 Special Announcement to fill the vacancy in the presidency caused by the lamented death of Mr. Gardner G. Hubbard, General A. W. Greeley, USA, has been designated by the Board of Managers as Acting President. At some personal inconvenience General Greeley has acceded to the request of the Board, but has intimated that his official and other duties will render it impossible for him to serve the society in this capacity for more than a short time. The Board of Managers have accepted the resignation of Mr. Everett Hayden as Recording Secretary. Mr. Hayden is still remaining a member of the Board. To fill this vacancy, Mr. F. H. Newell, a former Secretary, has been designated, it being the intention of the Board to employ as Assistant Secretary, some person who has qualified not only to perform the clerical duties of the position, but also to relieve the editors of the magazine by acting as business manager of that publication. The Society's office has been removed to Room 55, Ohio National Bank Building, on the northwest corner of 12th and G Street's northwest. In these more commodious quarters it is expected to so arrange the Society's library as to make it available to visiting members and their friends. The Transaction of Business will be facilitated by addressing of mail to the undersigned at the above address. F. H. Newell, Secretary. End of Special Announcement. Section 1 of the National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 8, December 1897. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org, recording by Avahi in January 2020. The Washington Aqueduct and Cabin John Bridge. By D. D. Gayard, Captain, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army. The idea of supplying the City of Washington with water at some day was contemporaneous with the planning of the city, and numerous examinations and surveys were made by Major L'Enfant, the engineer and architect of the government, under the direction of General Washington, of the Potomac River, the Eastern Branch, Rock Creek, and numerous springs and small streams as possible sources of future supply. The first definite plan to be found among the records of the Washington Aqueduct Office is given in a report made in January 1851 by Brevet Lieutenant Colonel George W. Hughes, Corps of Topographical Engineers, to Colonel J. J. Albert, Chief of Topographical Engineers, in compliance with an act of Congress approved September 30th, 1850, appropriating five hundred dollars to enable the War Department to make such examinations and surveys as may be necessary to determine the best and most available mode of supplying the City of Washington with pure water, and to prepare a plan and estimate of the probable cost of the same to be reported to Congress at its next session. After an investigation of the subject, Colonel Hughes proposed to obtain the necessary supply from Rock Creek by damming the stream about six miles above the city and bringing the water into a receiving reservoir through a conduit of oval cross-section, having an estimated capacity of eight million gallons in twenty-four hours. It is interesting at this point to compare the estimate of the supply needed for the city in 1851, with that actually furnished in 1897, but forty-six years later. The population of Washington and Georgetown was then about forty-eight thousand, now it is over two hundred seventy-eight thousand. Then thirty gallons was considered by Colonel Hughes a high estimate for the average daily per capita consumption. During the past month the average daily consumption for every inhabitant of the District of Columbia was one hundred seventy-three gallons. Then the total estimated maximum consumption of water was one point five million gallons per day. During the past month it actually exceeded forty-eight million gallons per day. No action appears to have been taken by Congress toward carrying out the plan proposed by Colonel Hughes, and the next step was one which eventually resulted in the construction of the present aqueduct system. The 32nd Congress at its first session appropriated five thousand dollars to enable the President of the United States to cause to be made the necessary surveys, projects and estimates for determining the best manner of affording to the cities of Washington and Georgetown an unfailing and abundant supply of good and wholesome water. In accordance with this legislation the necessary surveys were made in the winter of 1852 to 53 by Lieutenant, afterward General, Montgomery C. Macs, U.S. Corps of Engineers, who, in his report of February 12th, 1853, proposed three plans for obtaining the necessary water supply, submitted estimates of the cost of each, and entered into a broad and far-sighted discussion of the subject of supplying the cities with water. In urging the necessity of a suitable supply he states that it was the general custom in Washington at that time to have all the water for a family brought by the servant maids from the street pump, a crude condition of affairs which the average Washingtonian of today will find it hard to believe existed but a little more than forty years ago. Briefly summed up the three sources of supply proposed by General Macs were as follows. One from Rock Creek by means of a dam and a conduit under natural flow. Estimated minimum daily supply, nine million eight hundred sixty thousand gallons. Estimated cost, one million two hundred fifty eight thousand eight hundred sixty three dollars. Two from the Potomac at Little Falls, six miles above Georgetown by means of a dam across the river, a canal and pumping machinery to raise the water to the reservoirs. Estimated minimum daily supply, twelve million gallons. Estimated cost, one million six hundred sixty two thousand two hundred fifteen dollars. Three from the Potomac just above the Great Falls by means of a dam a masonry conduit to reservoirs and the necessary bridges. Estimated daily supply, thirty six million fifteen thousand four hundred gallons. Estimated cost, one million nine hundred twenty one thousand two hundred forty four dollars. This last estimate was based upon a conduit of seven feet in diameter and a bridge of a different design from that finally built over Cabin John Creek. General Macs recommended an increase in the diameter of the conduit to nine feet, which, with the changed plan of the bridge just mentioned, made the final estimate cost about two million four hundred thirty five thousand dollars, and increased the estimated capacity of the conduit to sixty seven million five hundred ninety six thousand four hundred gallons, a most fortunate change for the citizens of the District of Columbia. Four had the seven foot conduit been built, the limit of its capacity would have been reached about six years ago. In his report General Macs urged the adoption of the third plan, calling attention to the fact that the waterworks of this country had been almost invariably designed on an inadequate scale, and that the history of all these works showed that the daily per capita consumption of water was increasing at a rate comparatively rapid. In consequence of this fact and of the rapid growth of population, many of these earlier works proved insufficient within a few years after construction. Too much praise then cannot be given to the man who in 1853 planned a conduit with an ultimate daily capacity equal to one and one half times the amount then furnished to the City of London, nearly four times that furnished to Paris, two and one half times that furnished to New York, five times that furnished to Philadelphia, and one and one half times that then furnished to Rome, although in AD 101 Rome had a daily supply of 377 million gallons. Be it remembered that General Macs did this when the combined population of Washington and Georgetown was but 58,000, which it was estimated would then require for all public and domestic purposes a total supply of about 5,220,000 gallons, about one-fifteenth of the ultimate capacity of the conduit. General Macs' recommendation of the enlarged Great Falls Plan and his reasons, therefore, carried such weight that they received the strong endorsement of General Joseph G. Totten, Chief of Engineers, when he forwarded the report to the Honourable C. M. Conrad, Secretary of War, who submitted it to President Fillmore without comment. The first appropriation for the construction of the aqueduct was made in March 1853 and the actual work of Breaking Ground was commenced in November 1853. In order that the City might receive a supply of water as soon as possible, work was pushed upon the receiving, Del Calia Reservoir and the conduit connecting it with the supply mains, and on January 3, 1859, water from the Del Calia Reservoir was introduced into the pipes leading to the City. This was not Potomac water, however, but was supplied by the streams emptying into the Del Calia Reservoir, which streams are now diverted therefrom by the admirable system of protection works completed in 1895 by Colonel George H. Eliot, U.S. Corps of Engineers, retired. This mode of supply continued until the conduit between Great Faults and the Del Calia Reservoir was completed in 1863, and on December 5, 1863, Potomac water was introduced into the Del Calia Reservoir for the first time. Cones Island separates the Potomac at Great Faults into two parts, known as the Maryland and Virginia channels, respectively. In order to divert water into the mouth of the conduit feeder at Great Faults, a temporary dam of stone and crib work was built across the Maryland channel 1857 to 1864, which was replaced by a masonry dam completed in 1867. In 1883 to 1886 the masonry dam was extended across the Virginia channel. In times of very low water in the Potomac, this dam, the crest of which was at an elevation of 148 feet above mean tide at the Washington Navy Yard, did not raise the water to a height sufficient to fill the mouth of the conduit at Great Faults, and in 1895-96 the whole dam was raised to two and a half feet, so that at low stages of the Potomac the mouth of the conduit is just filled. The Washington Aqueduct System as it exists today is, with but few modifications, that originally planned by General Makes. The water supply is taken from the Potomac River at Great Faults about 14 miles above the city. At this point a masonry dam 8 feet in width on the top, and 2877 feet in length, completed in 1896, extends across the river from the Maryland to the Virginia shore. The water passes from the feeder under the Chesapeake and Ohio canal through the gatehouse sent into the conduit, which is circular in cross-section, and for the greater part of its entire length is nine feet in diameter, and composed either of rubble masonry plastered, or of three rings of brick. But where the soil in which it was built was considered particularly good, the inner ring of brick was emitted, and the diameter was nine feet nine inches. Where the conduit passes as an unlined tunnel through rock, the excavation was sufficient to contain an inscribed circle 11 feet in diameter. The total length of the conduit and the two bi-conduits around the reservoirs is 12 miles, and its slope is nine inches in 5,000 feet. Constructed by General Makes in connection with the Aqueduct System are five bridges, two of which are unique among engineering structures, and will be briefly described later. At the Distributing Reservoir the water passes into four cast iron mains, 48 inches, 36 inches, 30 inches, and 12 inches in diameter, respectively. The Dale Carlier Reservoir has a storage capacity of about 150 million gallons, is practically without paved slope walls, and is perfectly protected against pollution from the drainage of the surrounding country. The Distributing Reservoir has a storage capacity of about 150,850,000 gallons, and is divided by a puddled and paved wall, through which is a passageway, into two sections containing 97,600,000 and 53,250,000 gallons, respectively. The Georgetown High Service Reservoir has a capacity of about 1,500,000 gallons. In addition to the three reservoirs already mentioned, which form a part of the Aqueduct System, there is another reservoir, built and controlled by the commissioners of the District of Columbia, called the Fort Reno Reservoir, with a capacity of about 4,500,000 gallons, the reference of its water surface when the reservoir is full, being about 420 feet above mean tide at the Navy Yard. The Dale Carlier and Distributing Reservoirs supply the Pumping Station, and that part of the District, which lies below 100 feet above Datum. The areas lying between the levels of 100 and 210 feet above Datum, are supplied by pumping from the U Street Station directly into the Distributing Mainst, the Georgetown High Service Reservoir being held as a reserve supply. The areas having a greater elevation than 210 feet above Datum, are supplied from the Fort Reno Reservoir. It will be observed, therefore, that a total present storage capacity of all reservoirs is a little less than 307,000,000 gallons, or about six days supply. In July 1897, for the first time in its history, the conduit was permitted to discharge its maximum flow, which by current meter observations was found to be 67,500,000 gallons per 24 hours. Today the average daily consumption is about 45 million gallons, or about 60% of the ultimate capacity of the conduit. Ten years ago it was about 35% or less than 27 million gallons. To avoid misapprehension it should be stated that while the conduit can supply the Distributing Reservoir with 76,500,000 gallons per day, yet the pipes leading from the reservoir to the city are already overtaxed in supplying the present rate of consumption, and no relief will be felt by consumers until some method is provided for bringing an increased quantity of water from the Distributing Reservoir into the city. General Meigs was in charge of the work upon the Washington Aqueduct from the time of the first survey until July 1860, when he was relieved by Captain H. W. Benham of the U.S. Corps of Engineers, who in turn was succeeded by Lieutenant James S. T. C. Morton of the same Corps. On February 22, 1861, after an absence of seven months, General Meigs was again placed in charge, and the work was practically completed by him. In June 1862, owing to the overworked condition of the War Department, the charge of the Washington Aqueduct was transferred from that department to the Department of the Interior, where it remained until April 1867, when it again passed into the care of the War Department, and has remained there ever since. In his report upon the proposed line of the conduit, General Meigs states that seven miles after leaving Great Falls, the only serious obstacle in its whole course, the valley of Cabin-John Branch, is encountered. This valley, he says, might be crossed by pipes, but he states that in his project he has avoided them because they always occasion a loss of head, or else exceeding cost the bridges they replace. He therefore first proposed to cross the valley by a bridge, 482 feet long and 20 feet wide, supported upon six semicircular arches of 60 feet span, resting upon pier's 7 feet thick at the top, and of various heights, the highest being 52 and a half feet. The estimated cost of this bridge was $72,409. This plan was afterward entirely changed, and the present magnificent structure, the grandest stone arch in existence, was erected. The total length of the bridge, including abutments, is 450 feet, its width is 20 feet 4 inches, and its height above the bottom of the creek 100 feet. The span of the arch is 220 feet, and the rise 57.26 feet. It was begun in 1857, and completed, with the exception of the parapet walls, in 1864. These walls were built in 1872-73, vehicles having been prevented from getting off the bridge prior to that time by timber guards. All the original plans of the bridge are signed by General Meigs, his chief engineer of the Washington aqueduct, and by Alfred L. Rives, assistant engineer, Cabin John Division. The entire bridge contains 13,283 cubic yards of stone masonry, concrete, and brickwork, and it cost, complete, about $254,000. The cut stone arch is of Quiney, Massachusetts, Granite, the abutments are of Montgomery County Gnice, and the rubble arch, spandrels, and parapet are of Seneca Sandstone. Contrary to the general impression, the space between the spandrel and abutment walls is not solid, but contains several arches, built, as shown in the drawing, to effect the saving in masonry. Materials were transported to the bridge by boat via the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and Cabin John Creek, across which a dam was built near the canal, and a pool thus formed was connected with the latter by a lock. On the south side of the west apartment of the bridge the following inscription is cut. Washington aqueduct, begun AD 1853, President of the U.S. Franklin Pierce, Secretary of War, Building AD 1861, President of the U.S. Abraham Lincoln, Secretary of War, Simon Cameron. This inscription originally contained the name of Jefferson Davis, which was cut out in the summer of 1862 by the contractor by order of the Secretary of the Interior, Honorable Caleb B. Smith, to whose department the aqueduct had been recently transferred. If forgetfulness of the bare historical fact as to who was Secretary of War at the time was the object sought by the erasure, the result has been a woeful failure, for the inherent curiosity of mankind is such that the erased name is more strongly impressed upon the memory of the visitor, than would have been the case had it remained untouched. In concluding the description of the Washington aqueduct and its special structures, it is proper to call attention to another of its bridges, the bridge over Rock Creek on Pennsylvania Avenue, as noted for its bold originality as is kept in John Bridge for its grand proportions. This bridge is unique among the aqueduct bridges of the world, in that the two 48-inch mains, through which now flows about one-half of the water used by the city, themselves form the arched ribs which support the roadway overhead. The span of this bridge is 200 feet and its rise 20 feet. At the time it was built it was the only one of its kind in the world, and it enjoys, it is believed, this distinction at the present day. It was much commented upon by European engineers and was illustrated in many of the foreign scientific and engineering journals of the time. End of section one. It is with the most profound regret that we record the death of Mr. Gardner G. Hubbard, which occurred at his country house, Twin Oaks, near Washington on Saturday, December 11. While the Joint Commission of the Scientific Societies of Washington warns the loss of a many-sided and broad-minded president, the Smithsonian Institution, the most active and sagacious region, the Columbian University, a generous and indefatigable trustee, and other educational, patriotic, and benevolent institutions of the national capital, a liberal benefactor, a wise counselor, or an earnest co-laborer, it is in the National Geographic Society and its work that the most conspicuous gap has been created. The president of this society from its foundation, Mr. Hubbard, was enabled by a combination of circumstances as exceptional as it was fortunate to sustain a relation to it that is probably without a parallel in the history of scientific societies. It is no new thing for such societies to enjoy the benefactions of wealthy and generous patrons, and the inestimal advantage of the wise councils of far-seeing and judicial-minded advisors concurrently with the inspiring influence of men of the broadest culture and the most progressive ideas. Rarely, if ever before, however, these qualities and functions have been united in one individual, or has there been so singularly varied a capacity for usefulness as was given to Mr. Hubbard in as he exercised to its full extent. The loss to the National Geographic Society is for this reason an irreparable one, and the ordinary expressions of regret seem cold and conventional. It is impossible in this number of the magazine to attempt a portrayal of Mr. Hubbard's unique personality or to do justice to the nobility of his character, or render adequate tribute to his unexampled services to the society. We can only record his deeply lamented death, refer thus briefly to his untiring labors for the advancement of science, and announce that a more extended notice of his life and work will appear, and the January number of this journal. End of Section 2. Section 3 of the National Geographic Magazine, BioMate, December 1897. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Pollution of the Potomac River by F. H. Newell The facts concerning the pollution of the Potomac River are of peculiar concern to the residents of Washington because of the fact that the supply for domestic and municipal uses derived mainly from that stream, only a small portion being obtained from wells or springs. This water we know to be polluted, but opinions differ widely as to whether these pollutions are negligible or may be sources of ever-present danger to the community. In order to discuss the subject intelligibly, it is necessary to have clearly in mind the situation of the catchment basin of the river, as well as the relative position of the various tributaries and of the principal towns and political divisions. We, of course, know that the Potomac is one of the principal rivers of the Atlantic slope, receiving the drainage from an area which lies about midway of the eastern side of the United States. It rises in the Allegheny Mountains, its drainage basin embracing portions of the states of Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, and Virginia. At this part of the system, the mountains have a general trend a little north of northeast. The narrow valleys between the ridges are nearly parallel, and thus the streams coming from the mountain sides, uniting creeks or rivers flowing either northeasternly or southwesternly, taking the Potomac basin as a whole by far the greater number of the tributaries flow toward the northeast. The streams coming from the northern part of the basin being relatively small. The main river itself, receiving from point to point the tributaries from each side, cuts directly across the mountains, having a southeasternly direction, although in detail its course is quite crooked. The absence of lakes, marshes, and broad valleys renders the tributary streams rapid in their delivery of precipitation upon the basin, the Potomac being subject to sudden floods and the dry season discharge being very small. For this reason the river as a source of power is not so valuable as might be expected from the size of its drainage area. At the points where the river cuts through the successive mountain ridges, the slope is rapid, but there are no falls of considerable magnitude until the stream has passed the Piedmont Plateau and reached the border of the softer Cretaceous rocks. Here at the fall line it forms a secession of cataracts, a drop of 90 feet occurring within a short distance at the great falls. At about this locality the city of Washington has been placed, its situation being governed by the questions of navigation and of water power. These have been the factors which have contributed largely to the growth and development of important cities along what is known as the fall line, standing from New York to Georgia. Just before the river takes its plunge over the great falls, a small portion of its water is diverted into an aqueduct which, following along the north side of the river, delivers by gravity a supply of water to the reservoirs, which in turn feed the water system for the city. One of the most notable features is that the river receives only a few short streams from the north, the greater portion of the water coming from the south, and flowing northeasternly in the nearly parallel narrow valleys between the ridges. The rivers meander through trough-like valleys cut out mainly in limestone, the bounding ridges being of sandstone or other hard-resisting rocks. These ridges rise to heights of 2,000 feet or more and are usually forest clad. The precipitation from these ridges, usually in the form of rain, is partly evaporated or taken up by vegetation, about 50% or a little more flowing down the steep hillsides to the valleys. This runoff water is pure and clear, but upon reaching the lowlands it mingles with the washings from the rich soils and cultivated fields. It becomes in time of flood at least, turbid and yellow. The lowlands, especially at the wide valleys such as the Shenandoah, aren't notably rich and prosperous farms are to be found their entire length. These have induced the growth of villages and towns, some of which under the stimulus of small manufacturing industries, are rapidly growing. As a rule, these are situated upon some stream since their location has been primarily determined by a water power mill or Ford. The refuse from all these streams is, as a matter of course, discharged into the stream. Potomac River, as the name is commonly applied, results from the Union of the North Branch, the stream above which Cumberland, Maryland is located, with the South Branch at a point about 12 miles below this city. The North Branch and the main stream into which it empties form the state boundary between Maryland and West Virginia. The South Branch lies wholly within this latter state. At their headwaters these two branches flow in a general northeasternly direction, nearly parallel to each other, the North Branch being to the west of the Allegheny Front and the South Branch to the east. The total drainage area of the North Branch at Cumberland is 891 square miles, or about 8% of the entire catchment area above the city of Washington. The total drainage area of the North Branch at its mouth, or where it joins the South Branch, is 1,365 square miles, being a trifle smaller than the area drained by the latter. The waters of the North Branch of the Potomac, even near its head, are naturally somewhat dark in color, and it is stated by the older inhabitants of the region that it has always been thus, alling probably to the presence of decaying vegetable matter from the forest. This is further increased by the effulence from the sawmills, tanneries, and coal mines, so that at the old mill dam near Kaiser the polluted waters agitated by the fall boils and foams, forming in the early morning a thick layer of whitish-brown froth. In order to obtain a general conception of the amount of pollution, it is necessary to know how much water is carried by the river. This, of course, varies from day to day and even hour by hour. These minor fluctuations are slight, and by taking special care during time of flood, it is possible to know how much water is delivered by the mainstream and its principal tributaries. Without entering into a discussion of how this is accomplished, it is sufficient to state that the results are given in a table showing the average daily flow throughout the year in cubic feet per second. The minimum flow of the river has been considered to be that obtained by Mr. William R. Hutton in 1856, 1063 cubic feet per second. It is probable that during the past fall, 1897, owing to the protracted dry weather, the discharge sank to about this amount. At this time the water received into the conduit is stated to have been from 75 to 90 second feet or from 7 to 9 percent of the total volume of the river. It is evident that the quantity of water in the Potomac, especially at times of flood, is very considerable in that sewage and waste material dumped into it from towns and manufacturing establishments must be greatly diluted. But in times of low water, this must necessarily become less so. The quality of the water is therefore becoming more and more a matter of concern because of the fact that with the increased population in the Potomac Basin, the artificial impurities will increase in the amount of water to be taken out at Washington will also be greater while the natural flow of the stream is practically unaffected. As before stated, the impurities are of two kinds, natural and artificial. The natural impurities consist mainly of the finely divided soil washed from the agricultural lands of the valleys, this being for the most part the residual matter left by solution of limestones. It exists in such fine particles that while the water is in motion, it is not deposited and may remain in suspension for days even after the water sample has been put into a closed bottle. The proportion of this mud varies from time to time, being greatest during floods and least during periods of low water when the supply is received by percolation from underground sources. At such times the water is clear and entirely unobjectionable as far as casual observation is concerned, but the flow in the river is greatly diminished and the proportion of sewage must be notably increased. While the natural impurities are usually so apparent and annoying to the eye through the dirty color and muddy sediment, the artificial impurities on the other hand are not so readily noted. The heavier particles of the waste from the towns and manufacturing establishments are washed down the stream slowly and are gradually burned up or oxidized or pass into solution in the form of various organic compounds. These as the rule do not notably discolor the water and some of them may even aid in giving a bright sparkly effect so that very dilute sewage when exposed to light in air for a few hours may be unobjectionable to the eye, although carrying with it a great load of objectionable substances or minute animal or vegetable life. The pollution of the Washington water supply would be very little if the headwaters of the Potomac could be cut off just below Cumberland. While the water is very bad at that point it should be remembered that it is very comparatively small stream with a minimum discharge of less than 60 feet per second while the minimum discharge at point of rocks as far as observed is about 800 second feet and the monocassi and a number of smaller tributaries reach the river between that point in the intake of the waterworks at Great Falls. In times of low water when of course these pollutions bear the largest ratio to the total supply the Potomac at Cumberland probably contributes not more than six percent of the water carried by the Potomac at Great Falls in this small percentage traverses about 190 miles of broad riverbed agitated and broken by numerous shoals and diluted by fresh waters bearing more or less oxygen and sediment tending to its purification. While these influences contribute to ameliorate the quality of the water cannot be contented that the supply for the city as entirely as it should be sufficient has been said to indicate that a considerable amount of filth of all kinds is habitually dumped into the river and that this is steadily increasing. It is not desirable to describe or characterize this material under any stronger term than sewage as the details are too disgusting to be given in a public address. It may properly be claimed however that no matter how bad the material is at the point where discharged becomes neutralized or destroyed before the water containing it reaches the Washington aqueduct. The self-purification of rivers is a phrase which has been made the excuse for so much carelessness or indifference but there is no doubt that streams do tend to rid themselves of much of their undesirable load. The conditions along the Potomac are particularly favorable for the water passes over many broad riffles where it is exposed to light and air and many deleterious substances are unquestionably burned up while others may possibly be dragged down by the finely divided sediment which is usually present. Thus the chemicals used in the pulp mills, tanneries and other manufacturers are greatly diluted and by reaction upon each other and upon the small amount of lime carried in solution probably form harmless compounds. The momentous question therefore is as to the behavior of the small microorganisms to which the modern students of disease attribute such potent influence on the human system. Take for example the typhoid bacillus which is said to live even an ice for a hundred days or more and to develop in soil retaining its vitality for a year and even increasing from a single cell to 16 million individuals in 24 hours. It may be questioned whether such an organism is rendered harmless in the journey of from two to four days or more from the sewers of towns up the river to the mouth of the aqueduct. We are comforted by the assurance that harmful bacteria are rarely found in Potomac water but still this may not set us wholly at rest for negative evidence in such case proves little. The discussion of the probable danger from sewage must be left to expert in other lines for the work in hand pertains mainly to ascertaining the quantity of water its variations in its use. The facts which have been put on record are those concerning the source and quantity of water in the river the location and character of the polluting agencies and inferentially the degree to which the sewage or waste is diluted by the annual flow of the stream. Until state or national legislation can be secured to regulate such matters the Potomac as in the case of all interstate streams must serve as a sort of sewer into which town and manufacturing establishments empty the refuse and this fact must be borne in mind and all considerations of water supply. The improvement of water supplies from this source should begin at both ends that is to say pollution should be prevented as far as possible and the water supply for a city should be filtered. The state of Massachusetts has set the example in this respect preventing the pollution of streams by gradually forcing towns to provide suitable sand filters for sewage before allowing it to discharge into certain rivers and also providing similar sand filtration for the water which is to be used for municipal purposes. The system of intermittent sand filtration has been found to be efficacious not only in taking out visible particles but in nitrifying and destroying the smaller organisms apparently so potent in matters of public health. End of section three. Section four of the National Geographic Magazine volume eight December 1897. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Larry Wilson. The Delta of the Mississippi River by E. L. Corthel C.E. D.S.C. etc. A bridgement of paper read before the geographical section of the British Association for the Advancements of Science Toronto August 24th 1897. The Mississippi Delta proper extends over 100 miles by the course of the river above the city of New Orleans. The materials composing this great mass of sedimentary deposit have been partly disclosed by numerous artesian wells which have from time to time been driven for the purpose of obtaining if possible potable water. The most notable instance and where probably the most careful observations were made is the artesian well at Lafayette Square in New Orleans. At a depth of 1042 feet the tool was broken and the work ended, but driftwood was pumped up at the last foot. Many interesting facts bearing upon the question of the geological formation of the Mississippi Delta were brought to attention two years ago through the investigations and discussions connected with an engineering question which arose between the executors of the late Mr. J's B. Eads and the War Department as to what is the legal plane of reference for ascertaining the depths and widths of Channel which Mr. Eads was required by the law of the Federal Congress to maintain between the deep water of the South Pass of the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico. Unbeliefed Bayou which leads out to the Gulf from one of the now unused passes of the river stands an old Spanish magazine built over 200 years ago. At the time of building the jetties at the mouth of the South Pass this magazine was in a fair state of preservation. The exterior was intact and there were no cracks which would indicate settlement, the building standing perfectly level, but with the surface of the water stretching across the arch which crowned the entrance door, the sills of which must have been at least 10 feet below the water. That was in the year 1877. 19 years later a part of the structure had been removed, but enough of the roof and arches remained to show that the subsidence had continued steadily during that period of 19 years at about the same rate as during the preceding 200 years. It may be stated that this rate both from this instance and from other information is at the mouth of the Mississippi about one half of one tenth of a foot per annum. Numerous illustrations going to prove the general subsidence of the Delta lands might be stated. Not only are these lands unstable in a vertical direction but they are often found to be so in a lateral direction. It is an interesting engineering as well as physical fact that an accurately measured baseline exactly 700 feet in length was found after laps of five years to be 712 feet in length. It has been found impracticable to maintain with sufficient accuracy for reference purposes benchmarks level heights and tide gauges. This subject is quite fully discussed in the report of the Mississippi River Commission for 1894 pages 2794 to 2797 where the following important statement is made. Quote, discrepancies in benchmarks and level heights and gauges could only be satisfactorily accounted for by the most plausible explanation of the subsidence of the whole Delta, making gauges and benchmarks at the mouth of the South Pass unreliable. Quote, this remark is made by Mr. J. A. Ockerson, assistant engineer to the commission. On page 2697 of the same report, the commission itself confirms Mr. Ockerson's statement by its own opinion as follows. Quote, the main object of this resurvey was to elicit some information bearing upon the question of the stability of the land about the mouth of the river. In the report of assistant engineer Ockerson appended to the report of the secretary, a number of figures and comparisons are given based upon this survey and prior ones indicating a progressive depression of the alluvial Delta near the mouth of the river. Unquote. An interesting diagram designed to show the changes referred to assumes that either the tide gauge had gone down or the level of the gulf had gone up over one foot in twenty years. Numerous pertinent facts might be brought forward to show, in addition to the above, that the lands had gone down and that the gulf level had not changed. It is a fact well known to people living in the Delta of the Mississippi that large tracts of land were long ago abandoned in consequence of overflow by gulf waters due to the sinking of the lands. The conditions are very different now from those existing prior to the construction of levees. There are present no annual accretions of sedimentary matters from the periodical overflows of the river. These accretions formerly were little more than equal to the annual subsidence of the lands. As to the question of the rising of the gulf level, careful investigations and inquiries around the entire gulf coast from Yucatan to Florida disclose no indications of any such elevations. The factors informing the great hydraulic conditions of the gulf operate so steadily from year to year and from cycle to cycle that we should naturally expect that with the exception of small annual changes due to wind and tides the mean surface of the gulf would remain practically at the same level. The difference in precipitation, fluvial discharge into the gulf and evaporation is very slight as compared with the great current forces that make and maintain the gulf level. From very careful observations it may be stated that the mean precipitation, river discharge and evaporation amount all told to a little over three cubic miles per day. This volume sinks into utter insignificance when compared with that produced by the inflowing current of the Yucatan channel which according to a calculation for Lieutenant Pillsbury's current observations hurls the enormous quantity of 652 cubic miles of water per day into the gulf. The geology of the Delta of the Mississippi is an interesting local study. The effect of the withholding by the levees from the great areas of the Delta of the annual contributions of sedimentary matters and the steady, though slow, subsidence of these areas is one which should be taken into account in deciding the important question of how to protect the people from the flood waters of the river. No doubt the great benefit to the present and two or three following generations accruing from a complete system of absolutely protective levees, excluding the flood waters entirely from the great areas of the lower Delta country, far outweighs the disadvantages to future generations from a subsidence of the gulf Delta lands below the level of the sea and the gradual abandonment due to this cause. While it would be generally conceded that the present generation should not be selfish, yet it is safe to say that the development of the Delta country during the 20th century by a fully protective levee system at whatever cost to the riparian states and the federal government would be so remarkable that people of the whole United States can well afford when the time comes to build a protective levee against the gulf waters as the city of New Orleans has done on a small scale against the sea waters of Lake Pontchartrain and as Holland has done for centuries and is now about to do on a still larger scale in removing the sea waters themselves in the great projected reclamation of the lands submerged by the Zyder Z. Mr. Eads once said in an eloquent speech on the subject of the importance of the Mississippi River and its Delta channels to the sea, quote, this giant stream with its head shrouded in arctic snows and embracing half a continent in the hundred thousand miles of its curious network and coursing its majestic way to the southern gulf through lands so fertile that human ingenuity is overtaxed to harvest their protectiveness has been given by its immortal architect into the jealous keeping of this republic, unquote. Section 5 of the National Geographic Magazine, Volume 8, December 1897. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Larry Wilson. The Annexation Fever by Henry Gannett. A curious and interesting example of the survival of inherited traits on a large scale is seen in the instinct for the acquisition of territory which is manifested by all nations, savage or civilized, in greater or less degree. In the olden time, when the earth was propelled by savages, the acquisition of territory by conquest involved not alone the extension over the conquered region of the jurisdiction of the conqueror, but possession in fee. The conquered territory was made as profitable as possible to the conqueror. It may have been looted for his benefit, or it may have been taxed for all it would bear. In whatever way it was done, the conquered territory was made a source of profit to the victorious party. That sort of thing passed out of vogue among civilized nations ages ago, and today among such people the acquisition of territory means simply a change of jurisdiction. The laws in the flag of one nation are substituted for those of another. The nation acquiring the territory collects taxes and in turn assumes the duty of protecting the people of the acquired territory from one another and from foreign enemies. The nation is not enriched by the acquisition. It may or may not be strengthened according to the character of the acquisition. But while the results of acquiring territory have thus become radically changed, the desire, the instinct for its acquisition remains apparently in full force, without inquiring whether in any one case it will be an advantage or disadvantage for a country to extend its limits, 99 out of every 100 of its people urge its extension. In other words, the great mass of the people concerned act merely upon instinct. Such instinct means simply the remains from the time when acquisition of territory met an increase of property. The question whether acquisitions of territory are desirable or not turns upon many considerations, among them being the character and resources of the proposed accession, its situation and distance, the condition of its people as regards civilization, and the character of the people and the government of the annexing country. The United States of all nations should go very slowly in this matter. First, because since it stands at the head of the nations in point of civilization, almost any addition of people to its numbers will reduce the average civilization and consequently the strength and industrial capacity of its people. Second, because under its principle of home rule, annex provinces will be called on to govern themselves in all local matters, while the general government will be held responsible by foreign governments for all hostile acts committed by such annex states against their citizens. And third, because all annexations involve responsibilities in case of war, for which we are unprepared and show little disposition to prepare ourselves. Viewed critically, our annexations of territory, up to and including the Mexican sessions, were wise and have justified the foresight of our statesmen. We needed Louisiana to control the Mississippi. The purchase of the Florida settled a dispute of long-standing, removed Spanish power from our midst, and gave us the entire Atlantic and Gulf coasts. The addition of Texas simplified our southern boundary, and the Mexican sessions rounded up the area of jurisdiction in two compact form. But why we should have purchased Alaska is past finding out. A few of our citizens have profited by the fur and fish trade, but the government has been embarrassed and put to much expense on account of this region, and more embarrassment and more expense are certain in the future. The majority of our people wish to annex the Hawaiian islands, and for what reason it is difficult to see. Hawaii is 3,000 miles away from our nearest shore, while the governing class is largely made up of our own kin, the vast body of the population is Kanaka, Chinese, Japanese, and Portuguese, not by any means a desirable addition to our numbers. The annexation of these islands would greatly increase our responsibilities and correspondently weaken us, without in any way adding to our well-being. It is said that they will furnish us a cooling station in the mid-Pacific. Under whatever jurisdiction these islands may be, our vessels can cool there freely in time of peace. In time of war, our vessels will find occupation enough at home without wandering away from the cooling stations on our shores. We are not likely to take the offensive in a war with any first-class power, especially naval power. It is certain that in case of war, with such a power, one of our first acts would be to give up all such outlying dependencies, since their defense would be utterly impracticable. There is another side, however, to this Hawaiian matter. There is no doubt that the ruling class in Hawaii would be better off under our jurisdiction than if isolated, or even under English jurisdiction. Shall we, for their good, ignore the manifest disadvantages to ourselves of this union? It may be doubted if we have reached this stage of altruism. What has been written of Hawaii applies with much greater force to Cuba, whose annexation has been actively urged, even to the extent of offering to purchase the island from Spain. Why should we want Cuba? An island separated from us by sea, sparsely populated by an alien, semi-civilized people speaking a different language, with no experience in self-government, with a history, traditions, and sympathies wholly different from ours. Could we hope to make them one with us? Can we afford to dilute our national legislature with a score or more of Spanish Cubans? Can we afford to assume responsibility for the acts of such a home government as the Cubans are likely to set up? As with Hawaii there is no question about the advantage to Cuba of such annexation, but in this case even altruism would say nay, for assuming for the moment that the mission of the United States is to better the condition of mankind for efficiency for this mission would be too greatly impaired by such an act. There is constantly more or less talk about the annexation of Canada. There is less objection to this than in the case of any other possible addition to our jurisdiction. It would practically eliminate Great Britain from North America, would add a population which, on the whole, is no less civilized than the average of our people, and a territory, a part of which at least, is of value as an agricultural region. Having glanced at the merits and demerits of proposed additions to our area and population, it will be instructive to extend our view and glance at the history of other nations in this matter and the results of their acts. Of all nations, Great Britain has shown the greatest greed for land. Her jurisdiction is as wide as the earth. The little island in Western Europe governs many millions of square miles, including Canada, Australia, India, Egypt, and South Africa, besides scores of smaller colonies. Wherever the cross of St. George waves, good government and safety to persons and property are assured. To enforce her jurisdiction over all these dependencies, she finds it necessary to maintain a large standing army and a navy which is by far the largest of all the nations. And yet, in spite of her large standing army and her immense navy, she is one of the weakest of nations because her responsibilities have been increased in still greater proportion. What has she gained by her policy of acquiring territory? In what way have her people gained more bread and cake? Has her commerce been increased materially? Her total foreign trade in 1894 was 624 million pounds, of which her colonies contribute 166 million pounds. The United States alone contribute 119 million pounds. Have her annexed regions furnished homes for much of her swarming population? In all her colonies there are found some nine and a half millions of people of English descent. And the United States alone are found not less than 40 and a half millions of persons of British descent. Fastly more of her people have gone to the United States than to her colonies. It is not to be supposed that Great Britain is doing all this work for pure philanthropy. Still in following her acquisitive instinct, she has been on the whole one of the greatest agencies for good by the spread of civilization that the world has known. End of Section 5. Section 6 of the National Geographic Magazine, volume 8, December 1897. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Sir John Evans and Professor W. J. McGee. Whether one of the ultimate results of that decided tendency to the specialization of knowledge and of all scientific investigation which constitutes so striking a characteristic of the present age will be to render it impossible for a man to become eminent in more than one department in intellectual activity remains to be seen. That time has happily not yet arrived is perfectly clear both the British and the American associations for the advancement of science having this year been presided over by men who have attained the highest distinction in more than one department of science by occupation a civil engineer and paper manufacturer and highly successful in both capacities. Sir John Evans has made so great an impress on the scientific work of his time as a geologist and antiquary and an anthropologist as well as in numismatics and applied chemistry that the leading British societies representing these different sciences have all successively honored him with their presidency the circumstance almost unprecedented. Attending at 74 years of age the chair rendered illustrious by the names of Herschel and Brewster of Lyle and Merchantsen of Huxley and Tyndall he has only one more scientific distinction to look forward to the presidency of the Royal Society. Thirty years the junior of his eminent English compare Professor W. J. McGee has likewise taken his place in the very front rank of anthropologist after attaining distinction as a geologist. His scientific career began with a detailed survey of an extensive area in Iowa at private cost in the course of which important principles were developed. Later as one of that splendid body of men who have made the United States Geological Survey the wonder and envy of all civilized nations he spent a decade in solving the problems of the coastal plain and neighboring districts in developing new principles for the classification of formations and in compiling the standard geological maps of the United States and the state of New York. He established the Potomac Lafayette and Columbia formations and traced them and other deposits throughout southeastern United States. His personal mapping of formations and systems covering an area of over 300,000 square miles. In his later work as ethnologist in charge of the Bureau of American Ethnology he has made additions of the very greatest importance to our knowledge of the aboriginal races of the North American continent and has greatly enriched anthropological literature both by his official reports and his numerous contributions to the transactions of scientific societies. No worthy or representative of American science could have been found to preside over the American Association during the year of the visit of the British Association to this continent than Professor W. J. McGee. End of Section 6. Section 7 of the National Geographic Magazine, Volume 8, December 1897. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org. Some recent geographic events. And the expectation that opportunity would be afforded to make them the subject of special articles. Several recent occurrences of considerable geographic interest have so far been allowed to go without mention in this journal. The publication of the concluding number of the present volume, however, calls for at least a brief notice of them, if only as a matter of record. These interesting events include the André Balloon Exposition to the North Pole and the Derlach Expedition to the Antarctic, the Return of the Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition from Franz Joseph Land, of Lieutenant Perry from Greenland, and of Dr. Sven Hayden from Central Asia, the Successful Ascent of Mount St. Elias by Prince Luigi of Savoy, and the Mazama Expedition to the Summit of Mount Rainier with the lamented death of Professor Edgar McClure. Herr S.A. André, accompanied by Dr. Strindberg and the engineer Herr Frockenkell, ascended in his balloon the eagle from Danes Island, Spitzberg, and on the afternoon of Sunday, July 11, under favorable meteorological conditions. From that day to this, nothing has been heard of the adventurous explorer and his two companions. Many eminent geographers have regarded the expedition as an impracticable, if not absolutely foolhardy, enterprise, but Herr André's fellow countrymen, at least, have not lost faith in his skill, courage, and endurance. Dr. Niles Ekham, who originally intended to accompany the expedition, but eventually declined to do so in the belief that the impermability of the balloon was not satisfactory, inclines to the opinion that Herr André has descended somewhere between the Pole and Franz Josefland, that he would endeavor to make his way to the provision depot that had been established in advance, and that no surprise need be felt in the event of no communication being received from him until next summer or fall. Mr. Frederick J. Jackson, the leader of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition, says he sees nothing to prevent André with good luck from accomplishing his purpose, but adds significantly that it is quite impossible for anyone to say where he is likely to be. For the Antarctic, the Belgica sailed from Antwerp on August 16. The ship was fitted out in the best possible manner, and her crew, which consists largely of Norwegians, was most carefully selected. It is expected that the voyage will be completed within two years, but a three-year supply of provisions has been taken. The Belgica will go first to the east of Gransland in George IV C., and in winter in Australia. The second year will be devoted to Victoria land. The steamer is well equipped for scientific investigations, as to marine specimens and submarine deposits. The Jackson-Harmsworth expedition to the North Polar regions, which left England on July 11, 1894, in the steam yacht Windward, arrived in the Thames on the 3rd of September last, having left France-Joseph land on August 6. This expedition has solved a most interesting geographical problem, having not only determined the northern coastline of France-Joseph land, hitherto absolutely unknown, but proved, if not the non-existence of Gillisland, at least the fact that it does not lie in the longitude that has been assigned it. The three years spent in the polar regions by this admirably equipped expedition, the entire cost of which was borne by Mr. A. C. Harmsworth, who has since placed the windward at the service of Lieutenant Perry, have resulted in many important additions, not merely to our knowledge of Arctic geography, but to various other sciences. Lieutenant Perry's most recent expedition to Greenland is of note, chiefly on account of the success that has attended his efforts to bring back within the Cape York meteorite, forty-five tons in weight, that this is a genuine meteorite has in certain quarters been called in question, but the consensus of opinion among the most eminent authorities leaves no room for doubt as to its extra-terrestrial origin. The return of Dr. Sven Hayden from his four years exploration of the lesser known portions of Central Asia is a notable occurrence. Dr. Hayden left Stockholm in October 1893, returning to that city his birthplace on May 10th last. He made many important discoveries, among which were two ancient cities now buried in the sands, whose paintings and sculptures bear witness to a high degree of civilization at a remote period of antiquity. Dr. Hayden's explorations were made at the expense of the king of Sweden and Norway and a few private individuals. The Duke of Abruci, Prince Luigi of Savoy and his companions, reached the summit of Mount St. Elias without accident on July 31st. Took thirty-eight days of hard traveling to reach the foot of the mountain from the point of debarkation, but the actual ascent, while exceedingly arduous, was made under most favorable conditions and many very fine photographs were secured. The expedition of the Mazamas to the summit of Mount Rainier, so long looked forward to, was made in the last week of July, but of the large number of persons who started from Tacoma, only a few reached the summit, and the lamentable death of Professor Edgar McClure, who fell over a precipice during the night of July 27th, 28th, cast a gloom over the entire subsequent proceedings. Professor McClure, who occupied the chair of chemistry in the Oregon State University, was an experienced mountain climber, having scaled all the principal peaks of the Cascade Range. The valuable article from his pen on the altitude of Mount Adams, Washington, appeared in the April 1896 number of this magazine, JH. End of Section 7. Section 8 of the National Geographic Magazine, Volume 8, December 1897. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Betty B. Geographic Literature by Harry Gannett. The Founders of Geology by Sir Archibald Geike, pages X plus 297, London and New York, McMillan and Company, 1897, $2. Had the study of the earth begun in the new world, instead of the old, geology would unquestionably have made a more rapid advance than it has done. The future progress of the science may be expected to be largely directed and quickened by discoveries made in America and by deductions from the clear evidence presented on that continent. Thus writes Sir Archibald Geike, easily the foremost geologist of Great Britain, if not of Europe, in his preface. An American geographer and geologist cannot fail to be gratified by this appreciative expression concerning their opportunities and their work. In the half dozen succeeding chapters or lectures, the kindly promise of this preface is fulfilled, but with little further reference to the Western Hemisphere. It is singular that although geology is next to the youngest among the sciences, no competent student has sought hitherto to write the record of its growth. Lyle, indeed, made some essay in this direction, and our own marsh has taken up one aspect of the subject, but neither of these masters profess to make his work both comprehensive and exhaustive. Now comes Sir Archibald, with unprecedented facilities, with a commendable desire of tracing without prejudice those efforts which contributed most materially to the making of the science, and with a disposition to assign due need of credit to every founder. The task is delicate and difficult, involving large reading, firm grasp of the science, warm sympathy for pioneering even one of the crudest and judicial ability of a high order. Yet it is done with such signal skill, with such boldness and fairness, that the little book at once takes rank among the classics of science. Beginning with the cosmogonists, Sir Archibald soon passes to the naturalists, and his review is especially noteworthy in bringing out clearly the important contributions to earth science made by one whose name has seldom been heard in this generation. Jean Etienne Routard, author of A New Application of Geography and of the earliest known geologic map, one of the first to describe, appreciatively, the work of rain and rivers in modifying geographic features, and to accurately note the geographic distribution of fossils. First discover of the volcanic origin of the extinct craters of central France, passing thence to Werner and to Hutton in his interpreter playfair, with their rival theories of the earth, he proceeds to parcel credit duly to our d'archaic, Beronde, von Buick, Buckland, Cuvier, Darwin, de la Béch, Sir James Hall, Lyle, Murchison, de Saussure, Sedgwick, William Smith, and a score of less known makers of the science. His treatment being the more satisfactory to geographers by reason of his own full appreciation of modern physical geography, the new geology. American readers may find the work incomplete at first blush by reason of the omission of such names as those of our own Hall, the principal author of the New York system, of Hillguard, the prophet of southern geology, and of Powell, the discoverer of the base level, and thus the founder of physiography. But further reading will reveal the author's policy of avoiding characterization of the work of living leaders. Sir Altrubald's style is simple and clear, and the book making is admirable, so the treatise is easy reading, while its substance is made accessible by a full index, WJM. Java, the Garden of the East, by Eliza Ruhama Skidmore, author of Gin Rikisha Days in Japan. Pages 339 with illustrations, New York, The Century Company, 1897, $1.50. Vestidious readers are indebted to The Century Company for some 350 pages of as artistic bookmaking as the year has seen. Artistic in topography and paper, artistic in illustration, and still more artistic, though this is but the publisher's good fortune in literary form and content, and the book is no less instructive than artistic. Toward the end of the 15th century, the spirit of conquest awoke from its long sleep of the dark ages, and first Iberia and then Netherland entered on careers of exploration and colonization. All men took note of the Spanish conquests partly because they included a new world, but somehow the less brilliant moves of the Dutch on the world's checkerboard have not been followed with equal attention, at least by English-speaking peoples. So Batavia has long been half-recognized through the mists of a provincial language as some sort of contributor toward the solid wealth of Amsterdam graven hage reduced by us in self-defense to the hage, while Java was still more vaguely glimpsed as the coffee plantation of the Dutch East India Company. True, there is a rich literature grown out of the Dutch conquest and colonization in which Java and its capital city are faithfully pictured in all their stages of growth since the first vessels from Holland reached them about 1590. True, special students of geography and of trade interests are familiar with these records in the language of the lowlands, yet to the massive intelligent people the scant information gleaned through the alien literature was but the dry and dusty bones of dead knowledge. So Miss Skidmore's book comes as a fragrant breath direct from the lush nursery of the Orient and a breath so redolent of the mystical potency of eastern legend and western too as to regenerate the skeleton in full flesh and vigorous vitality. The author spent months in the country she saw with occidental eyes indeed yet all the more clearly because without the curious oriental haze which distorts the vision sometimes little often much her pen pictures and sun pictures alike bear inherent evidence of fidelity and the general presentment of the garden of the east is done in vigorous lines and strong colors. As time passes literature changes of old the writer devoted a lifetime to a book writ per chance for a single reader which was often a heaviness to the spirit of late a more fanciful yet more vigorous style has grown up under the pressure of magazine editors compelled to meet more promptly than the bookmakers the demands of modern readers and now this literary quality which is represented by the best writings of two score authors chiefly american is going into the books. In this style Miss Skidmore writes each sentence is filled with idea and every paragraph throbs with vitality and brims over with good humor while the light of delicate fancy and solid culture shines out between the lines each chapter is a gem and the whole a chaplet of brilliance the first chapter is singapore and the equator the second in java major the third betavia queen of the east next the kampongs then to the hills the sixth at dutch sans souci the seventh in a tropical garden the eighth and ninth the culture system the 10th synagar the 11th plantation life the 12th across the pre-angor regencies the 13th to tisak malaya then prisoners of state at borough bodar followed by borough bidar and borough bidore and menduette the 17th is bram banan the 18th solo the city of the susanin next is the land of chris and sarong then comes jock chicarta followed by paco alum the axis of the universe the 22nd is jilla chap chala chap chela chap then follows garouette in papa dayang and lastly savor rather two condensed index follows salamate the soft farewell of the land of the malay is impossible to epitomize these chapters already condensed to the utmost suffice it that it apparently every appropriate subject is treated or at least touch lightly the myth of the coco de mer is rectified and that of the deadly upas punctured skillfully the coffee plantations are described and the vile product of the local chef duly anathematized the tea industry receives attention and the unconventional hotel customs are not neglected even krakatoa that world's volcano which happened to erupt so near to java comes in for a share of space the book hardly professes to be scientific and may be unworthy of entombment alongside the musty tomes of the dutch societies but it can be commended as a thoroughly readable and fully fantasy eklah contribution to that semi scientific literature which is neither so heavy as to sink straight away into the depths of desuatude nor so light as to drift into oblivion wj m natural elementary geography by joc w redway f r gs ages 144 with maps and illustrations new york cincinati chicago american book company 1897 60 cents for many years teachers have realized that geographical textbooks were unsatisfactory and that the teaching of geography was as a consequence equally so but without being able to better them geography as it has been here to foretaught in the schools is not a science it is little more than a mere mass of unconnected facts relating to the earth's surface teachers and pupils are but beginning to understand that geography is in the truest sense a science in that all phenomena of the earth proceed from cause to effect and that geography is the fundamental science upon whose broad back rests nearly all other sciences the birth of the new science of physiology the study of the relief of the earth gave a decided direction to geography teaching the committee of ten appointed by the national educational association in 1892 in its report made this the leading feature of geography it was a step in the right direction but at the same time it limited the scope of geography to a study of the surface features of the earth later the committee of 15 took a great step in advance presenting the science of geography in its full breadth and scope not only is embracing the surface features of the earth but their influence upon man and his industries which is the ultimate end of all geography the above book is the first of a series of school geographies now being issued by the american book company in scope it is fully in accord with the report of the committee of 15 as it teaches not only the origin of the surface features of the earth but their relations to man his life and his activities it also embodies the most approved pedagogical methods leading the child from the known to the unknown from those things which he can see and appreciate through his senses to those which he must realize by the aid of his imagination is admirably illustrated both as to cuts and maps and the illustrations are used for the purpose of assisting the text not merely to make a pretty book without disparaging other recent textbooks on geography it is safe to say that in scope and method of treatment this book is far the most successful that has yet appeared hg end of section eight section nine of the national geographic magazine volume eight december 1897 this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org recording by Betty B geographic notes europe great britain the report of the ordnance survey of great britain states that the area revised during the year ending march 31st 1897 was 4623 square miles the sale of maps realized 17,715 pounds iceland the alfing or icelandic parliament has resolved to grant an annual subsidy of 35,000 kroner for 20 years to a company which is undertaken to lay a submarine cable from iceland to scotland via the ferro aisles the danish government also has promised financial aid and it is expected that the cable will be laid early next summer germany the annual production of lumber in germany is estimated at 8,300,000 tons the imports have risen from 2,800,000 tons in 1891 to 3,200,000 tons in 1896 but according to mr. t e more united states commercial agent at veimar there is not the slightest disposition to relax the stringent forest regulations which have so long been in force mr. more adds that at the rate at which the devastation of forests is now going on in russia sweden and galicia those countries will soon have the same experience as spain which has been deprived of a part of our natural riches by the shortsighted policy of past generations asia korea korea is becoming to a large extent the rice granary of japan and japanese manufacturers are driving the products of other countries out of the korean market simply by virtue of their cheapness hong kong the total tonnage entering and leaving the port of hong kong in 1896 amounted to 16 and a half millions of this about seven and a half millions represented the tonnage of junks and river steamers leaving about 9 million tons engaged in foreign trade of which more than one half was british cyberia railway communication has now been established between kabarovka and vladivostok and the line will be open for traffic at an early date the russian government has purchased 10 tons of choice seed grain from the canadian experiment stations for distribution among the cyberian farmers north america canada the mineral output of british columbia in 1896 amounted to 7 million 146 425 as compared with a total of 2 million 668 608 dollars in 1890 mexico the mexican government has officially promulgated a concession for a railroad from shiwawa to the pacific coast the length of the line will be 372.8 miles and to aid in its construction the government agrees to pay the promoters a subsidy of four million six hundred thousand dollars it has also granted a concession without subsidy for the construction of a railroad from prosidio del norte on the real grand state of shiwawa west via shiwawa city to a point on the pacific coast in the state of sinaloa u.s. consul r.m. berk states that the mineral wealth of the region through which these roads must pass is beyond calculation australia the australian goal yield during 1896 amounted to 2 million 375 948 ounces an increase of 16704 ounces on the preceding year the forests of the colony of western australia cover an estimated area of 20 400 000 acres and contain marketable timber to the value of 124 million pounds queen's land has at last agreed to join in the australian federation movement and the federal convention has adjourned until january 1898 when queen's land will be represented end of section nine end of the national geographic magazine volume eight december 1897