 Okay. Now, governance and policymaking. What do we mean? I mean, we'll first talk about the British Constitution. But when we talk about the British Constitution, what do we mean? Do we have one single document that says a text, a single formal document that says, okay, this is the British Constitution. Do we have that? No, we don't have that. There is no one single formal text which is above ordinary law. But we have a combination of all kinds of texts, different types of texts, written statutory law, case-based common law, convention, authoritative interpretations, past interpretations of legislation, and also habit, customary law. Okay, so all of these really form the backbones of the British Constitution so-called. So, there is no single unified text, there's no one single unified text that is above, that stands above ordinary law. Okay, so the Constitution defines, the Constitution, excuse me, defines the powers of the Parliament, the relationship between the Crown and the Parliament. Okay, and the relationship between the state vis-a-vis its citizens. So, the relationship between the state and citizens. So, it is in that respect a functioning Constitution. But when we refer to the British Constitution, there is no one single document, no formal one single text. So, it's form-wise, in terms of its form, it's quite unique. It's quite atypical, let me put it that way. In terms of its date, it's quite unique. In that respect, it's antique. So, it goes back to the Bill of Rights of 17th century. So, the Bill of Rights plus enact declaring the rights and liberties of the subject and settling the succession of the Crown. So, the Bill of Rights 1689 really constitutes a key element of what's called the British, what we refer to as the British Constitution. It is a striking combination of texts. In its spirit, it incorporates hereditary institutions. And by hereditary institutions, we mean two. So, not only the Crown, the Queen now, but also the House of Lords. So, House of Lords as well as the Crown. And in that respect or in those respects, it is a flexible constitution. It is not a rigid constitution because there are few absolute principles of governance in the Constitution. The Parliament still has considerable powers and the Parliament is not bound by a constitutional review. Okay, we'll talk about that in a moment. So this is it for the Constitution. What about the organization of the state? The British model of state is known as the Westminster model, which is comprised of parliamentary sovereignty or the elements of which are parliamentary sovereignty, parliamentary democracy and cabinet government. So parliamentary sovereignty, parliamentary democracy and cabinet government. What do we mean by each of these? By parliamentary sovereignty, the Parliament is unrestricted in terms of its legislative powers. It is unrestricted by the executive, by the judiciary as well as the Crown. It is unrestricted from or by the judiciary. It's not restricted by the judiciary because there is no constitutional court that says, hey, you can't do that. Okay, so there is no constitutional review possible in the system. It is not restricted by the Crown because the Crown does not have a say like, I veto this. Okay, so the Crown does not act as a veto player in the system. So neither the judiciary nor the Crown can repeal a law or can send back an act or a legislation that is passed by the Parliament. And the executive is part and parcel of the Parliament. So in that respect, it is the executive that answers to the Parliament. So as you can see, this is an institution, the Parliament, which is in a way supreme among the branches of government. So the Parliament can make and overturn any law it wishes, and there is no veto or constitutional review. One set of limitations on Parliament, on British parliamentary sovereignty was imposed by the EU. The a key communitaire, do we know what a key communitaire means? A key communitaire. It's all the treaties, all the legislations, all the international treaties that the EU had been amassing, all the directives, all the judgments, rulings by the European Court of Justice. So all court decisions and all others. So parliamentary sovereignty had been limited by EU legislation, by the EU's a key communitaire. But aside from that, there was no other law that was above and beyond what the Parliament was making. So except for the EU, parliamentary sovereignty was in a way absolute. But now that's going to be changing soon with the Brexit. So parliamentary sovereignty was the first element. The second element of the Westminster model is parliamentary democracy. What we mean here is that the Prime Minister, the Premier, is answerable to the House of Commons, the lower House in the Parliament, which is popularly elected, or members of which are popularly elected, and the Prime Minister may be dismissed by the Parliament. So he is answerable to the Parliament, or she is answerable to the Parliament, and she is also, or she may be dismissed by the House of Commons, the lower House in the Parliament. A third element of the Westminster model is cabinet government, which has something to do with fusion of powers. By fusion of powers, we mean the Parliament is the supreme organ of the state, because it really entails legislative powers, or it it it monopolizes legislative powers, it shares executive powers, it also shares judicial authority. And it may include the monarch in the Parliament, the Queen in Parliament, and it also incorporates the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The House of Lords and the Monarch are the hereditary institutions. So it really amasses all power in the system, which really attests to the constitutional monarchy as the name of the regime denotes. The cabinet government, what we refer to as cabinet government here, is that members of the cabinet are collectively responsible. Members of the cabinet are members of Parliament, and they are collectively responsible. There is no independent Premier, but in time there has been strengthening of the core executive. But what's important here, both the legislature, well it is the Parliament, and the executive are part and parcel of the Parliament. So both of these powers are part and parcel or are under the legislature, the Parliament here. So cabinet government means that it makes decisions collectively and it is collectively responsible to the Parliament. So that's important to remember the Westminster model. What does the British executive look like? When we talk about the British executive, we start with the cabinet government. Here we have key functions of the ministers. How is the government formed after the elections? The Crown, the monarch, the queen in this case, invites the chief of the party, head of the party, leader of the party, which has got the largest number of seats in the House of Commons, and then appoints that person as the prime minister and asks to form a cabinet. So that's how the cabinet is formed. The key functions of the cabinet is that the cabinet is involved in policy making, it controls the government, it amasses executive power or executive powers, and it coordinates between departments, different departments that make up the executive. In principle we have about 20 to 24 ministers that make up the cabinet. What's important here is that the cabinet members, the cabinet itself, has constitutional standing, meaning that they have constitutional privileges. So this is in contrast to the US case, where the President is, yes, it is in the Constitution, the presidency, but his cabinet has much less of a constitutional standing than it is the case in Britain. So it enjoys constitutional privileges. Among these ministers, we've got the prime minister as the head of the core executive, and in general, the most powerful ministries are foreign office, home office, and the Chancellor of the Exchequer, which is basically standing for Minister of Finance or Ministry of Finance. So core powers with formal constitutional privileges. Once again, the cabinet is collectively responsible in the sense that they are collectively answerable to the parliament, but from the 1990s onwards there has been a trend towards strengthening of the core executive within the cabinet. So some members in the cabinet, such as the foreign office, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Home Affairs, as well as the Chancellor, Minister of Finance, that is, with their own private advisors, they really form the core of the cabinet. They really make a lot of decisions on day-to-day functioning of the state of the government. Part of the executive is bureaucracy. We tend to forget that the bureaucracy is part and parcel of the executive. It is an instrument. It is the instrument of executive power. So by bureaucracy we mean unelected officials, servicemen, and women that share collectively executive powers with the government. So they share executive powers with the cabinet. We see this is Whitehall, Parliament Street, Downing Street, number 10. So cabinet office. So as you can see, this is the executive, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Treasury, Ministry of Defense, part of the military. So basically around Department of Work and Pensions, Department of Health. So around Whitehall Avenue, you see government offices, ministries, executive buildings. This reminds you of Ankara's which district, which area, where Bakandaklar is, and part of Kizilay. So imagine a large avenue on both sides of which you've got ministries scattered. So in each of these ministries we've got a permanent secretary running a ministry. He is the top civil servant. Like in the Turkish system, we have the undersecretary. Okay. Permanent secretary plus the minister's principal private secretary, which is appointed by the minister to basically liaise with the civil servants from tip to toe. From the 1980s onwards, the role of bureaucracy has been eroding, but, excuse me, but especially in the British culture, we have a pluralist system of policymaking. Bureaucracy had major functions in informing policy makers, in designing policies, in refining policies, and also in implementing legislation. So the British Whitehall culture has always been very important in running the government, running the entire system. But from the 1980s onwards, things have been changing. Rolling back the state had ramifications for