 Section 23 of The Great Events, Volume 1. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. The Great Events by Famous Historians, Volume 1, edited by Charles F. Horn, Rossiter Johnson and John Rudd. Solon's Early Greek Legislation, B.C. 594, by George Grote, Part 2. Such were the measures of relief, with which Solon met the dangerous discontent then prevalent. That the wealthy men and leaders of the people, whose insolence and iniquity he has himself severely denounced in his poems, and whose views in nominating him he had greatly disappointed, should have detested propositions, which robbed them without compensation of many legal rights, it is easy to imagine. But the statement of Plutarch, that the poor emancipated debtors were also dissatisfied, from having expected that Solon would not only remit their debts, but also re-divide the soil of Attica, seems utterly incredible. For is it confirmed by any passage now remaining of the Solonian poems? Plutarch conceives the poor debtors as having in their minds the comparison with Likurgus and the equality of property at Sparta, which in my opinion is clearly a matter of fiction. And even had it been true, as a matter of history long past and antiquated, would not have been likely to work upon the minds of the multitude of Attica in the forcible way that the biographer supposes. The Seixateia must have exasperated the feelings and diminished the fortunes of many persons, but it gave to the large body of thieves and small proprietors all that they could possibly have hoped. We are told that after a short interval it became eminently acceptable in the general public mind, and procured for Solon a great increase of popularity, all ranks conquering in a common sacrifice of thanksgiving and harmony. One incident there was which occasioned an outcry of indignation. Three rich friends of Solon, all men of great family in the state, and bearing names which appear in history as borne by their descendants, namely Conan, Clanius and Hipponicus, having obtained from Solon some previous hint of their designs, profited by it, first to borrow money, and next to make purchases of lands, and this selfish breach of confidence would have disgraced Solon himself. Had it not been found that he was personally a great loser, having lent money to the extent of five talents. In regard to the whole measure of the Seisekteia, indeed, though the poems of Solon were open to everyone, ancient authors gave different statements both of its purport and its extent. Most of them construed it as having cancelled indiscriminately all money contracts, while Androsian and others thought that it did nothing more than lower the rate of interest and depreciate the currency to the extent of twenty-seven percent, leaving the letter of the contract unchanged. How Androsian came to maintain such an opinion we cannot easily understand. For the fragments now remaining from Solon seem distinctly to refute it, though on the other hand, they do not go so far as to substantiate the full extent of the opposite view entertained by many writers, that all money contracts indiscriminately were rescinded. Against which there is also a further reason that if the fact had been so, Solon could have had no motive to debase the money standard. Such debasement supposes that there must have been some debtors, at least, whose contracts remained valid, and whom, nevertheless, he desired partially to assist. His poems distinctly mention three things. First, the removal of the mortgage-pillars, second, the enfranchisement of the land, third, the protection, liberation and restoration of the persons of endangered or enslaved debtors. All these expressions point distinctly to the seats and small proprietors, whose sufferings and peril were the most urgent, and whose case required a remedy, immediate as well as complete. We find that his repudiation of debts was carried far enough to exonerate them, but no further. It seems to have been the respect entertained for the character of Solon, which partly occasioned these various misconceptions of his ordinances for the relief of debtors. Androsion in ancient and some eminent critics in modern times are anxious to make out that he gave relief without loss or injustice to anyone. But this opinion seems inadmissible. The loss to creditors by the wholesale abrogation of numerous pre-existing contracts and by the partial depreciation of the coin is a fact not to be disguised. The Seisachtaea of Solon, unjust so far as it rescinded previous agreements, but highly salutary in its consequences, is to be vindicated by showing that in no other way could be bonds of government have been held together or the misery of the multitude alleviated. We are to consider first that great personal cruelty of these pre-existing contracts, which condemned the body of the free debtor and his family to slavery. Next, the profound detestation created by such a system in the large mass of the poor against both the judges and the creditors by whom it had been enforced, which rendered their feelings unmanageable so soon as they came together under the sentiment of a common danger and with the determination to insure to each other mutual protection. Moreover, the law which vests a creditor with power or the person of his debtor so as to convert him into a slave is likely to give rise to a class of loans which inspire nothing but abhorrence. Many lent with the foreknowledge that the borrower will be unable to repay it, but also in the conviction that the value of his person as a slave will make good the loss, thus reducing him to a condition of extreme misery for the purpose sometimes of aggrandizing, sometimes of enriching the lender. Now the foundation on which the respect for contracts rests under a good law of debtor and creditor is the very reverse of this. It rests on the firm conviction that such contracts are advantageous to both parties as a class and that to break up the confidence essential to their existence would produce extensive mischief throughout all society. The man whose reverence for the obligation of a contract is now the most profound would have entertained a very different sentiment if he had witnessed the dealings of lender and borrower at Athens under the old anti-Solonian law. The oligarchy had tried their best to enforce this law of debtor and creditor with its disastrous series of contracts, and the only reason why they consented to invoke the aid of Solon was because they had lost the power of enforcing it any longer. In consequence of the newly awakened courage and combination of the people, that which they could not do for themselves Solon could not have done for them, even had he been willing. Nor had he, in his position the means, either of exempting or compensating those creditors who, separately taken, were open to no reproach, indeed, in following his proceedings we see plainly that he sought compensation due not to the creditors, but to the past sufferings of the enslaved debtor, since he redeemed several of them from foreign captivity and brought them back to their homes. It is certain that no measure simply and exclusively prospective would have sufficed for the emergency. There was an absolute necessity for overruling all that class of pre-existing rights, which had produced so violent a social fever. While therefore, to this extent, the seixeteia cannot be acquitted of injustice, we may confidently affirm that the injustice inflicted was an indispensable price paid for the maintenance of the peace of society and for the final abrogation of a disastrous system as regarded in Solon's. And the feeling, as well as the legislation universal in the modern European world, by interdicting beforehand all contracts for selling amends person, or that of his children into slavery, goes far to sanction practically the Solonian reputation. One thing is never to be forgotten in regard to this measure, combined with the concurrent amendments introduced by Solon in the law. It settled finally the question to which it referred. Never again do we hear of the law of debtor and creditor as disturbing Athenian tranquility. The general sentiment which grew up at Athens under the Solonian money law and under the democratical government was one of high respect for the sanctity of contracts. Not only was there never any demand in the Athenian democracy for new tables or depreciation of the money standard, but a formal abnegation of any such projects was inserted in the Solon oath taken annually by the numerous die casts who formed the popular judicial body called Helieia, or the Heliastic jurors. The same oath which pledged them to uphold the democratical constitution also bound them to repudiate all proposals, either for an abrogation of debts or for a redevision of the lands. There can be little doubt that under the Solonian law, which enabled the creditor to seize the property of his debtor, but gave him no power over the person, the system of money lending assumed a more beneficial character. The old noxious contracts mere snares for the liberty of a poor free man and his children disappeared, and loans of money took their place, founded on the property and prospective earnings of the debtor, which were in the main useful to both parties, and therefore maintained their place in the moral sentiment of the public. And though Solon had found himself compelled to rescind all the mortgages on land subsisting in this time, we see money freely lent upon this same security throughout the historical times of Athens, and the evidentiary mortgage pillars remaining ever after undisturbed. In the sentiment of an early society, as in the old Roman law, a distinction is commonly made between the principal and the interest of a loan, though the creditors have sought to blend them indissolubly together. If the borrower cannot fulfill his promise to repay the principal, the public will regard him as having committed a wrong which he must make good by his person. But there is not the same unanimity as to his promise to pay interest. On the contrary, the very exaction of interest will be regarded by many in the same light in which the English law considers usurious interest, as tainting the whole transaction. But in the modern mind principal and interest with a limited rate have so grown together that we hardly understand how it can ever have been pronounced unworthy of an honorable citizen to lend money on interest. Yet such is the declared opinion of Aristotle and other superior men of antiquity, while at Rome, Cato's ascensor went so far as to denounce the practice as a heinous crime. It was comprehended by them among the worst of the tricks of trade, and they hailed that all trade, or profit, derived from interchange was unnatural, as being made by one man at the expense of another. Such pursuits, therefore, could not be commanded, though they might be tolerated to a certain extent as a matter of necessity, but they belonged essentially to an inferior order of citizens. What is remarkable in Greece is that the antipathy of a very early state of society against traders and moneylenders lasted longer among the philosophers than amongst the mass of the people. It harmonized more with the social ideal of the former than with the practical instincts of the latter. In a rude condition, such as that of the ancient Germans described by Tacitus, loans on interest are unknown. Habitually, careless of the future, the Germans were gratified both in giving and receiving presents, but without any idea that they thereby either imposed or contracted an obligation. To a people in this state of feeling, alone on interest presents the repulsive idea of making profit out of the distress of the borrower. Moreover, it is worthy of remark that the first borrowers must have been for the most part men driven to this necessity by the pressure of want, and contracting debt as a desperate resource without any fair prospect of ability to repay. Debt and famine ran together in the mind of the poet Hesiod. The borrower is, in this unhappy state, rather a distressed man soliciting aid than a solvent man capable of making and fulfilling a contract. If he cannot find a friend to make him a free gift in the former character, he will not, under the latter character, obtain a loan from a stranger, except by the promise of exorbitant interest, and by the fullest eventual power over his person, which he is in a condition to grant. In process of time, a new class of borrowers arise, who demand money for temporary convenience or profit, but with full prospect of repayment. A relation of lender and borrower quite different from that of the earlier period, when it presented itself in the repulsive form of misery on the one side, set against the prospect of very large profit on the other. If the Germans of the time of Tacitus looked to the condition of the poor debtors in Gaul, reduced to servitude under a rich creditor, and swelling by hundreds the crowd of his attendants, they would not be disposed to regret their own ignorance of the practice of money lending. How much the interest of money was then regarded as an undue profit extorted from distress is powerfully illustrated by the old Jewish law, the Jew being permitted to take interest from foreigners, whom the lawgiver did not think himself obliged to protect, but not from his own countrymen. The Quran follows out this point of view consistently, and prohibits the taking of interest altogether. In most other nations laws have been made to limit the rate of interest, and at Rome especially, the legal rate was successively lowered, though it seems as might have been expected that the restrictive ordinances were constantly eluded. All such restrictions have been intended for the protection of debtors, an effect which large experience proves them never to produce, unless it be called protection to render the obtaining of money on loan impracticable for the most distressed borrowers. But there was another effect, which they did tend to produce. They softened down the primitive antipathy against the practice generally, and confined the odious name of usury to loans lent above the fixed legal rate. In this way alone, could they operate beneficially, and their tendency to counter-work the previous feeling was at that time not unimportant, coinciding as it did with other tendencies arising out of the industrial progress of society, which gradually exhibited the relation of lender and borrower in a light more recuperational, beneficial, and less repugnant to the sympathies of the bystander. At Athens, the most favorable point of view prevailed throughout all the historical times. The march of industry and commerce, under the mitigated law, which prevailed subsequently to Solon, had been sufficient to bring it about at a very early period and to suppress all public antipathy against lenders at interest. We may remark, too, that this more equitable tone of opinion grew up spontaneously, without any legal restriction on the rate of interest, no such restriction having ever been imposed, and the rate being expressly declared free by a law ascribed to Solon himself. The same may probably be said of the communities of Greece generally, at least there is no information to make us suppose the contrary, but the feeling against lending money at interest remained in the bosoms of the philosophical men long after it had ceased to form a part of the practical morality of the citizens, and long after it had ceased to be justified by the appearances of the case as at first it really had been. Plato, Aristotle, Cicero and Plutarch, treats a practice as a branch of the commercial and money-getting spirit, which they are anxious to discourage, and one consequence of this was that they were less disposed to contend strenuously for the inviolability of existing money contracts. The conservative feeling on this point was stronger amongst the mass than amongst the philosophers. Plato even complains of it as inconveniently preponderant and as arresting the legislator in all comprehensive projects of reform. For the most part indeed, schemes of cancelling depths and re-dividing lands were never thought of except by men of desperate and selfish ambition, who made them stepping stones to despotic power. Such men were denounced alike by the practical sense of the community and by the speculative thinkers. But when we turn to the case of the Spartan king, Aegis III, who proposed a complete extinction of depths and an equal re-division of the landed property of the state, not with any selfish or personal views, but upon pure ideas of patriotism, well or ill-understood, and for the purpose of renovating the lost ascendancy of Sparta, we find Plutarch expressing the most unqualified admiration of this young king and his projects, and treating the opposition made to him as originating in no better feelings than meanness and cupidity. The philosophical thinkers on politics conceived, and to a great degree justly, as I shall show hereafter, that the conditions of security in the ancient world imposed upon the citizens generally, the absolute necessity of keeping up a military spirit and willingness to brave at all times personal hardship and discomfort, so that increase of wealth on account of the habits of self-indulgence, which it commonly introduces, was regarded by them with more or less of disfavor. If, in their estimation, any egregious community had become corrupt, they were willing to sanction great interference with pre-existing rights for the purpose of bringing it back nearer to their ideal standard, and the real security for the maintenance of these rights lay in the conservative feelings of the citizens generally, much more than in the opinions which superior minds imbibed from the philosophers. Such conservative feelings were, in the subsequent Athenian democracy, peculiarly deep-rooted. The mass of the Athenian people identified inseparably the maintenance of property in all its various shapes with that of their laws and constitution, and it is a remarkable fact that though the admiration entertained at Athens for Solon was universal, the principle of his seixateia and of his money depreciation was not only never imitated, but found the strongest tacit reprobation. Various at Rome, as well as in most of the kingdoms of modern Europe, we know that one debasement of the coin succeeded another. The temptation of thus partially eluding the pressure of financial embarrassments proved after one successful trial too strong to be resisted and brought down the coin by successive depreciations from the full pound of 12 ounces to the standard of one half ounce. It is of some importance to take notice of this fact when we reflect how much Grecian faith has been degraded by the Roman writers into a byword for duplicity in pecuniary dealings. The democracy of Athens, and indeed the cities of Greece generally, both oligarchies and democracies, stands far above the senate of Rome and far above the modern kingdoms of France and England until comparatively recent times in respect of honest dealing with the coinage. Moreover, while there occurred at Rome several political changes which brought about new tables or at least a partial depreciation of contracts, no phenomenon of the same kind ever happened at Athens during the three centuries between Solon and the end of the free working of the democracy. Doubtless there were fraudulent deptors at Athens, while the administration of private law, though not in any way conniving at their proceedings, was far too imperfect to repress them as effectually as might have been wished. But the public sentiment on the point was just undecided. It may be asserted with confidence that a loan of money at Athens was quite as secure as it ever was at any time or place of the ancient world in spite of the great and important superiority of Rome with respect to the accumulation of a body of authoritative legal precedent, the source of what was ultimately shaped into the Roman jurisprudence. Amongst the various causes of sedition or mischief in the Grecian communities we hear little of the pressure of private debt. By the measures of relief above described, Solon had accomplished results surpassing his own best hopes. He had healed the prevailing discontents, and such was the confidence and gratitude which he had inspired that he was now called upon to draw up a constitution and laws for a better working of the government in future. His constitutional changes were great and valuable, respecting his laws. What we hear is rather curious than important. End of section 23. Section 24 of The Great Events Volume 1. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. The Great Events by famous historians Volume 1. Edited by Charles F. Horne, Rossiter Johnson and John Rudd. Section 24. Solon's Early Greek Legislation, BC 594 by George Groth, Part 3. It has been already stated that, down to the time of Solon, the classification received in Attica was that of the four Yonic tribes, comprising, in one scale, the fratris and gents, and in another scale, the threesritis and forty-eight nocraries, while the oipatridae seemingly a few specially respected gents, and perhaps a few distinguished families in all the gents, had in their hands all the powers of government. Solon introduced a new principle of classification called in Greek the democratic principle. He distributed all the citizens of the tribes without any reference to their gents or fratris into four classes according to the amount of their property, which he calls to be assessed and entered in a public schedule. Those whose annual income was equal to 500 medimni of corn, about 700 imperial bushels, and upward, one medimnos being considered equivalent to one drachma in money. He placed in the highest class. Those who received between 300 and 500 medimni, or drachmas, formed the second class, and those between 200 and 300 the third. The fourth and most numerous class comprised all those who did not possess land yielding a produce equal to 200 medimni. The first class, called pentakosyomedimni, were alone eligible to the archonship and to all commands. The second were called the knights or horsemen of the state, as possessing enough to enable them to keep a horse and perform military service in that capacity. The third class, called the Greek zeugiti, formed the heavy armed infantry, and were bound to serve, each with his full panoply. Each of these three classes was entered in the public schedule as possessed of a taxable capital calculated with a certain reference to his annual income, but in a proportion diminishing according to the scale of that income, and a man paid taxes to the state according to the sum for which he stood rated in the schedule, so that this direct taxation acted really like a graduated income tax. The rateable property of the citizen belonging to the richest class, the pentakosyomedimni, was calculated and entered on the state schedule at the sum of capital equal to 12 times his annual income, that of the hippos, horsemen, or knight, at the sum equal to 10 times his annual income, that of the zeugiti at the sum equal to 5 times his annual income. Thus, a pentakosyomedimni, whose income was exactly 500 drachmas, the minimum qualification of this class, stood rated in the schedule for a taxable property of 6000 drachmas, or one talent, being 12 times his income. If his annual income were 1000 drachmas, he would stand rated for 12000 drachmas, or two talents, being the same proportion of income to rateable capital. But when we pass to the second class, horsemen or knights, the proportion of the two is changed. The coursemen, possessing an income of just 300 drachmas, or 300 medimni, would stand rated for 3000 drachmas, or 10 times his real income. And so, in the same proportion for any income above 300 and below 500. Again, in the third class, or below 300, the proportion is a second time altered. The zeugit possessing exactly 200 drachmas of income was rated upon a still lower calculation at 1000 drachmas, or a sum equal to 5 times his income. And all incomes of this class, between 200 and 300 drachmas, would in like manner be multiplied by 5 in order to obtain the amount of rateable capital. Upon these respective sums of schedule capital, all direct taxation was levied. If the state required 1% of direct tax, the poorest pentakosio medimnius would pay upon 6000 drachmas, 60 drachmas. The poorest hippos would pay upon 3000 drachmas, 30. The poorest zeugit would pay upon 1000 drachmas, 10 drachmas. And thus, this mode of assessment would operate like a graduated income tax, looking at it in reference to the three different classes, but as an equal income tax, looking at it in reference to the different individuals, comprised in one and the same class. All persons in the state, whose annual income amounted to less than 200 medimni, or drachmas, were placed in the fourth class. And they must have constituted the large majority of the community. They were not liable to any direct taxation, and perhaps were not at first even entered upon the taxable schedule, more especially as we do not know that any taxes were actually levied upon this schedule during the Salonian times. It is said that they were all called feats, but this appellation is not well sustained and cannot be admitted. The force compartment in the descending scale was indeed termed the tetic senses, because it contained all the feats, and because most of its members were of that humble description. But it is not conceivable that the proprietor, whose land yielded to him, a clear annual return of 100, 120, 140 or 180 drachmas, could ever have been designated by that name. Such were the divisions in the political scale established by Solon, called by Aristotle a democracy, in which the rights, honors, functions, and liabilities of the citizens were measured out according to the assessed property of each. The highest honors of the state, that is, the places of the nine archons are newly chosen, as well as those in the senate of Ariopagus, into which the post-archons always entered, perhaps also the posts of Britannies of the Naucrayi, were reserved for the first class. The poor Eupatrides became ineligible, while rich men not Eupatrides were admitted. Other posts of inferior distinction were filled by the second and third classes, who were moreover bound to military service, the one on horseback, the other as heavy-armed soldiers and food. Moreover, the liturgies of the state, as they were called, unpaid functions, such as the Trirahi, Choraji, Gymnasiarhi, etc., which entailed expense and trouble on the holder of them, were distributed in some way or other between the members of the three classes, though we do not know how the distribution was made in these early times. On the other hand, the members of the fourth or lowest class were disqualified from holding any individual office of dignity. They performed no liturgies, served in case of war only as light-armed or with a panoply provided by the state, and paid nothing to the direct property tax or Acephora. It would be incorrect to say that they paid no taxes, for indirect taxes, such as duties on imports, fell upon them in common with the rest, and we must recollect that these latter were throughout a long period of Athenian history in steady operation, while the direct taxes were only levied on rare occasions. But though this fourth class, constituting the great numerical majority of the three people, were shut out from individual office, their collective importance was in another way greatly increased. They were invested with the right of choosing the annual archons out of the class of Pentecostiomedini, and what was of more importance still, the archons and the magistrates generally, after their year of office, instead of being accountable to the senate of Areopagus, were made formally accountable to the public assembly sitting in judgment upon their past conduct. They might be impeached and called upon to defend themselves, punished in case of misbehavior, and they barred from the usual honor of a seat in the senate of Areopagus. Had the public assembly been called upon to act alone without aid or guidance, this accountability would have proved only nominal, but Solon converted it into a reality by another new institution, which will hereafter be found of great moment in the working out of the Athenian democracy. He created the pro-boyloitic, or pre-considering sedent, with intimate and special reference to the public assembly to prepare matters for its discussion, to convoke and super-attend its meetings, and to ensure the execution of its decrees. The senate, as first constituted by Solon, comprised 400 members, taken in equal proportions from the four tribes, not chosen by lot as they will be found to be in the more advanced stage of the democracy, but elected by the people, in the same way as the archons then were, percent of the fourth, or poorest class of the census, though contributing to elect not being themselves eligible. But while Solon thus created the new pre-considering senate, identified with the unsubsidery to the popular assembly, he manifested no jealousy of the pre-existing Areopagetic Senate. On the contrary, he enlarged its powers, gave to it an ample supervision over the execution of the laws generally, and imposed upon it the sensorial duty of inspecting the lives and occupation of the citizens, as well as of punishing men of idle and dissolute habits. He was himself, as past Arton, a member of this ancient senate, and he is said to have contemplated that, by means of the two senates, the state would be held fast, as it were with a double anchor, against all shocks and storms. Such are the only new political institutions, apart from the laws to be noticed presently, which there are grounds for ascribing to Solon, when we take proper care to discriminate what really belongs to Solon and his age, from the Athenian constitution as afterward remodeled. It has been a practice common with many able expositors of Grecian affairs, and followed partly even by Dr. Thurwall to connect the name of Solon with the whole political and judicial state of Athens, as it stood between the age of Pericles and that of Demosthenes, the regulations of the senate of 500, the numerous public die castes or jurors taken by lot from the people, as well as the body annually selected for Lorde vision and called Nomathetes, and the open prosecution called the Grafe Paranomen to be instituted against the proposer of any measure illegal, unconstitutional or dangerous. There is indeed some countenance for this confusion between Solonian and post-Solonian Athenians in the usage of the orators themselves. For Demosthenes and Ashenes employ the name of Solon in a very loose manner and treat him as the author of institutions belonging evidently to a later age, for example the striking and characteristic oath of the Helliastic jurors, which Demosthenes ascribes to Solon, proclaims itself in many ways as belonging to the age after Clisthenes, especially by the mention of the senate of 500 and not of 400. Among the citizens who served as jurors or die castes, Solon was venerated generally as the author of the Athenian laws. An orator therefore might well employ his name for the purpose of emphasis without provoking any critical inquiry, whether the particular institution, which he happened to be then impressing upon his audience, belonged really to Solon himself or to the subsequent periods. Many of those institutions, which Dr. Thirlwall mentions in conjunction with the name of Solon, are among the last refinements and elaborations of the democratical mind of Athenians, gradually prepared doubtless during the interval between Clisthenes and Pericles, but not brought into full operation until the period of the latter, B.C. 460-429. For it is hardly possible to conceive these namorous decasteries and assemblies in regular, frequent and long-standing operation without an assured payment to the die castes who composed them. Now such payment first began to be made about the time of Pericles, if not by his actual proposition, and Demostinis had good reason for contending that if it were suspended, the judicial as well as the administrative system of Athens would at once fall to pieces. It would be a marvel such a nothing short of strong direct evidence would justify us in believing that in an age when even partial democracy was yet untried, Solon should conceive the idea of such institutions. It would be a marvel still greater that the half emancipated seeds and small proprietors for whom he legislated, yet trembling under the rod of the Elpatrid archons and utterly inexperienced in collective business, should have been found suddenly competent to fulfill these ascendant functions, such as the citizens of conquering Athens in the days of Pericles, full of the sentiment of force and actively identifying themselves with the dignity of their community, became gradually competent and not more than competent to exercise this effect. To suppose that Solon contemplated and provided for the periodical revision of his laws by establishing a nomothetic jury or Dicastery, such as that which we find in operation during the time of Demostinis would be at warraions in my judgment with any reasonable estimate either of the man or of the age. Herodotus says that Solon, having exacted from the Athenian solemn oath that they would not rescind any of his laws for ten years, quitted Athens for that period in order that he might not be compelled to rescind them himself. Plutor informs us that he gave to his laws force for a century. Solon himself and Draco before him had been law givers evoked and empowered by the special emergency of the times. The idea of a frequent revision of laws by a body of law to selected Dicasts belongs to a far more advanced age and could not well have been present to the minds of either. The wooden rollers of Solon, like the tables of the Roman Decenviers were doubtless intended as a permanent, founds omnis publici privatici juries. If we examine the facts of the case, we shall see that nothing more than the bare foundation of the democracy of Athens as it stood in the time of Pericles can reasonably be ascribed to Solon. I gave to the people, Solon says in one of his short remaining fragments, as much strength as suffice for their needs, without either enlarging or diminishing their dignity. For those too, who possessed power and were noted for wealth, I took care that no unworthy treatment should be reserved. I stood with the strong shield cast over both parties, so as not to allow an unjust triumph to either. Again, Aristotle tells us that Solon bestowed upon the people as much power as was indispensable but no more. The power to elect their magistrates and hold them to accountability. If the people had had less than this, they could not have been expected to remain tranquil. They would have been in slavery and hostile to the constitution. Not less distinctly does Herodotus speak, when he describes the revolution subsequently operated by Clistini's, the latter he tells us found, the Athenian people excluded from everything. These passages seem positively to contradict the supposition in itself sufficiently improbable. That Solon is the author of the peculiar, democratical institutions of Athens, such as the constant and numerous diecasts for judicial trials and revision of laws. The genuine, unforward, democratical movement of Athens begins only with Clistini's, from the moment when that distinguished Alcomonoid, either spontaneously or from finding himself worsted in his party's triumph with Isagoras, purchased by large popular concessions, the hearty cooperation of the multitude and their very dangerous circumstances. While Solon, in his own statement, as well as in that of Aristotle, gave to the people as much power as was strictly needful, but no more, Clistini's, to use the significant phrase of Herodotus, being vanquished in the party contest with his rival, took the people into partnership. It was thus to the interest of the weaker section, in a strife of contending nobles, that the Athenian people owed their first admission to political ascendancy, in part at least to this cause, though the proceedings of Clistini's indicate a hearty and spontaneous popular sentiment. But such constitutional admission of the people would not have been so astonishingly fruitful in positive results, if the course of public events for the half century after Clistini's had not been such as to stimulate most powerful their energy, their self-reliance, their mutual sympathies and their ambition. I shall recount in a future chapter these historical causes, which, acting upon the Athenian character, gave such efficiency and expansion to the great, democratic impulse communicated by Clistini's. At present it is enough to remark that that impulse commences properly with Clistini's and not with Solon. But the Solonian constitution, though only the foundation, was yet the indispensable foundation of the subsequent democracy. And if the discontents of the miserable Athenian population, instead of experiencing his disinterested and healing management, had fallen at once into the hands of selfish power seekers like Cylon or Pisistratus, the memorable expansion of the Athenian mind during the ensuing century would never have taken place. And the whole subsequent history of Greece would probably have taken a different course. Solon left the essential powers of the state still in the hands of the oligarchy. The party combats between Pisistratus, Lycurgus and Megacles, 30 years after his legislation, which ended in the despotism of Pisistratus, will appear to be of the same purely oligarchical character as they had been before Solon was appointed Archen. But the oligarchy, which he established, was very different from the unmitigated oligarchy which he found, so teeming with oppression and so destitute of redress as his own poems testify. It was he who first gave both to the citizens of middling property and to the general mass of Lycurgus Tundi against the Oipatrates. He enabled the people partially to protect themselves and familiarized them with the idea of protecting themselves by the peaceful exercise of constitutional franchise. The new force through which this protection was carried into effect was the public assembly called Helii, regularized and armed with enlarged prerogatives and further strengthened by its indispensable ally, the pro-boyloitic or pre-considering Senate. Under the Solonian constitution, this force was merely secondary and defensive, but after the renovation of Clistinis, it became paramount and sovereign. It branched out gradually into those numerous popular dichestries, which so powerfully modified both public and private Athenian life, drew to itself the undivided reverence and submission of the people and by degrees rendered the single magistracies essentially subordinate functions. The popular assembly, as constituted by Solon, appearing in modified efficiency and trained to the office of reviewing and judging the general conduct of a past magistrate, forms the intermediate stage between the passive Homeric Agora and those omnipotent assemblies and dichestries which listened to Pericles or Demostinis. Compared with these lost, it has in it but a faint streak of democracy and so it naturally appeared to Aristotle who wrote with a practical experience of Athens in the time of the orators. But compared with the first, or with the anti-Solonian constitution of Attica, it must doubtless have appeared a concession eminently democratic. To impose upon the oipatri, Archen, the necessity of being elected or put upon his trial of after-accountability by the rabble of Freemann, such would be the phrase in oipatri society, would be a bitter humiliation to those among whom it was first introduced. For we must recollect that this was the most extensive scheme of constitutional reform yet propounded in Greece, and that despots and oligarchies shared between them at that time the whole Grecian world. As it appears that Solon, while constituting the popular assembly, was its pro-boyleutic senate, had no jealousy of the senate of Aureopagus and indeed even enlarged its powers. We may infer that his grand object was not to weaken the oligarchy generally, but to improve the administration and to repress the misconduct and irregularities of the individual Archans, and that, too, not by diminishing their powers, but by making some degree of popularity, the condition, both of their entry into office, and of their safety or honour after it. It is, in my judgement, a mistake to suppose that Solon transferred the judicial power of the Archons to a popular dicastery. These magistrates still continued self-acting judges, deciding and condemning without appeal, not mere presidents of an assembled jury, as they afterwards came to be during the next century. For the general exercise of such power they were accountable after their year of office. Such accountability was the security against abuse, a very insufficient security, yet not wholly inoperative. It will be seen, however, presently, that these Archans, though strong to coerce, and perhaps to oppress small and poor men, had no means of keeping down rebellious nobles of their own rank, such as Pistratus, Lycurgus and Megacles, each with his armed followers. When we compare the drawn swords of these ambitious competitors, ending in the despotism of one of them, with the vehement parliamentary strife between Temistocles and Aristides afterward, peaceably decided by the vote of the sovereign people and never disturbing the public tranquility, we shall see that the democracy of the ensuing century fulfilled the conditions of order as well as of progress, better than the Solonian constitution. End of Section 24. Section 25 of The Great Events Volume 1. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. The Great Events by Famous Historians, Volume 1, edited by Charles F. Horn, Rossiter Johnson and John Rudd. Section 25, Solon's Early Greek Legislation, B.C. 594, by George Grote, Part 4. To distinguish this Solonian constitution from the democracy which followed it is essential to a due comprehension of the progress of the Greek mind and especially of Athenian affairs. That democracy was achieved by gradual steps. Demosthenes and Ashenes lived under it as a system consummated and in full activity when the stages of its previous growth were no longer a matter of exact memory. And the Dicasts, then assembled in judgment, were pleased to hear their constitution associated with the names either of Solon or Athesius. Their inquisitive contemporary Aristotle was not thus misled. But even commonplace Athenians of the century preceding would have escaped the same delusion. For during the whole course of the democratic movement, from the Persian invasion, down to the Peloponnesian War, and especially during the changes proposed by Pericles and Epfieldes, there was always a strenuous party of resistance who would not suffer the people to forget that they had already forsaken and were on the point of forsaking still more, the orbit marked out by Solon. The illustrious Pericles underwent innumerable attacks both from the orators in the assembly and from the comic writers in the theatre. And among these sarcasm on the political tendencies of the day, we are probably to number the complaint, breezed by the poet Crattinus, of the desuitude into which both Solon and Draco had fallen. I swear, said he in a fragment of one of his comedies, by Solon and Draco, whose wooden tablets of laws are now employed by people to roast their barley. The laws of Solon respecting penal offences, respecting inheritance and adoption, respecting the private relations generally, etc., remained for the most part in force. His quadripartitide census also continued, at least for financial purposes, until the Arkonship of Nauseenicus in BC 377, so that Cicero and others might be warranted in affirming that his laws still prevailed at Athens. But his political and judicial arrangements had undergone a revolution not less complete and memorable than the character and spirit of the Athenian people generally. The choice by way of lot of Arkons and other magistrates, and the distribution by lot of the general body of diecasts or jurors into panels for judicial business, may be decidedly considered as not belonging to Solon, but adopted after the revolution of Chlisteanese. Probably the choice of senators by lot also. The lot was a symptom of pronounced democratical spirit, such as we must not seek in the Solonian institutions. It is not easy to make out distinctly what was the political position of the ancient Gentis and Thratres as Solon left them. The four tribes consisted altogether of Gentis and Thratres in so much that no one could be included in any one of the tribes, who was not also a member of some genes or Thratres. Now the new pro-boyloitic or pre-considering senate consisted of 400 members, 100 from each of the tribes. Persons not included in any gents or Thratres could therefore have had no access to it. The conditions of eligibility were similar according to ancient custom for the nine Arkons, of course also for the senate of Areopagus, so that there remained only the public assembly in which an Athenian not a member of these tribes could take part. Yet he was a citizen, since he could give his vote for Arkons and senators, and could take part in the annual decision of their accountability, besides being entitled to claim redress for wrong from the Arkons in his own person, while the alien could only do so through the intervention of an avouching citizen or prostatees. It seems therefore that all persons not included in the four tribes, whatever their grade of fortune might be, were on the same level in respect to political privilege as the fourth and poorest class of the Solonian census. It has already been remarked that even before the time of Solon, the number of Athenians not included in the gentes or Thratres was probably considerable. It tended to become greater and greater, since these bodies were close and inexpensive, while the policy of the new logger tended to invite industrious settlers from other parts of Greece and Athens. Such great and increasing inequality of political privilege helps to explain the weakness of the government in repelling the aggressions of Pisces Thratus and exhibits the importance of the revolution afterward wrought by Clistines, when he abolished, for all political purposes, the four old tribes and created 10 new comprehensive tribes in place of them. In regard to the regulations of the senate and the assembly of the people, as constituted by Solon, we are all together without information, nor is it safe to transfer to the Solonian constitution the information comparatively ample which we possess respecting these bodies under the later democracy. The laws of Solon were inscribed on wooden rollers and triangular tablets in the species of writing called boistrofidan, lines alternating first from left to right and then from right to left, like the course of the plovman, and preserved first in the acropolis, subsequently in the Pritanium. On the tablets called Kirbis were chiefly commemorated the laws respecting sacred rites and sacrifices. On the pillars or rollers, of which there were at least 16, were placed the regulations respecting matters profane. So small are the fragments which have come down to us, and so much has been ascribed to Solon by the orators, which belongs really to the subsequent times, that it is hardly possible to form any critical judgement respecting that legislation as a whole or to discover by what general principles or purposes he was guided. He left unchanged all the previous laws and practices respecting the crime of homicide, connected as they were intimately with the religious feelings of the people. The laws of Draco on this subject therefore remained, but on other subjects according to Plutarch, they were all together abrogated. There is, however, room for supposing that their appeal cannot have been so sweeping as this biographer represents. The Solonian laws seems to have borne more or less upon all the great departments of human interest and duty. We find regulations political and religious, public and private, civil and criminal, commercial, agricultural, sumptuary and disciplinarian. Solon provides punishment for crimes, restricts the profession and status of the citizen, prescribes detailed rules for marriage as well as for burial, for the common use of springs and wells, and for the mutual interest of contaminous farmers in planting or hedging their properties. As far as we can judge from the imperfect manner in which his laws come before us, there does not seem to have been any attempt at a systematic order or classification. Some of them are mere general and vague directions, while others again run into the extreme of specialty. By far the most important of all was the amendment of the law of debtor and creditor, which has already been adverted to, and the abolition of the power of fathers and brothers to sell their daughters and sisters into slavery. The prohibition of all contracts on the security of the body was itself sufficient to produce a vast improvement in the character and condition of the poorer population. A result, which seems to have been so sensibly obtained from the legislation of Solon, that Boyk and some other eminent authors suppose him to have abolished villainage and conferred upon the poor tenants a property in their lands, annulling the scenario rights of the landlord. But this opinion rests upon no positive evidence, nor are we warranted in ascribing to him any stronger measure in reference to the land than the annullment of the previous mortgages. The first pillar of his laws contained a regulation respecting exportable produce. He forbade the exportation of all produce of the attic soil except olive oil alone. And the sanction employed to enforce observance of this law deserves notice as an illustration of the ideas of the time. The Archon was bound on pain of forfeiting one hundred drachmas to pronounce solemn curses against every offender. We are probably to take this prohibition in conjunction with other objects said to have been contemplated by Solon, especially the encouragement of artisans and manufacturers at Athens. Observing, we are told that many new immigrants were just then flocking into Attica to seek an establishment. In consequence of its greater security, he was anxious to turn them rather to manufacturing industry than to the cultivation of a soil naturally poor. He forbade the granting of citizenship to any immigrants except to such as had quitted irrevocably their former abodes and come to Athens for the purpose of carrying on some industrial profession. And in order to prevent idleness, he directed the Senate of Areopagus to keep watch over the lives of the citizens generally and punish everyone who had no course of regular labor to support him. If a father had not taught his son some art or profession, Solon relieved the son from all obligation to maintain him and his old age. And it was to encourage the multiplication of these artisans that he ensured or sought to ensure to the residents in Attica the exclusive right of buying and consuming all its landed produce except olive oil which was raised in abundance more than sufficient for their wants. It was his wish that the trade with foreigners should be carried on by exporting the produce of artisan labor instead of the produce of land. This commercial prohibition is founded on principles substantially similar to those which were acted upon in the early history of England with reference both to corn and to wool and in other European countries also. In so far as it was at all operative, it tended to lessen the total quantity of produce raised upon the soil of Attica and thus to keep the price of it from rising. But the law of Solon must have been altogether inoperative in reference to the great articles of human subsistence. For Attica imported both largely and constantly grain and salt provisions probably also wool and flags for the spinning and weaving of the woman and certainly timber for building. Whether the law was ever enforced with reference to figs and honey may well be doubted at least these productions of Attica were in after times trafficked in and generally consumed throughout Greece. Probably also in the time of Solon the silver mines of Lorium had hardly begun to be worked. These afterward became highly productive and furnished to Athens a commodity for foreign payments no less convenient than lucrative. It is interesting to notice the anxiety both of Solon and of Draco to enforce among their fellow citizens industrious and self-maintaining habits and we shall find the same sentiment proclaimed by Pericles at the time when Athenian power was at its maximum. Nor ought we to pass over this early manifestation in Attica of an opinion equitable and tolerant towards sedentary industry which in most other parts of Greece was regarded as comparatively dishonorable. The general tone of Grecian sentiment recognized no occupations as perfectly worthy of a free citizen except arms, agriculture and athletic and musical exercises. And the proceedings of the Spartans who kept aloof even from agriculture and left it to their helots were admired though they could not be copied throughout most of the Hellenic world. Even mines like Plato, Aristotle and Xenophon concurred to a considerable extent in this feeling which they justified on the ground that the sedentary life and unceasing housework of the artisan were inconsistent with military aptitude. The town occupations are usually described by a word which carries with it contemptuous ideas and though recognized as indispensable to the existence of the city are held suitable only for an inferior and semi-privileged order of citizens. This the received sentiment among Greeks as well as foreigners found a strong and growing opposition at Athens as I have already said corroborated also by a similar feeling at Corinth. The trade of Corinth as well as of Calchis in Oibia was extensive at a time when that of Athens had scarce any existence. But while the despotism of Periander can hardly have failed to operate as a discouragement to industry at Corinth the contemporaneous legislation of Solon provided for traders and artisans a new home at Athens giving the first encouragement to that numerous town population both in the city and in the periods which we find actually residing there in the succeeding century. The multiplication of such town residents both citizens and metics i.e. resident persons not citizens but enjoying an assured position and civil rights was a capital fact in the onward march of Athens since it determined not merely the extension of her trade but also the preeminence of her naval forces and thus as a further consequence lent extraordinary vigor to their her democratical government. It seems moreover to have been a departure from the primitive temper of Atticism which tended both to cantonal residents and ruler occupation we have therefore the greater interest in noting the first mention of it as a consequence of the Solonian legislation. To Solon is first owing the admission of a power of testamentary bequest at Athens in all cases in which a man had no legitimate children. According to the pre-existing custom we may rather presume that if a deceased person left neither children nor blood relations his property descended as a throne to his genes and fratry. Throughout most rude states of society the power of willing is unknown as among the ancient Germans among the Romans prior to the 12 tables in the old law of the Hindus etc. Society limits a man's interest or power of enjoyment to his life and considers his relatives as having joint reversionary claims to his property which take effect in certain determinate proportions after his death. Such a law was the more likely to prevail at Athens since the perpetuity of the family's sacred rights in which the children and near relatives partook of right was considered by the Athenians as a matter of public as well as of private concern. Solon gave permission to every man dying without children to bequease his property by will as he should think fit and the testament was maintained unless it could be shown to have been procured by some compulsion or improper seduction. Speaking generally this continued to be the law throughout the historical times of Athens. Sons wherever there were sons succeeded to the property of their father in equal shares with the obligation of giving out their sisters in marriage along with a certain dowry. If there were no sons then the daughters succeeded though the father might by will within certain limits determine the person to whom they should be married. With their rights of succession attached to them or might with the consent of his daughters make by will certain other arrangements about his property. A person who had no children or direct lineal descendants might bequease his property at pleasure. If he died without a will first his father then his brother or brother's children next his sister or sister's children succeeded. If none such existed then the cousins by the father's side next the cousins by the mother's side the male line of descent having preference over the female such was the principle of the Solonian laws of succession though the particulars are in several ways obscure and doubtful. Solon it appears was the first who gave power of superseding by testament the rights of agnates and Gentiles to succession. A proceeding in consonance with his plan of encouraging both industrious occupation and the consequent multiplication of individual acquisitions. It has been already mentioned that Solon forbade the sale of daughters or sisters into slavery by fathers or brothers. A prohibition which shows how much females had before been looked upon as articles of property. And it would seem that before his time the violation of a free woman must have been punished at the discretion of the magistrates. For we are told that he was the first who enacted a penalty of one hundred drachmas against the offender and twenty drachmas against the seducer of a free woman. Moreover it is said that he forbade a bride when given in marriage to carry with her any personal ornaments and appartenances except to the extent of three robes and certain matters of furniture not very valuable. Solon further imposed upon women several restraints in regard to proceeding at the obsequies of deceased relatives. He forbade profuse demonstrations of sorrow, singing of composed dirges and costly sacrifices and contributions. He limited strictly the quantity of meat and drink admissible for the funeral banquet and prohibited nocturnal exit except in a car and with a light. It appears that both in Greece and Rome the feelings of duty and affection on the part of surviving relatives prompted them to ruinous expense in a funeral as well as to unmeasured effusions both of grief and conviviality. And the general necessity experienced for legal restriction is attested by the remark of Plutarch that similar prohibitions to those enacted by Solon were likewise enforced at his native town of Caronia. Other penal enactments of Solon are yet to be mentioned. He forbade absolutely evil speaking with respect to the dead. He forbaded likewise with respect to the living either in a temple or before judges or arkans or at any public festival. On pain of a forfeit of three drachmas to the person aggrieved and two more to the public treasury. How mild the general character of his punishments was maybe judged by this law against foul language not less than by the law before mentioned against rape. Both the one and the other of these offenses were much more severely dealt with under the subsequent law of democratical Athens. The peremptory edict against speaking ill of a deceased person, though doubtless springing in a great decree from disinterested repugnance, is traceable also in part to that fear of the wrath of the departed which strongly possessed the early Greek mind. End of section 25. Section 26 of The Great Events Volume 1. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org. The Great Events by famous historians Volume 1 edited by Charles F. Horn, Rosseter Johnson and John Rudd. Solon's early Greek legislation BC 594 by George Grote, part 5. It seems generally that Solon determined by law the outlay for the public sacrifices, though we do not know what were his particular directions. We are told that he reckoned a sheep and a medymnos of wheat or barley as equivalent, either of them to a drachma, and that he also prescribed the prices to be paid for first-rate oxen intended for Solon occasions. But it astonishes us to see the large recompense which he awarded out of the public treasury to a victor at the Olympic or Isthmian Games, to the firmer 500 drachmas equal to one year's income of the highest of the four classes on the census, to the latter 100 drachmas. The magnitude of these rewards strikes us, the more when we compare them with the fines on rape and evil speaking. We cannot be surprised that the philosopher Xenophans noticed, with some degree of severity, the extravagant estimate of this species of excellence current among the Grecian cities. At the same time we must remember, both, that these panhellenic games presented the chief visible evidence of peace and sympathy among the numerous communities of Greece, and that, in the time of Solon, fictitious reward was still needful to encourage them. In respect to land and agriculture, Solon proclaimed a public reward of five drachmas for every wolf brought in, and one drachma for every wolf's cub. The extent of wild land has at all times been considerable in Attica. He also provided rules respecting the use of wells between neighbors and respecting the planting in contaminous olive grounds. Whether any of these regulations continued in operation during the better known period of Athenian history cannot be safely affirmed. In respect to theft, we find it stated, that Solon repealed the punishment of death which Draco had annexed to that crime, and enacted as a penalty compensation to an amount double the value of the property stolen. The simplicity of this law perhaps affords ground for presuming that it really does belong to Solon, but the law which prevailed during the time of the orators respecting theft must have been introduced at some later period since it enters into distinctions and mentions both places and forms of procedure, which we cannot reasonably refer to the 46th Olympiad. The public dinners at the Pretanium, of which the Arkans and a select few partook in common, were also either first established or perhaps only more strictly regulated by Solon. He ordered barley cakes for their ordinary meals and wheat and loaves for festival days, prescribing how often each person should dine at the table. The honour of dining at the table of the Pretanium was maintained throughout as a valuable reward at the disposal of the government. Among the various laws of Solon, there are few which have attracted more notice than that which pronounces the man who in a sedition stood aloof and took part with Nazar side to be dishonoured and disfranchised. Strictly speaking, this seems more in the nature of an empathic moral denunciation or a religious curse than a legal sanction capable of being formally applied in an individual case and after judicial trial. Though the sentence of Atimi under the more elaborated Attic procedure was both definite in its penal consequences and also judicially delivered. We may, however, follow the course of ideas under which Solon was induced to write this sentence on his tables and we may trace the influence of similar ideas in later Attic institutions. It is obvious that his denunciation is confined to that special case in which a sedition has already broken out or that Pisistratus, Megaclis and Lycurgus are in arms at the head of their partisans. Assuming these leaders to be wealthy and powerful men, which would in all probability be the fact, the constituted authority, such as Solon saw before him in Attica, even after his own organic amendments, was not strong enough to maintain the peace. It became, in fact, itself one of the contending parties. Under such given circumstances, the sooner every citizen publicly declared his adherence to some of them, the earlier this suspension of legal authority was likely to terminate. Nothing was so mischievous as the indifference of the mass or the disposition to let the combatants fight out the matter among themselves and then to submit to the victor. Nothing was more likely to encourage aggression on the part of an ambitious small content than the conviction that if he could once overpower the small amount of physical force which surrounded the Arkans and exhibit himself in armed possession of the Pretynium or the Acropolis, he might immediately count upon passive submission on the part of all the free men without. Under the state of feeling which Solon inculcates, the insurgent leader would have to calculate that every man who was not actively in his favor would be actively against him and this would render his enterprise much more dangerous. Indeed, he could then never hope to succeed except on the double supposition of extraordinary popularity in his own person and widespread detestation of the existing government. He would thus be placed under the influence of powerful deterring motives so that ambition would be less likely to seduce him into a course which threatened nothing but ruin unless under such encouragement from the pre-existing public opinion as to make his success a result desirable for the community. Among the small political societies of Greece, especially in the age of Solon, when the number of despots in other parts of Greece seems to have been at its maximum, every government, whatever might be its form, was sufficiently weak to make its overthrow a measure of comparative facility, unless upon the supposition of a band of foreign mercenaries which would render the government a system of naked force and which the Athenian logiver would of course never contemplate, there was no other stay for it except a positive and pronounced feeling of attachment on the part of the mass of citizens. Indifference on their part would render them a prey to every daring man of wealth who chose to become a conspirator, that they should be ready to come forward not only with voice but with arms and that they should be known beforehand to be so was essential to the maintenance of every good Grecian government. It was solitary in preventing mere personal attempts at revolution and pacific in its tendency even where the revolution had actually broken out because in the greater number of cases the proportion of partisans would probably be very unequal and the inferior party would be compelled to renounce their hopes. It will be observed that in this enactment of Solon the existing government is ranked merely as one of the contending parties. The virtuous citizen is enjoined not to come forward in its support but to come forward at all events either for it or against it, positive and early action in all which is prescribed to him as matter of duty. In the age of Solon there was no political idea or system yet current which could be assumed as an unquestionable datum, no conspicuous standard to which the citizens could be pledged under all circumstances to attach themselves. The option lay only between a mitigated oligarchy in possession and a dispute in possibility. A contest wherein the affections of the people could rarely be counted upon in favor of the established government. But this neutrality in respect to the constitution was at an end after the revolution of Chlithines when the idea of the sovereign people and the democratical institutions became both familiar and precious to every individual citizen. We shall hereafter find the Athenians binding themselves by the most sincere and solemn oath to uphold their democracy against all attempts to subvert it. We shall discover in them a sentiment not less positive and uncompromising in its direction than energetic in its inspirations. But while we notice this very important change in their character, we shall at the same time perceive that the wise precautionary recommendation of Solon to obvate sedition by an early declaration of the impartial public between two contending leaders was not lost upon them. Such in point of fact was the purpose of that solitary and protective institution which is called the Ostrakism. When two party leaders in the early stages of the Athenian democracy, each powerful in adherence and influence, had become passionately embarked in bitter and prolonged opposition to each other, such opposition was likely to conduct one or other to violent measures. Over and above the hopes of party triumph, each might well fear that if he himself continued within the bounds of legality, he might fall a victim to aggressive proceedings in the part of his antagonists. Toward of this formidable danger, a public vote was called for to determine which of the two should go into temporary banishment retaining his property and unvisited by any disgrace. A number of citizens not less than six thousand voting secretly and therefore independently were required to take part, pronouncing upon one or other of these eminent rivals a sentence of exile for ten years. The one who remained became of course more powerful, yet less in a situation to be driven into anti-constitutional courses than he was before. Tragedy and comedy were now beginning to be grafted on the lyric and choric song. First, one actor was provided to relieve the chorus. Next, two actors were introduced to sustain fictious characters and carry on a dialogue in such manner that the songs of the chorus and the interlocution of the actors formed a continuous piece. So long after having heard a thespis acting as all the early composers did, both tragic and comic, in his own comedy, asked him afterward if he was not ashamed to pronounce such falsehoods before so large an audience. And when thespis answered that there was no harm in saying and doing such things merely for amusement, Solon indignantly exclaimed striking the ground with his stick. If once we come to praise and esteem such amusement as this, we shall quickly find the effects of it in our daily transactions. For the authenticity of this anecdote it would be rash to vouch, but we may at least treat it as the protest of some early philosopher against the deceptions of the drama. And it is interesting as marking the incipient struggles of that literature in which Athens afterward attained such unrivaled excellence. It would appear that all the laws of Solon were proclaimed, inscribed and accepted without either discussion or resistance. He is said to have described them not as the best laws which he could himself have imagined, but as the best which he could have induced the people to accept. He gave them validity for the space of 10 years, during which period both the senate collectively and the archons individually swore to observe them with fidelity and their penalty in case of non-observance of a golden statue as large as life to be erected at Delphi. But though the acceptance of the laws were accomplished without difficulty, it was not found so easy either for the people to understand and obey or for the framer to explain them. Every day persons came to Solon either with praise or criticism or suggestions of various improvements or questions as to the construction of particular enactments, until at last he became tired of this endless process of reply and vindication which was seldom successful either in removing obscurity or in satisfying complainants. For seeing that if he remained he would be compelled to make changes, he obtained leave of absence from his countrymen for 10 years, trusting that before the expiration of that period they would have become accustomed to his laws. He quitted his native city in the full certainty that his laws would remain unrepelled until his return. For, says Herodotus, the Athenians could not repeal them since they were bound by solemn oaths to observe them for 10 years. The unqualified manner in which the historian here speaks of an oath as if it created a sort of physical necessity and shut out all possibility of a contrary result deserves notice as illustrating Grecian sentiment. On departing from Athens, Solon first visited Egypt, where he communicated largely with Psenophis of Heliopolis and Sanchez of Seis, Egyptian priests who had much to tell respecting their ancient history, and from whom he learned matters, real or pretended, far transcending in alleged antiquity the oldest Grecian genealogies, especially the history of the history of the vast submerged island of Atlantis, and the war which the ancestors of the Athenians had successfully carried on against it 9,000 years before. Solon is said to have commenced an epic poem upon this subject, but he did not live to finish it, and nothing of it now remains. From Egypt he went to Cyprus, where he visited the small town of Epia, said to have been originally founded by Demophon, son of Thesius, and ruled at this period by the prince Philocipus, each town in Cyprus having its own petty prince. It was situated near the river Clavius in a position precipitous and secure, but inconvenient and ill-supplied. Solon persuaded Philocipus to quit the old site and establish a new town down in the fertile plain beneath. He himself stayed and became assist of the new establishment, making all the regulations requisite for its safe and prosperous march, which was indeed so decisively manifested that many new settlers flocked into the new plantation, called by Philocipus Soli, in honor of Solon. To our deep regret we are not permitted to know what these regulations were, but the general fact is attested by the poems of Solon himself, and the lines in which he bade farewell to Philocipus on quitting the island are yet before us. On the dispositions of this prince, his poem bestowed unqualified commendation. Besides his visit to Egypt and Cyprus, a story was also current of his having conversed with the Lydian king Croesus at Sardis. The communications said to have taken place between them has been woven by Herodotus into a sort of moral tale which forms one of the most beautiful episodes in his whole history. Though this tale has been told and retold as if it were genuine history, yet as it now stands it is irreconcilable with chronology, although very possibly Solon may at some time or other have visited Sardis and seen Croesus as hereditary prince. But even if no chronological objections existed, the moral purpose of the tale is so prominent and pervades it so systematically from beginning to end that these internal grounds are of themselves sufficiently strong to impeach its credibility as a matter of fact, unless such doubts happen to be outweighed, which in this case they are not, by good contemporary testimony. The narrative of Solon and Croesus can be taken for nothing else but an illustrative fiction borrowed by Herodotus from some philosopher and closed in his own peculiar beauty of expression, which on this occasion is more decidedly poetical than is habitual with him. I cannot transcribe and I hardly dare to abridge it. The vain glorious Croesus at the summit of his conquests and his riches endeavors to win from his visitor Solon an opinion that he is the happiest of mankind. The latter, after having twice preferred to him modest and meritorious Christian citizens, at length reminds him that his vast wealth and power are of a tenure too precarious to serve as an evidence of happiness, that the gods are jealous and middle son and often makes the show of happiness a mere prelude to extreme disaster and that no man's life can be called happy until the whole of it has been played out so that it may be seen to be out of the reach of reverses. Croesus treats his this opinion as absurd, but a great judgment from God fell upon him after Solon was departed, probably observes Herodotus because he fancied himself the happiest of all men. First he lost his favorite son, Attis, a brave and intelligent youth, his only other son being dumb. For the missions of Olympus being ruined by a destructive and formidable wild boar which they were unable to subdue, applied for aid to Croesus, who sent the spot a chosen hunting force and permitted, though with great reluctance, in consequence of an alarming dream that his favorite son should accompany them. The young prince was unintentionally slain by the Phrygian exile Adrastus, whom Croesus had sheltered and protected. Hardly had the letter recovered from the anguish of this misfortune when the rapid growth of Cyrus and the Persian power induced him to go to war with them against the advice of his wisest consulers. After a struggle of about three years he was completely defeated, his capital Sardis taken by storm and himself made prisoner. Cyrus ordered a large pile to be prepared and placed upon it Croesus in fetters, together with fourteen young Lydians, in the intention of burning them alive, either at the religious offering or in fulfillment of a vow, or perhaps says Herodotus, to see what are some of the gods would not interfere to rescue a man so pre-amendly pious as the king of Lydia. In this sad extremity, Croesus bethought him of the warning which he had before despised and thrice pronounced with a deep groan the name of Solon. Cyrus desired the interpreters to inquire whom he was invoking and learned in reply the anecdote of the Athenian logiver, together with the solemn memento which he had offered to Croesus during more prosperous days, attesting the frail tenure of all human greatness. The remark sunk deep into the Persian monarch as a token of what might happen to himself. He repented of his purpose and directed that the pile which had already been kindled should be immediately extinguished, but the orders came too late, in spite of the most zealous efforts of the bystanders. The flame was found unquenchable and Croesus would still have been burned, had he not implored with prayers and tears, the soccer of Apollo, to whose Delphian and Theban temples he had given such munificent presence. His prayers were heard, the fair sky was immediately overcast, and the profused rain descended. Sufficient to extinguish the flames. The life of Croesus was thus saved, and he became afterward the confidential friend and advisor of his conqueror. Such is the brief outline of a narrative which Herodotus has given with full development and this impressive effect. It would have served as a show lecture to the youth of Athens, not less admirably than the well-known fable of the choice of Heracles, which the philosopher Prodicus, a junior contemporary of Herodotus, delivered with so much popularity. It illustrates forcibly the religious and ethical ideas of antiquity, the deep sense of the jealousy of the gods, who would not endure pride in anyone except themselves, the impossibility for any man of realizing to himself more than a very moderate share of happiness, the danger from reactionary nemeses if at any time he had overpassed such limit, and the necessity of calculations taking in the whole of life as a basis for rational comparison of different individuals. And it embodies, as a practical consequence from these feelings, the often repeated protest of moralists against vehement impulses and unrestrained aspirations. The more valuable this narrative appears in its illustrative character, the less can we presume to treat it as a history. It is much to be regretted that we have no information respecting events in Attica immediately after the Solonian laws and constitution, which were promulgated in BC 594, so as to understand better the practical effect of these changes. What we next hear respecting Solon in Attica refers to a period immediately preceding the first usurpation of Pisistratus in BC 560, and after the return of Solon from his long absence. We are here again introduced to the same oligarchical dissensions as are reported to have prevailed before the Solonian legislation. The PDs or opulent proprietors of the Plain Round Athens under Lycurgus, the Parelli of the south of Attica under Megacles, and the Diocry or mountaineers of the eastern cantons, the poorest of the three classes under Pisistratus, are in a state of violent intestine dispute. The account of Plutar represents Solon as returning to Athens during the hate of this sedition. He was treated with respect by all parties, but his recommendations were no longer obeyed, and he was disqualified by age from acting with his effect in public. He employed his best efforts to mitigate party animosities and applied himself particularly to restrain the ambition of Pisistratus, whose ulterior projects he quickly detected. The future greatness of Pisistratus is said to have been first portended by a miracle which happened even before his birth to his father Hippocrates at the Olympic Games. It was realized partly by his bravery and conduct which had been displayed in the capture of Nicaea from the Megarians, partly by his popularity of speech and manners, his championship of the poor, and his ostentatious disavowal of all selfish pretensions, partly by an artful mixture of stratagem and force. Solon, after having addressed fruitless remonstrances to Pisistratus himself, publicly denounced his designs in verses addressed to the people. The deception whereby Pisistratus finally accomplished his design is memorable in Grecian tradition. He appeared one day in the Agora of Athens in his chariot with a pair of mules. He had intentionally wounded both his person and the mules, and in this condition he threw himself upon the compassion and defence of the people, pretending that his political enemies had violently attacked him. He implored the people to grant him a guard, and at the moment when their sympathies were freshly aroused, both in his favour and against his supposed assassins, Aristo proposed formally to the Ecclesia, the pro-boyloitic senate being composed of friends of Pisistratus, had previously authorised the proposition that a company of fifty clubmen should be assigned as a permanent bodyguard for the defence of Pisistratus. To this motion Solon opposed a strenuous resistance but found himself overborn and even treated as if he had lost his senses. The poor were earnest in favour of it, while the rich were afraid to express their dissent, and he could only comfort himself after the fatal vote had been passed, by exclaiming that he was wiser than the former and more determined than the latter. Such was one of the first known instances in which this memorable stratagem was played off against the liberty of a Grecian community. The unbounded popular favour which had procured the passing of this grant was still further manifested by the absence of all precautions to prevent the limits of the grant from being exceeded. The number of the bodyguard was not long confined to fifty, and probably their clubs were soon exchanged for sharper weapons. Pisistratus just found himself strong enough to throw off the mask and seize the acropolis. His leading opponents Megacles and the Alkenoids immediately fled the city, and it was left to the venerable age and undaunted patriotism of Solon to stand forward almost alone in a vain attempt to resist the usurpation. He publicly presented himself in the marketplace, employing encouragement, remonstrance and reproach in order to rouse the spirit of the people. To prevent this despotism from coming, he told them, would have been easy. To shake it off now was more difficult, yet at the same time more glorious. But he spoke in vain, for all who were not actually favourable to Pisistratus listened only to their fears and remained passive. Nor did anyone join Solon when, as a last appeal, he put on his armour and planted himself in a military posture before the door of his house. I have done my duty, he exclaimed at length. I have sustained to the best of my power my country and the laws. And he then renounced all further hope of opposition, though resisting the instances of his friends that he should flee, and returning for answer when they asked him on what he relied for protection on my old age. Nor did he even think it necessary to repress the inspirations of his muse. Some verses yet remain, composed seemingly at a moment, when the strong hand of the new despot had begun to make itself sorely felt, in which he tells his countrymen, if ye have endured sorrow from your own baseness of soul, impute not the fault of this to the gods, ye have yourselves put force and dominion into the hands of these men, and have thus drawn upon yourselves wretched slavery. It is gratifying to learn that Pisistratus, whose conduct throughout his despotism was comparatively mild, left Solon untouched. How long this distinguished man survived the practical subversion of his own constitution we cannot certainly determine, but according to the most probable statement he died during the very next year at the advanced age of 80. We have only to regret that we are deprived of the means of following more in detail his noble and exemplary character. He represents the best tendencies of his age, combined with much that is personally excellent. They improved ethical sensibility, the thirst for enlarged knowledge and observation, not less potent in old age than in youth, the conception of regularized popular institutions, departing sensibly from the type and spirit of the governments around him, and calculated to found a new character in the Athenian people, a genuine and reflecting sympathy with the mass of the poor, anxious not merely to rescue them from the oppressions of the rich, but also to create in them habits of self-relying industry. Lastly, during his temporary possession of a power altogether arbitrary, not merely an absence of all selfish ambition, but a rare discretion in seizing the mean between conflicting exigencies. In reading his poems we must always recollect that what now appears commonplace was once new, so that to his comparatively unlettered age the social pictures which he draws were still fresh and his exhortations calculated to live in the memory. The poems composed on moral subjects generally inculcate a spirit of gentleness towards others and moderation in personal objects. They represent the gods as irresistible, retributive, favoring the good and punishing the bad, they are sometimes very tardily, but his compositions on special and present occasions are usually conceived in a more vigorous spirit, denouncing the oppressions of the rich at one time and the timid submission to Pisistratus at another, and expressing in empathic language his own proud consciousness of having stood forward as champion of the mass of the people. Of his early poems hardly anything is preserved. The few lines remaining seem to manifest a jovial temperament which we may well conceive to have been overlaid by such political difficulties as he had to encounter. Difficulties arising successively out of the Margarian War, the Ceylonian Sacrilege, the public despondency healed by Epiminides, and the task of arbiter between a rapacious oligarchy and a suffering people. In one of his allergies addressed to Mimernus, he marked out the 60s year as the longest desirable period of life, in preference to the 80s year, which that poet had expressed to wish to attain. But his own life, as far as we can judge, seems to have reached the longer of the two periods, and not the least honorable part of it, the resistance to Pisistratus, occurs immediately before his death. There prevailed a story that his ashes were collected and scattered around the island of Salamis, which Plutarch treats as absurd, though he tells us at the same time that it was believed both by Aristotle and by many other considerable men. It is at least as ancient as the poet Cretinus, who alluded to it in one of his comedies, and I do not feel inclined to reject it. The inscription on the statue of Solon at Athens described him as a Salamnian. He had been the great means of acquiring the island for his country, and it seems highly probable that among the new Athenian citizens who went to settle there, he may have received a lot of land and become enrolled among the Salamnian Demots. The dispersion of his ashes connecting him with the island as its osist may be construed, if not as an expression of a public vote, at least as a piece of affectionate vanity on the part of his surviving friends. End of section 26