 In the past few days, we've tackled a wide range of complex topics relating to crisis. We've been challenged to confront the issues of the crises we face today, and also the crises we can already anticipate in the future. We've collectively put our heads together to share our knowledge of how our shared understanding of the past can help us do a better job in the future of addressing ongoing crises, such as hunger and poverty and expected crises, such as conflict and natural disasters, and future crises, such as the jobs crisis and the demographic crisis. I thought it was interesting that in the case of the jobs crisis and the demographic crisis, speakers tended to use the terms crisis and opportunity quite interchangeably. I thought that it was interesting that depending on exactly the point that people were making at any point in time, there was this sort of, it's quite quick switch from crisis to opportunity. I thought there was a bit of attention that we faced throughout the conference. So I'm gonna pick up on just a couple of points that came up in the very rich discussions that we've had over the past two days. We all bring our own individual perspective, our lived experience, our knowledge of particular context, and our specific interdisciplinary training when we look at any topic. So just to say I'm an economist, I'm South African, and I'm not a particularly good storyteller, and like David that I'm following here, but I wanted to start with saying something about a mental image that I'd come into the conference with and that kind of stuck with me throughout the conference and it was something I struggled to process and everything at the conference. I had to try and fit around those two mental images. So when I left Cape Town on Thursday, we had service delivery protests going on all over the country, where people had again taken to the streets to protest the fact that 22 years into democracy, they're still without formal housing, running water, and good quality schools for their children. While some of those service delivery protests were peaceful, others involved intimidation, the stoning of vehicles, and even the burning down of schools. The South African Police Service deployed riot police on Thursday to try and contain those protests. And so throughout the conference, my mind has come back to those scenes of burning tires of riot police firing stun grenades and tear gas into crowds of disaffected and angry citizens. It's clear that South Africa is in crisis. Poor people are feeling it down. South Africa is not a poor country, yet many people continue to live in appalling conditions and without any prospect of participating in the mainstream economy. As has been pointed out many times at this conference, the solutions will require new thinking drawing from a range of disciplines and recognizing the roles of all the actors, citizens, communities, civil society, the private sector, the state, and the international community. I very much like the way that Pair Pinstrip Anderson put it in the session on hunger and food security. He made the point that as researchers trying to make an impact, we tend to focus all our work on the policymaker and the policy brief, but actually we need to better understand who are the real decision makers, the instigators and the responders. This isn't just about writing the policy brief. So having F-capped on South Africa in something of a state of crisis, I took the KLM flight out of Cape Town and into Amsterdam. And when we landed in Amsterdam, there on the runway were two fire trucks with flashing lights. And they were there to celebrate the fact that the pilot on this KLM flight was retiring after 35 years of service. So we had these two fire trucks that were squirting water all over the plane in a show of celebration, which was something that the Dutch passengers on the plane readily accepted and they kept and cheered and they could immediately see that this was a moment of, that this was a celebratory fact that we had fire trucks on the runway. The South Africans on the plane were a little bit panicked, I have to say. The idea of fire trucks wasn't something that they readily associated with a happy event. And it was interesting as the passengers eventually got to the point where they all understood that actually this was a positive thing, that kind of mood of the South Africans moved from the sense of initial panic to kind of a sense of wonderment. This idea that you can live in a country where emergency vehicles can be deployed for such a celebration and that where emergency personnel are not so overstretched that they can actually experience some joy in their day and where firefighters are welcomed rather than treated with suspicion as compromised where they roll and as instruments of the state. So that tracks the position of the images of fire trucks in the township protests on Thursday vis-a-vis the runway at Skippal was very much in my mind when I attended yesterday's session on actors and institutions in conflict resolution, which was co-hosted by the Crisis Management Initiative. And I'm in no way suggesting that the situation in South Africa is in any way comparable to the types of situations that David's been describing around the world or the situation in the Middle East or South Sudan. My point here is just that I found CMI's starting point that all conflicts can be resolved if there is the political will and skill to do so, very thought provoking and encouraging. The chair of that session made the point that without peace and stability there can be no worthwhile development, preventing and solving conflicts at their roots is always gonna be the most welfare-enhancing and cost-efficient option. I was particularly intrigued by Jack Mendoza-Wilson's input in that same session on the role of the private sector as a non-traditional actor in humanitarian aid and conflict resolution in the Ukraine. He spoke very persuasively about the active role of the business community in Ukraine and providing medical and psychological services and food aid to 1.1 million people. But as members of the audience were very quick to point out, the private sector is driven largely by self-interest rather than purely by the desire for social justice. The very varied responses from the audience pointed to the need for more research on the circumstances under which private sector involvement is desirable and can be effective. We need to be mindful of the fact that in some cases the private sector will support the maintenance of the status quo and be directly opposed to the need to address certain economic root causes of conflict. For example, the private sector may well not share the same desire for land redistribution reform or have the same priorities for recovery in a nation state after conflict. The private sector may well be benefiting from the status quo and the conflict may be about changing that status quo. And I thought that the audience were very quick to respond in that session in a very respectful way but to engage directly with the speaker. And I think that's been something that's been very powerful at this conference that everybody has come with a very open approach to hear other perspectives but to engage directly with them. The session on the jobs crisis was dominated by economists so I particularly like that one. Sam Jones provided three different interpretations of what we might mean by jobs crisis. Firstly, a jobs crisis might refer to a situation where there is rapid job shedding as a consequence of an economic shock and he gave the example of America during the global financial crisis. There were substantial job losses but this was a short-term crisis of cyclical unemployment. Secondly, one could think of a jobs crisis as representing a structural labor market problem and Sam gave the example of the skills mismatch in China where there are now 6 million unemployed graduates despite a shortage of skilled workers in other sectors. The third type of jobs crisis that Sam described is for me the most intractable one, the situation of jobless growth in which employment stagnates despite positive levels of growth. When we overlay the phenomenon of jobless growth with the demographic shifts occurring in the developing world, it quickly becomes evident that we're facing a jobs crisis of enormous proportions. The formal sector world of work is changing very rapidly. Many of the jobs we have today will be obsolete in a decade or two and many of the jobs of the future don't even exist yet. Fewer and fewer people will be employees in the future with an increase in what some people have started to call and it's a contested term but perhaps we can think of as the uberization of the workforce. Firms will buy in services as they need them rather than having full-time employees. The future world of work will require employees that can self-manage and sell their services. Of course, this isn't to ignore the fact that the vast majority of the employed in the developing world are not employees at all but rather engaged in home production or self-employment. I worry that too often we talk past each other because we think that a particular discussion is irrelevant to our own country context or research area. The gamer market isn't rigidly segmented and the discussions about the formal sector are relevant for people thinking about smallholder agriculture and vice versa. We all need to be much more conscious of those linkages. There were other very important points made in the session about the jobs crisis. Carol Newman presented absolutely fascinating evidence that runs counter to the common wisdom that support for small firms is the key to job creation. She argued that small and medium enterprises create very few net new jobs. They offer less secure employment and they pay lower wages. Importantly, small firms don't generally become big firms and if it is big firms that innovate and create higher paid and more secure jobs, then perhaps we need to think harder about the narrative that we've all I think most of us are brought into that the action is around the small and medium sized enterprise sector. Carol also argued for much more deliberate industrial policy and provided evidence in support of the idea of special economic zones. The clustering of firms provides opportunities for localized infrastructure, overcoming transport costs and benefiting from proximity and influence between firms as well as giving firms access to better trained labor. In that same session, Andy Sumner and Tony Addison spoke amongst many other things about the role that aid can play in helping to address the jobs crisis. They made the point that donors are able to take a long view whereas politicians may be unduly focused on the next direction and on quick gains which will buy them a popular sentiment. They presented two models of donor involvement. A big push approach of orienting development assistance towards high cost infrastructure that my only show returns in the medium to long term versus something much more nuanced. A longer term orientation, reorientation towards structural change with a focus on reducing spatial inequality, improving the employment possibilities for less skilled workers and linking lagging regions to growth poles. There were great synergies and some tensions between this paper and Carol's. It was a pity that we didn't have time to unpack those further. I'm being told my time is up, but I want to make one very last point. So that session was a good challenge to the international community to think much more ambitiously about what aid can achieve. And to end with the fact that I was very buoyed by Fintab statement this morning that aid of even $25 per person per year can actually achieve something substantial, but it will require coordination and brought by and from all stakeholders. The conference of course didn't cover every type of crisis and I think the organizing committee did an amazing job of balancing depth and breadth in terms of issues that could perhaps be picked up in fog up workshops is perhaps the idea that we need to think about the age dimension of each of these aspects. Looking at the same, at exactly the same things that we addressed at this conference, but with an explicit lens of children, youth, adults and the elderly could be very rich. In conclusion, I want to reiterate Tony's words from the opening session. Sinusism is too easy an attitude to take. Thank you.