explored as to its properties. Momental areas can evidently be defined as obstructive elements by exactly the same method as applied to solids. We have merely to substitute area for a solid in the words of the definition already given. Also, exactly as in the analogous case of a solid, what we perceive as an approximation to our ideal of an area is a small event far enough down towards the small end of the equal abstractive sets which belongs to the area as an abstractive element. Two momental areas lying in the same moment can cut each other in a momental segment which is not necessarily rectilinear. Such a segment can also be defined as an abstractive element. It is then called a momental root. We will not delay over any general consideration nor is it important for us to proceed to the still wider investigation of vagrant roots in general. There are, however, two simple sets of roots which are of vital importance. One is a set of momental roots and the other of vagrant roots. Both sets can be classed together as straight roots. We proceed to define them without any reference to the definitions of volumes or surfaces. The two types of straight roots will be called rectilinear roots and stations. Rectilinear roots are momental roots and stations are vagrant roots. Rectilinear roots are roots which, in a sense, lie in recs. Any two event particles on a rect define the set of event particles which lie between them on that rect. Let the satisfaction of the condition, sigma, by an abstractive set, mean that the two given event particles and the event particles lying between them on the rect all lie in every event belonging to the abstractive set. The group of sigma primes where sigma has this meaning form an abstractive element. Such abstractive elements are rectilinear roots. They are the segments of instantaneous straight lines which are the ideals of exact perception. Our actual perception, however exact, will be the perception of a small event sufficiently far down one of the abstractive sets of the abstractive element. A station is a vagrant root and no moment can intersect any station in more than one event particle. Thus a station carries with it a comparison of positions in the respective moments of the event particles covered by it. Recks arise from the intersection of moments, but as yet no properties of events have been mentioned by which any analogous vagrant loci can be found out. The general problem for our investigation is to determine a method of comparison of position in one instantaneous space with positions in other instantaneous spaces. We may limit ourselves to the spaces of the parallel moments of one time system. How are positions in these various spaces to be compared? In other words, what do we mean by motion? It is the fundamental question to be asked of any theory of relative space, and like many other fundamental questions it is apt to be left out. It is not an answer to reply that we all know what we mean by motion. Of course we do, so far as sense awareness is concerned, I am asking that your theory of space should provide nature with something to be observed. You have not settled the question by bringing forward a theory according to which there is nothing to be observed, and by then reiterating the fact that we do observe this non-existent fact. Unless motion is something as a fact in nature, kinetic energy and momentum, and all that depends on these physical concepts evaporate from our list of physical realities. Even in this revolutionary age my conservationism resolutely opposes the identification of momentum and moonshine. Accordingly I assume it as an axiom that motion is a physical fact. It is something that we perceive as in nature. Motion presupposes rest. Until theory arose to vitiate immediate intuition, that is to say to vitiate the uncriticized judgments which immediately arise from sense awareness, no undoubted that in motion you leave behind rest. Abraham in his wanderings left his birthplace where it had ever been. A theory of motion and a theory of rest are the same thing viewed from different aspects with altered emphasis. You cannot have a theory of rest without in some sense admitting a theory of absolute position. It is usually assumed that relative space implies that there is no absolute position, according to my creed a mistake. The assumption arises from the failure to make another distinction, namely that there may be alternative definitions of absolute position. This possibility enters with the admission of alternative time systems. Thus the series of spaces in the parallel moments of one temporal series may have their own definition of absolute position, correlating sets of event particles in these successive spaces so that each set consists of event particles one from each space all with the property of possessing the same absolute position in that series of spaces. Such a set of event particles will form a point in the timeless space of that time system. Thus a point is really an absolute position in the timeless space of a given time system. But there are alternative time systems and each time system has its own peculiar group of points, that is to say its own peculiar definition of absolute position. This is exactly the theory which I will elaborate. In looking to nature for evidence of absolute position it is of no use to recur to the four-dimensional manifold of event particles. This manifold has been obtained by the extension of thought beyond the immediacy of observation. We shall find nothing in it except what we have put there to represent the ideas in thought which arise from our direct sense-awareness of nature. To find evidence of the properties which are to be found in the manifold of event particles we must always recur to the observation of relations between events. Our problem is to determine those relations between events which issue in the property of absolute position in a timeless space. This is in fact the problem of the determination of the very meaning of the timeless spaces of physical science. In reviewing the factors of nature as immediately disclosed in sense-awareness we should note the fundamental character of the precept of being here. We discern an event merely as a factor in a determinate complex in which each factor has its own peculiar share. There are two factors which are always ingredient in this complex. One is the duration which is represented in thought by the concept of all nature that is present now and the other is the peculiar locus standi which evolved in the sense-awareness. This locus standi in nature is what is represented in thought by the concept of here namely of an event here. This is the concept of a definite factor in nature. This factor is an event in nature which is the focus in nature for that act of awareness and the other events are perceived as referred to it. This event is part of the present duration. I call it the recipient event. This event is not the mind that is to say not the recipient. It is in that nature from which the mind perceives. The complete foothold of the mind in nature is represented by the pair of events namely the present duration which marks the when of awareness and the awareness. This recipient event is roughly speaking the bodily life of the incarnate mind but this identification is only a rough one for the functions of the body shade off into those of other events in nature so that for some purposes the recipient event is to be reckoned as merely part of the bodily life and for other purposes it may even be reckoned as more than the bodily life because the demarcation is purely arbitrary depending on where in a sliding scale you choose to draw the line. I have already in my previous lecture on time discussed the association of mind with nature. The difficulty of the discussion lies in the liability of constant factors to be overlooked. We never note them by contrast with their absences. The purpose of a discussion of such factors may be described as being to make obvious things look odd. We cannot envision them unless we manage to invest them with some of the freshness which is due to strangeness. It is because of this habit of letting constant factors slip from consciousness that we constantly fall into the error of thinking of the sense awareness of a particular factor in nature between the mind and the factor. For example, I perceive a green leaf. Language in this statement suppresses all reference to any factors other than the recipient mind and the green leaf and the relation of the sense awareness. It discards the obvious inevitable factors which are essential elements in the perception. I am here, the leaf is there and the event here is the life of the leaf. There are both embedded in a totality of nature which is now. And within this totality there are other discriminated factors which it is irrelevant to mention. Thus language habitually sets before the mind a misleading abstract of the indefinite complexity of the fact of sense awareness. What I now want to discuss is the special relation of the recipient event here to the duration which is now. This relation is a fact in nature, namely the mind is aware of nature as being with these two factors in this relation. Within the short present duration of the here of the recipient event has a definite meaning of some sort. This meaning of here is the content of the special relation of the recipient event to its associated duration. I will call this relation co-gradience. Accordingly, I ask for a description of the character of the relation of co-gradience. The present snaps into a past and a present when the here of co-gradience loses its single determinant meaning. There has been a passage of nature from the here of perception within the past duration to the different here of perception within the present duration. But the two here's integrations may be indistinguishable. In this case there has been a passage from the past to the present but a more retentive perceptive force might have retained the passing nature as one complete present instead of letting the earlier duration slip into the past. Namely, the sense of rest helps the integration of durations into a prolonged presence. And the sense of motion differentiates nature into a succession of shortened durations. As we look out of a railway carriage in an express train the present is past before reflection conceives it. We live in snippets too quick for thought. On the other hand the immediate present is prolonged according as nature presents itself to us in an aspect of unbroken rest. Any change in nature provides ground for differentiation among durations so as to shorten the present. But there is a great distinction between self-change in nature and change in external nature. Self-change in nature is changed in the quality of the standpoint of the recipient event. It is the breakup of the here which necessitates the breakup of the present duration. Change in external nature is compatible with a prolongation of the present of contemplation given standpoint. What I want to bring out is that the preservation of a peculiar relation to a duration is a necessary condition for the function of that duration as a present duration for self-awareness. This peculiar relation is the relation of co-gradients between the recipient event and the duration. Co-gradients is the preservation of unbroken quality of standpoint within the duration. It is the continuance of identity of station within the whole of nature which is the terminus of sense-awareness. The duration may comprise change within itself, but cannot, so far as it is one present duration, comprise change in the quality of its peculiar relation to the contained recipient event. In other words, perception is always here and a duration can only be posited as present for sense-awareness upon condition that it affords one unbroken meaning of here in its relation to the recipient event. It is only in the past that you can have been there with a standpoint distinct from your present here. Events there and events here are facts of nature and the qualities of being there and here are not merely qualities of awareness as a relation between nature and mind. The quality of determinant station in the duration which belongs to an event which is here in one determinant sense of here is the same kind of quality of station which belongs to an event which is there in one determinant sense of there. Thus co-gradience has nothing to do with any biological character of the event which is related by it to the associated duration. This biological character is apparently a further condition for the peculiar connection of a recipient event with the recipients of mind. But it has nothing to do with the relation of the recipient event to the duration which is the present whole of nature posited as the disclosure of the recipients. Given the requisite biological character the event in its character of a recipient event selects that duration with which the operative past of the event is practically co-gradient within the limits of the exactitude of observation. Namely amid the alternative time systems which nature offers there will be one with a duration giving the best average of co-gradience for all the subordinate parts of the recipient event. This duration will be the whole of nature which is the terminus posited by sense awareness. Thus the character of the recipient event determines the time system immediately evident in nature. As the character of the recipient event changes with the passage of nature or in other words as the recipient mind in its passage correlates itself with the passage of the recipient event into another recipient event the time system correlated with the recipients of that mind may change. When the bulk of the events perceived our co-gradient in a duration other than that of the recipient event the recipients may include a double consciousness of co-gradience namely the consciousness of the whole within the observer in the train is here and the consciousness of the whole within which the trees and bridges and telegraph posts are definitely there. Thus in perceptions under certain circumstances the events discriminated assert their own relations of co-gradience. This assertion of co-gradience is peculiarly evident when the duration to which the perceived event is co-gradient is the same as the duration which is the present whole of nature. In other words when the event and the recipient event are both co-gradient to the same duration. We are now prepared to consider the meaning of stations in a duration where stations are a peculiar kind of roots which define absolute position in the associated timeless space. There are however some preliminary explanations. A finite event will be said to extend throughout a duration when it is part of the duration and is intersected by any moment which lies in the duration. Such an event begins with the duration and ends with it. Furthermore every event which begins with the duration and ends with it extends throughout the duration. This is an axiom based on the continuity of events. By beginning with a duration and ending with it I mean one that the event is part of the duration and two that both the initial and final boundary moments of the duration cover some event particles on the boundary of the event. An event which is co-gradient with the duration extends throughout that duration. It is not true that all the parts of an event co-gradient with the duration are also co-gradient with the duration. The relation of co-gradients may fail in either of two ways. One reason for failure may be that the part does not extend throughout the duration. In this case the part may be co-gradient with another duration which is part of the given duration though it is not co-gradient with the given duration itself. Such a part would be co-gradient if its existence were sufficiently prolonged in that time system. The other reason for failure arises from the four-dimensional extension of events so that there is no determinant root of transition of events in linear series. For example the tunnel of a tube railway is an event at rest in a certain time system. That is to say it is co-gradient with a certain duration. A train traveling in it is part of that tunnel but is not itself at rest. If an event E be co-gradient with a duration D and D slash be any duration which is part of D then D slash belongs to the same time system as D. Also D slash intersects E in an event E slash which is part of E and is co-gradient with D slash. Let P be any event particle lying in a given duration D. Consider the aggregate of events in which P lies and which are also co-gradient with D. Each of these events occupies its own aggregate of event particles. These aggregates will have a common portion namely the class of event particle lying in all of them. This class of event particles is what I call the station of the event particle P in the duration D. This is the station in the character of a locus. A station can also be defined in the character of an abstractive element. Let the property sigma be the name of the property which an abstractive set possesses when one each of its events is co-gradient with the duration D and 2 the event particle P lies in each of its events. Then the group of sigma primes where sigma has this meaning is an abstractive element and is the station of P in D as an abstractive element. The locus of event particles covered by the station of P in D as an abstractive element is the station of P in D as a locus. The station has accordingly the usual three characters, namely its character of position, its extrinsic character as an abstractive element and its intrinsic character. It follows from the peculiar properties of rest that two stations belonging to the same duration cannot intersect. Accordingly every event particle on a station of duration has that station as its station in the duration. Also every duration which is part of a given duration intersects the stations of the given duration in loci which are its own stations. By means of these properties we can utilize the overlappings of the duration of one family, that is of one time system two prolonged stations indefinitely backwards and forwards. Such a prolonged station will be called a point track. Point track is a locus of event particles. It is defined by reference to one particular time system, alpha say. Corresponding to any other time systems these will be a different group of point tracks. Every event particle will lie on one and only one point track of the group belonging to any one time system. The group of point tracks of alpha is the group of points of the timeless space of alpha. Each such point indicates a certain quality of absolute position in reference to the durations of the family associated with alpha and then in reference to the successive instantaneous spaces lying in the successive moments of alpha. Each moment of alpha will intersect a point track in one and only one event particle. This property of the unique intersection of a moment and a point track is not confined to the case when the moment and the point track belong to the same time system. Any two event particles on a point track are sequential so that they cannot lie in the same moment. Accordingly no moment can intersect a point track more than once and every moment intersects a point track in one event particle. Anyone who at the successive moments of alpha should be at the event particles where those moments intersect a given point of alpha will be at rest in the timeless space of time system alpha. But in any other timeless space belonging to another time system he will be at a different point at each succeeding moment of that time system. In other words he will be moving. He will be moving in a straight line with uniform velocity. He might take this as the definition of a straight line. Namely, a straight line in the space of time system beta is the locus of those points of beta which all intersect some one point track which is a point in the space of some other time system. Thus each point in the space of a time system alpha is associated with one and only one straight line of the space of any other time system beta. Furthermore the set of straight lines in space beta which are thus associated with points in space alpha form a complete family of parallel straight lines in space beta. Thus there is a one to one correlation of points in space alpha with the straight lines of a certain family of parallel straight lines in space beta. Conversely, there is an analogous one to one correlation of the points in space beta with the straight lines of a certain family of parallel straight lines in space alpha. These families will be called respectively the family of parallels in beta associated with alpha and the family of parallels in alpha associated with beta. The one in space of beta indicated by the family of parallels in beta will be called the direction of alpha in space beta and the family of parallels in alpha is the direction of beta in space alpha. Thus a being at rest at a point of space alpha will be moving uniformly along a line in space beta which is in the direction of alpha in space beta and a being at rest at a point of space beta will be moving uniformly along a line in space alpha which is in the direction of beta in space alpha. I have been speaking of the timeless spaces which are associated with time systems. These are the spaces of physical science and of any concept of space as eternal and unchanging. But what we actually perceive as an approximation to the instantaneous space indicated by event particles which lie within some moment of the time system associated with our awareness. The points of such an instantaneous space are event particles and the straight lines are racks. Let the time system be named alpha and let the moment of time system alpha to which our quick perception of nature approximates be called M. Any straight line R in space alpha is a locus of points and each point is a point track which is a locus of event particles. Thus in the four dimensional geometry of all event particles there is a two dimensional locus which is the locus of all event particles on points lying on the straight line R. I will call this locus of event particles the matrix of the straight line R. A matrix intersects any moment in erect. Thus the matrix of R intersects the moment M in erect row. Thus row is the instantaneous rect in M which occupies at the moment M. The straight line R in the space of alpha. Accordingly when one sees instantaneously a moving being and its path ahead of it what one really sees is the being at some event particle allying in the rect row which is the apparent path on the assumption of uniform motion. But the actual rect row which is a locus of event particles is never transversed by the being. These event particles are the instantaneous facts which pass with the instantaneous moment. What is really transversed are other event particles which at succeeding instance occupy the same points of space alpha as those occupied by the event particles of the rect row. For example we see a stretch of road and a lorry moving along it. The instantaneously seen road is a portion of the rect row. Of course only an approximation to it. The lorry is the moving object but the road as seen is never transversed. This thought of as being transversed because the intrinsic characters of the latter events are in general so similar to those of the instantaneous road that we do not trouble to discriminate. But suppose a land mine under the road has been exploded before the lorry gets there. Then it is fairly obvious that the lorry does not traverse what we saw at first. Suppose the lorry is at rest in space beta. Then straight line r of space alpha is in the direction of beta in space alpha. And the rect row is the representative in the moment m of the line r of space alpha. The direction of row in the instantaneous space of the moment m is the direction of beta in m where m is a moment of time system alpha. Again the matrix of the line r of space alpha will also be the matrix of some line s of space beta which will be in the direction of alpha in space beta. Thus if the lorry halts at some point p of space alpha which lies on the line r it is now moving along the line s of space beta. This is the theory of relative motion. The common matrix is the bond which connects the motion of space beta in space alpha with the motions of alpha in space beta. Motion is essentially a relation between some object of nature and the one timeless space of a time system. An instantaneous space is static being related to the static nature at an instant. In perception when we see things moving in an approximation to an instantaneous space the future lines of motion as immediately perceived are wrecks which are never traversed. These approximate wrecks are composed of small events namely approximate roots and event particles which are passed away before the moving objects reach them. Assuming that our forecast of rectilinear motion are correct these wrecks occupy the straight lines in timeless space which are traversed. The wrecks are symbols in immediate sense awareness of a future which can only be expressed in terms of timeless space. We are now in a position to explore the fundamental character of perpendicularity. Consider the two time systems alpha and beta each with its own timeless space and its own family of instantaneous moments with their instantaneous spaces. Let m and n be respectively a moment of alpha and a moment of beta. In m there is the direction of beta and in n there is the direction of alpha. But m and n being moments of different time systems intersect in a level called this level lambda then lambda is an instantaneous plane in the instantaneous space of m and also in the instantaneous space of n. This is the locus of all the event particles which lie both in m and in n. In the instantaneous space of m the level lambda is perpendicular to the direction of beta in m and in the instantaneous space of n the level lambda is perpendicular to the direction of alpha in n. This is the fundamental property which forms the definition of perpendicularity. The symmetry of perpendicularity is a particular instance of the symmetry of the mutual relations between two time systems. We shall find in the next lecture that it is from this symmetry that the theory of congruence is deduced. The theory of perpendicularity in the time the space of any time system alpha follows immediately from this theory of perpendicularity in each of its instantaneous spaces. Let rho be any rect in the moment m of alpha and let lambda be a level in m which is perpendicular to rho. The locus of those points in the space of alpha which intersects m in event particles on rho is the straight line r of space alpha and the locus of those points of space alpha which intersects m in event particles on lambda is the plane 1 of space alpha. Then the plane 1 is perpendicular to the line r. In this way we have pointed out unique and definite properties in nature which correspond to perpendicularity. We shall find that this discovery of definite unique properties defining perpendicularity is of critical importance in the theory of congruence which is the topic for the next lecture. I regret that it has been necessary for me in this lecture to administer such a large dose of four-dimensional geometry. I do not apologize because I am really not responsible for the fact that nature in its most fundamental aspect is four-dimensional. Things are what they are and it is useless to disguise the fact that what things are is often very difficult for our intellects to follow. This is the mere evasion of the ultimate problems to shirk such obstacles.