 Welcome back to NPTEL, the National Program on Technology Enhanced Learning. We have been with us for a whole module, a module that was introductory in nature, module that dealt with various aspects of nature that were of particularly of contemporary interest for instance like international English, the globalization of English, world Englishes, the rise of cultural studies etcetera. We are now in the second module and in fact, this is you know the second lecture in this module, the first lecture being of a general you know introductory in nature sorry and this lecture is entitled Old English. Now, this may be today for many of you you know only of a certain historical interest or for some of you may be to just get by in understanding the development of English from the time of the Anglo-Saxons. In the first module, we had a lecture entitled the English language in which many of the things that we or some of the things at least that we are talking or going to talk about in this module were already addressed. What we do today is look at the beginning of the English language and you would be those of you who are not either acquainted with it would be really surprised to see how different the so called old English was from when compared to even you know early modern English or modern English or contemporary English or Englishes as we know them today. You have learnt by now at least this that English belongs to the Indo-European group of languages in the lecture on the English language we had you know dealt with some of these pieces of information and today let us look if only not you know if only at from a curiosity from a historical curiosity historical linguistic curiosity about the English language and its sort of its antecedents right. So, welcome then again to what I hope is going to be an interesting module on the development of language that is used by so many today. As always let us then look at the texts that are going to be with us throughout this essay and I must say that I am looking at some of the more well established texts texts that were that are still today you know used as text books in particularly in undergraduate English major English major courses in different parts of India and also abroad. The first text is and I am sure many of you are acquainted with the name of professor Alfred Boe AC Boe's book the history of the English language which has by now been through several editions. Simeon Potter's beautifully written our language published by Penguin books and I have also included an edited a volume edited by Indrani Kosh entitled a history of English language a critical companion. So, as with so many of my lectures what I am going to do is I am going to bring in extracts from these books you know and then explain those extracts as we begin to talk about the phase of English known as Old English fine. Despite you know few differences of a very minor almost trivial you know differences in date it is usually an established fact today that historically we ascribe the period from the middle of please look at the slide on the middle of the 5th century from the middle of the 5th century to the middle of the 12th century as the time or duration of the kind of English that we call Old English today. So, it is from the 5th century to somewhere around 1150 the 12th century that we call the time or the period of Old English. So, this is what we had also seen earlier let me again look at this. So, that we can place the different historical phases of the English the development of the English language Old English 5th century to 1150 middle English from 1150 to 1500 modern English is post 1500 for some would also some also add a an intermediate stage before modern English known as early modern English. But we can it is safe to say that these are the 3 phases of the English language and its development. Now, you also came across this that the original inhabitants if you can one can today use such a term inhabitants were before the coming in of the Anglo sections it was the inhabitants were the Celts and the Celtic language please look at the slide the Celtic language may be divided into Gaelic or Gadelic and Kimrick or Britannic. So, before Old English proper we had the Celtic language. Now, if you ask someone what is Old English? So, how do we characterize Old English? One of the first things we have to say of course is that it is it belongs to a sub branch of the Indo-European language and the sub branch is known as West Germanic. In fact, if you know it is said that the that Old English the Old English phase of the English language is similar in many aspects to the German language to modern German compared to modern English. So, it comes from West Germanic as a language and the period please look at the slide the period from this is very important very important historical event or a series of events the period from the arrival of the Anglo sections. This is a term you need to learn immediately the Anglo sections the coming in of the Anglo sections into into this island. So, the period from the arrival of the Anglo sections in Britain to the Norman conquest is usually seen as the Old English period. So, what was the first way in which we first in the first kind of taxonomy we had used what we had used dates we had said that from the 5th century to the middle of the 12th century is designated the period of Old English and now we you know we look at that the designation of the period from the point of view of two conquests to important conquests. So, the period from the arrival of the Anglo sections in to Britain to its conquest or to her conquest by the Normans this period is known as Old English. So, the Latin words in next point Latin words brought by the Anglo sections and words from the Celtic language of the Celts intermix to form Old English. So, just a while ago remember we knew we learned that there are two varieties of the Celtic language and then with the coming in of the Anglo sections we had we can now in a very general way we can say quite safely say that Old English contains words from these tribes if you may use the word European tribes that came into Britain and the already exist in Celtic language. Hence Latin words brought by the Anglo sections and words from the Celtic language of the Celts intermix to form Old English. Now, if you look at this slide if you look at the map of modern England right today's England you would then say that or the United Kingdom sorry you would say that this old English was prevalent in most parts of England and in Scotland in the southern and eastern parts. So, England and the southern and eastern parts of Scotland or where we would have found the Old English language prevalent. So, let us then look at remember Simon Potter's book on English language is a seminal text with us and let us see how he mentions how from where we get an idea of Old English and he points to one work in particular he says I am quoting him our knowledge of it that is of Old English is derived from the ecclesiastical history from this word ecclesiastical history of the English people which was written in Latin by the venerable bead about 730 nearly three centuries after the first Jews Hengis and Hossa landed at Ebb's fleet in the Isle of Thannan in 449. So, this the ecclesiastical history of the English people is an important source of our knowledge of Old English. Now, when we when we talk about the Anglo-Saxon conquest we refer to three different tribes that invaded England. These were the Jews the Saxons and the Angles. So, the Jews came from Jotland or Jotland the Saxons from Holstein and the Angles from Schleswig. So, these this is known as the Anglo-Saxon conquest the Jews the Saxons and the Angles. The important other important factor here is also you know the romanization of Britain the romanization of the island. For instance, A. C. Bohr says that regarding the introduction of Roman ways of life by the third century Christianity had made some progress in the island and in 314 Bishops from London and York attended a church council in Gaul. Next he says about the introduction of Latin in Britain. Latin did not replace the Celtic language in Britain as it did in Gaul. It is used by native Britons was probably confined to members of the upper classes and the inhabitants of the cities and towns. On the on the other hand Potter says as you know this information to give the English intruders the Celts offered neither friendship nor culture and little by little the latter were driven westward. So, we find that you know the Celtic resistance to it was limited and as Potter mentions here they offered neither friendship nor culture and little by little the latter that is the Celts were driven more to the western part of the island. We know that most of England and the southern and eastern parts of Scotland are where the in a way the old English phase of the English language is today accepted to have been extent. Then Bo goes on to say about the conquest many of the Celts undoubtedly were driven into the west and sought refuge in very important whales and cornwall still fine remnants of the language. Many of the Celts undoubtedly were driven into the west and sought refuge in whales and cornwall in any case such civilization as had been attained on the Roman influence was largely destroyed. The Roman towns were burnt or abandoned and that is why from the point of view of a civilizational change if we may put it not simply a conquest territorial conquest, but also a civilizational that is why you know this period is extremely important. It was a civilizational change that came over with the giving you know the sort of giving way by if I may use the word by the Celts and the destruction of you know the Roman influence. It marks a very important or it is a very important landmark in the history not only of the history of the English language, but also of history in the island in general. So, what were the three tribes? They were the Jutes, they were the Saxons and they were the Angles. So, do you know where the name English or England comes from? Out of the three obviously you would understand you would guess that the word has roots in the Angles. So, the names England and English the writers in the vernacular called their language English with this spelling. English is derived the word is derived from the name of the Angles and England which is called England or Angleland see Angles from Angles Angleland or later England from which is shortened to England. So, the name England is derived from derived from the conquering tribe called the Angles. So, the word is derived from the name of the Angles England that is the land of the Angles was formed around the year 1000. This again this the year 1000 is generally accepted. It is not that there are no other you know scholars who claim probably a different date near to this, but for general purposes we accept the year 1000. The English language that we use today is a result of this is an important word fusion is a result of the fusion of the dialects spoken by these Teutonic tribes who had come to England. So, it is a fusion of several dialects which are going to we are going to look at. You know an important point here is also regarding you know the so called purity of language right. The even you know speaking from a political angle from a cultural politics angle you cannot really say that any a pure there is a pure any language is pure without being sort of you know quote unquote contaminated by another language. The English language itself began as a fusion right we know there is a Latin influence the Celtic influence and the influence or the coming in of the Anglo-Saxons. The basis of the study of old English right on which it is you know this other part we are going to look at later. The basis of the study of old English are the manuscripts that have been found in the West Saxon dialect and forms this forms a major part of old English literature. A bit about the literature you can skip the slide for now. Now, it is important to know that there is no one variety of old English. The work it is today recognized that there are four it is accepted that there are four there were four dialects or variants of old English. Now, I know we know that the word dialect today is of course, contested and dialects are today claimed to be languages. So, nevertheless this is how we look at it from the conventional point of view and this lecture and the other lectures in this module I mean finally, down to modern English is you know I am going by the conventional way in which this has been accepted and I am not really getting into the politics of the history of you know the English language we dealt with lot of the contemporary times that way are you know the debate is more dense there are many Englishes. Here in this module I am generally following I mentioned in the beginning such text as AC Boa once by AC Boa and Simeon Potter. This is the accepted history and hence I am using words like dialect. So, there were four dialects of old English and these are the Northumbrian dialect, the Mercian dialect, the Kentish dialect and the West Saxon. Look at this Northumbrian, Mercian or Mercian, West Saxon and the dialect from Kent. So, these were the four variants if I may use the word of old English prevalent during the time. So, what are the characteristics then of the English language during the time of old English. So, the basically I mean very basically here really the characteristics of old English may be enumerated as follows. One is of course, a very different pronunciation. So, first point is regarding pronunciation. The pronunciation of old English words differs or differ from that of their modern equivalence. The absence there is an absence of those words derived from Latin or French and is a relative absence and the grammar old English is synthetic but modern English is an analytic language. So, what are the three characteristics of you know old English which is not that there are no other characteristics, but you would you know for one of the first things you things that you would notice at least is that the pronunciation and the script are very different from the English that we use today. Using grammar is a distinction of number, singular, plural and case and grammatical gender was not dependent upon considerations of sex. For instance, Mona moon is masculine, son is feminine, make them girl, wife, child are noiter while whiff man, woman is masculine because the second element of the compound man is masculine. So, this is another you know in case of gender there are several differences that we find from modern English. Then I will quickly read through the other features which are you know important as we study old English or look at old English. The twofold declension of the adjective and the strong declension used with nouns were not accompanied by definite article for instance god man or good man. Then there is a weak declension used when the noun is preceded by an article for instance the or say god a man or the good man. Then the personal pronoun is singular, dual it has singular, plural and a dual form that we do not really use today and the presence of strong and weak verbs. Now coming to old English literature, the literature of the Anglo-Saxon period in England is considered to be a very rich literature. As Bohr mentions, the literature of the Anglo-Saxons is fortunately one of the richest and significant of any preserved among the early Teutons and this is a text. So, look at this slide this is a word or name title of a text that many of you are familiar with. The text is Beowulf and if you can see this properly B E O W U L F Beowulf. There is also the Seaf error then Keidman's hymn the tragedy the wanderer and translations that took place under its very famous king known as King Alfred. So, if you get a question like a name a few or name a couple of important texts of old English literature. So, you would first of course mention Beowulf talk about Keidman's hymn among others and also refer to translations that have taken place under King Alfred. Now, this is I have actually taken it this has been taken from the Wikipedia must acknowledge this here look at the script of old English. Now, if you look at the script here and if you look at the spellings and there is nothing here I am sure that you are be able to read. This is an instance or this is an example of old English its script and in general its language. So, this is how old English looks like then I have also taken this from the Wikipedia which is if you look at the lines some lines from Beowulf from poem Beowulf look at this is the language this is language in which it has been written that is old English. So, if you look at the what this is the corresponding modern variant of that then this is another version if you look at King this is again these are again some other examples from Beowulf. So, as you can you know realize obviously this is an English that surely neither you nor I or any anyone who is not familiar with old English or trained in reading of old English in the reading of old English we are never going to be able to decipher this kind of a script or language. So, what then let us go back again to the Celtic inference what we learn in the beginning we learn that the variant on the language there are two variants or two types of Celtic that were used during just before the coming in of the angle sections and the Jutes. So, there are certain words from the Celtic language that have remained with us it is not that you know we do not have that the Celtic language is found only towards Wales or Cornwall there are certain words that have remained for instance Celtic place name that I am going to go through this list here you look at this slide Celtic place names like London York Kent that is from canty meaning unknown. So, these are the names that have remained and from there are certain words like come a deep valley in names like Duncombe, Tor, High Rock, Peak in Tor Hill, Tor Cross, Tor etcetera and the names with Celtic you know with Celtic roots for instance Celtic rivers are Thames, Avon, X, Dover and Y. So, you can imagine the two most famous words really in a look at England London and Thames are you know from Celtic and other Celtic known words for instance Bin, basket or Crip, Brock or Badger can come a deep valley in Tor which we have already talked about. So, this whole thing about you know this whole issue about the purity of a language or that language is Anglo-Saxon at the time and it comes only from the influence of the language of the Anglo-Saxon and Jutes is really misconception. In every language really in the world you will find remnants of the previous languages and in different parts of a single country you know you will find that in some areas there are the influence more of the old language that was there. So, there is a lot of variety in even if you look at old English. Then the Latin influence there was an acquiring of a considerable number of Latin words, evidences of a long Roman rule and additional Latin words that were acquired by the Celts. The reintroduction of Christianity by Roman missionaries resulted in an extensive adoption of Latin elements. So, also the Latin elements are which were taken you know earlier acquired by the Celts have also remained and characterize some you know some parts at least of old English. Now, regarding these borrowings let me quote from AC Bos's book History of the English Language. Bos says there were thus three distinct occasions on which borrowing from Latin occurred before the end of the old English period and it will be of interest to consider more in detail the character and extent of these borrowings. Of course, since AC Bos work a lot of work has been done a lot of established work of course, on this influence and particularly mentioned three distinct occasions of occasions where Latin was you know Latin had an influence to which happened before the end of the old English period. Regarding Latin influence again the Latin influence of the second period is the introduction of Christianity into Britain in 597 and Bos says the new faith was far from new in the island, but this date 597 this date marks the beginning of a systematic attempt on the part of Rome to convert the inhabitants and make England a Christian country. And this you can refer here to the mission of Saint Augustine, then the general philosophy of the Teutons and the preaching of Christianity, active preaching of Christianity. Now, the influence of Christianity, the influence of Christianity on the vocabulary we find that Latin borrowings of the second period that we you know of Christianity can be divided into two groups. Phonetic forms that show early adoption and are found in literatures from the time of King Alfred and words of a more learned character introduced during the religious revival that accompanied Benedictine reform. So, now for instance early borrowings that we can refer to which have stayed the English language are church, the word church itself bishop, then words that survive are also in the words that may be included are abbot, disciple, epistle, hymn, temple, names of articles like cap, sock, silk, purple, chest, mat, sack, words denoting food and plants for example, bead, call, lentil, millet, oyster, dough, plant and mellow. Again regarding education and learning school, master, Latin, grammatic verse, meter, miscellaneous words like anchor, fan, spelter, elephant etcetera and learned or literary words like circle, lesion, consult and talent. So, this is the influence of Latin. So, for a beginner for an introductory course this is enough to know about Old English and what I will do now by you know instead of a recap I will try and initiate you know a question answer sort of a section a discussion and from our brief discussion on Old English. For instance what are the most important points which can come to you in the form of a question. We if you are asked what is the generally accepted date for or period or duration of Old English and you would say that the Old English period phase of the English language is supposed to be from the 5th century particularly the middle of the 5th century to the middle of the 12th century and the precise dates are of course 5th century to 1150 that is the period of Old English. And again what are the three generally accepted periods of Old of the English language in general the history of the English language these are what Old English, Middle English and Modern English. And we also have mentioned that early modern English is also of phase that is added by historians. Then the next question we may ask is what is the sub-branch what is the sub-branch of Old English. We know that eventually English comes obviously from the it is an Indo-European language it is solved into the Indo-European group of languages, but what is the it is sub-branch that you know we can refer to Old English it comes from West Germany and the next question would be you know if you do not look at dates from the point of view of historical events which are the two important landmark events which sort of you know encapsulates the Old English period. And then you would say that the there are two important events which mark the beginning of Old English and the end of Old English and these are the Anglo-Saxon conquests of the island and on the other extreme extreme is the Norman conquests. Following that again the next question is what who are the Anglo-Saxons the Anglo-Saxons you know are you say that are a group of marauding tribes that invaded England and these were the Jews the Angles and the Saxons. Now if you get the question like where does the word England come from the word England comes from the word name of one of these tribes which is the Angles and we first had England then England and finally England. So, England owes its name to one of these three tribes. Then the next question is if we have to you know if we have to identify those areas in which Old English was most prevalent which are the areas you know we before that we know that the language extent was Celtic. But we also know that Celtic came to be more or less replaced replaced by Old English and the Celts as I was mentioned by I think AC boss, Indian Potter that the Celts offered neither friendship nor culture and they sort of migrated towards the western part. So, then the answer would be England more of what we call England today and the southern and the eastern parts of Scotland. This is the area that we may identify today as the area in which Old English was most prevalent. Then for instance you may you know if you are asked a question like what are the dialects of Old English. Then the dialect are four dialects of Old English and these dialects are North Umbrian, Kentish, Merkion and West Saxon. Then what when you when you are given a script of Old English what are the things that you are going to immediately mark or what are the things that immediately come to your attention as being very different from Modern English. Of course, are you know are the spellings and the pronunciation of the script and remember we had seen a script from Beowulf one of the most important perhaps the most important Anglo-Saxon texts and we found how difficult it would have been for us without any training to understand those words. So, the grammar is synthetic while Modern English is analytic and you also find the absence of French words. Then also you find as far as number is concerned you find the presence of not just the singular and the plural, but also of something called the dual. Then another question may be posed to you is name two of the most important texts from Old English literature and we may cite the example of Beowulf and Kidman's hymn as the two most important texts from Old English literature. Then what what are the names that have remained from Celtic from Celtic influence which are important words today and we know that these are place names or names of rivers for instance like even like Thames, place names like London, York, Kent etcetera are from Celtic and was like Thumb or the valley and names you know beginning with Tor for instance Tor means as you know a peak or a high rock. So, you have Tor Hill, Tor Cross etcetera and one of the you know final questions would be about the Latin influence. The Latin influence particularly came is evident even today and it was also in those even today the words like you know words that came from ecclesiastical practices words like for instance a church words like church words like bishop hymn, temple, epistle about disciple, names also articles like silk sock, names of names in noting food like beet for instance plant, mellow etcetera. Then we also have words coming from education and learning like school master the word Latin itself dramatic etcetera and these are you know for a course that is introductory in nature for you know to that is being taught in English in sorry in engineering colleges and IIT's in India. This is according to my you know in according to my thinking this is enough for us you know to be acquainted with old English literature and in the next class we are going to look at the next phase which is called the middle English phase of literature. Thank you for now.