 Section 1 of the Art or Craft of Rhetoric. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Amelia Chesley. The Art or Craft of Rhetoric by Leonard Cox. A reprint edited with an introduction notes and glossarial index by Frederick Ives Carpenter, Ph.D. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1899. Preface. The object of this number of the English studies of the University of Chicago is to make accessible in a literal reprint the first rhetoric printed in the English language. The work here reproduced is one of the earliest English school books and is significant for the history of English prose in the first half of the 16th century. It is, moreover, a work connected in many interesting ways with the humanistic movement and the revival of learning in England and with Erasmus, Melanchthon, and their associates. In the introduction, I have endeavored to arrange and present all the important material available for the elucidation of the life and work of Cox himself, one of this circle. Much of this material apparently has been hitherto overlooked or insufficiently considered, but I have studied to present it without comments so far as possible. I regret that several points still remain in doubt and that I have been unable to discover and consult several works ascribed to Cox and here listed in the bibliography of his works. The digest of Melanchthon, Cox's principal source, by Mozzolanus, is here given in as much as the correspondence between the works of Cox and Melanchthon is so close that this digest serves equally well as an analytic table of contents for Cox. Later on, the source in full in Melanchthon so far as used by Cox also is reprinted. The reprint of Cox's own text follows the undated first edition, A, of circa 1530, usually assigned by bibliographers to 1524. Corrections and variant readings from the edition of 1532, B, are noted at the foot of the page, but a few corrections in punctuation introduced in B have been silently adopted. Contractions have been generally expanded and in all cases are indicated by italics. I desire to express my special obligations to Professor W. D. McClintock of the University of Chicago, who first suggested the present reprint. I am indebted for suggestions or for assistance received also to the authorities of the Library of the British Museum and especially to Messiers A. W. Pollard, R. Proctor, and Richard Garnett. To Mr. Henry R. Plomer, London, to Professor R. M. Warner of the University of Lemberg, to Professor C. H. Moore of Harvard University, and to Professors Paul Shorry and J. M. Manley, and Dr. Carl Peach of the University of Chicago. Frederick Ives Carpenter, University of Chicago, January 1899. End of Section 1. Section 2 of the Art or Craft of Rhetoric. This is a LibraVox recording. All LibraVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibraVox.org. Recording by Emilia Chesley. The Art or Craft of Rhetoric by Leonard Cox. The author and his career. Cox himself, scholar, school master and preacher in the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI. So far as we can construct the story of his career from the confused and defective materials at our command. Although playing a minor part seems to have led a life typical of the times and interesting in its vicissitudes. Educated at both universities, traveling abroad and teaching in three or four of the foreign universities, translating from Erasmus, Melanchthon and others, writing learned Scalia and commentaries, Cox came into touch in one way or another with most of the great men of letters and of learning in his age. And counted among his friends such men as Erasmus, Melanchthon, Leyland, Palsgrave, Bale, Farringdon, Toy the Printer and John Hales. He was in public employment patronized by Cromwell and penchant off in a small way among the other beneficiaries from the spoilation of the ancient religious foundations. And so finally became a preacher of the reformed religion under Edward VI and teacher in the grammar schools at Reading and perhaps at Carolion and Coventry. Cox thus witnessed and took his share in the two great movements of the first half of the century in England. That of the early humanism whose chief representatives were Erasmus and Colette. And that of the religious reformation, which at first was so intimately associated with the movement of humanism. Concerning the date of Cox's birth, we know nothing. It must be placed before the opening of the 16th century for as early as 1518, we find the learning of Cox already so well established as to secure for him the honor of delivering a Latin oration at Kraków in Poland. It is probable that by this date Cox was teaching in the Academy at Kraków, where at any rate in 1524 we find him entered as full master. Between these dates, however, he had traveled elsewhere and had been concerned with other matters. For in 1519 we find the following entry concerning him among the accounts at Tornay. Memorandum, a horse and money given to Leonard Cox to convey stuff from Tornay to Antwerp. Money given to Leonard Cox, Shirland the Jester and Gunner, and to Matthew's brother at his going to school at Paris. The next definite date in the life of Cox, which I can discover is the publication in 1524 of his Scalia in Latin on the Latin poem On Hunting by the Cardinal Adrian. This work is dedicated by Cox to Iodoko Ludovico Deido, Serenissimo a Potentissimo Reggi Polonei a Secretis. Mojkinati suo STP and the dedication is dated Ex Gymnasio Nostro Casovie. Quattro calendars me, Anno a Natali, Servatores, Quindecim, Viginti Quattro. The work was published at Krakow in June of the same year. On the title page the poem is described as accompanied with Scaliis non interuditus Leonardo Coxi Britani. All these references can hardly apply to a young man less than 24 years of age. Cox is said to have been the second son of Lawrence Cox of the city of Monmouth in Monmouthshire by Elizabeth Welley, his wife and the grandson of John Cox. Of his education before entering college we know nothing beyond Bale's general statement that from his very childhood he was well instructed in liberal studies, nor do we know the date of his entering or of his receiving his degree at Cambridge where it is stated that he was educated. It is probable, however, that he graduated before 1518 for without a university training, even in those days of precocious learning, he could hardly have occupied the position we find him holding in Poland in 1518 and again in 1524 and have published such work as he then did. In 1524 at any rate, Cox was abroad again as we have seen. There he remained at least until 1527. Since in 1526 we find him publishing another work in Krakow, his Methodus Studiorum Humaniorum, and in 1527 Erasmus is writing to him about affairs in Hungary. It therefore seems improbable that the first edition of his rhetoric, published without date but assigned definitely to 1524 by many bibliographers, could have appeared in that year, written as it is from his school in Reading. Probably, however, somewhere between 1527 and 1530 Cox returned to England and was appointed master of the school at Reading by Hugh Farringdon, the abbot of the place. He was certainly in this position before February 1530 when he supplicated for incorporation and for MA at Oxford as being school master at Reading. Again, it is impossible to assume with Harlem that Cox's rhetoric was written in 1524 and that his Methodus Humaniorum Studiorum in 1526 is a translation of the rhetoric into Latin. For the simple reason that the rhetoric is itself, in greater part, a translation from a well-known Latin original into English, as I shall later have occasion to show, and there could be no reason for making another version in Latin by translating back from the English. In May 1527, Erasmus, whose name we find mentioned several times in the course of the following rhetoric, wrote to Cox, who was probably still a casal, a letter which has been preserved among the epistles of Erasmus. The following synopsis of the letter is given in Brewer. Thanks him for his letters. He's sorry to hear of the ill health of their friend Eustace. His copia has been again edited six months ago. Gives an account of a disputed reading in Alice Galeus when, twenty years ago, he was engaged at Siena in teaching Alexander, the Archbishop of St Andrews, brother of the present king of Scotland. Basil, 21st May 1527. In addition, I find in the original letter the following passage, the precise bearing of which perhaps cannot now be explained, but which is interesting as throwing some light on Cox's ambitions and affiliations during his abode in Poland. The church men referred to may possibly be the Eustace already mentioned in the letter, while Casowiensis evidently refers to the Casovia or Casau already mentioned as the seat of the school whence Cox dates the dedication to Hiscolia on the Venatio of Adrian. When Casowiensis, an animal, satis admirari, non possum, sentio fortunum amplectendum, vel ob id quo pluribus prodesse ques, vel ob hoc ne pesimo picque sith contemptui. Et si, cui dignitate, preeminent non possunt omnia corrigere, conspicuant vel a populo, vel a principubus, tamen non param malorum possunt excludere, si nos invisat reperit nihil aliud, cuam pro tesuaro carbones. Cox apparently did not embrace the opportunity suggested, but soon after returned to England. Whether he made any other sojourn abroad is doubtful, and it is probably during these years that his reputation as a European scholar, testified to by Leyland, Bale, and other and later biographers, was established. Leyland's verses are interesting, and taken in connection with Erasmus' letter show us among other things the comparatively high regard in which Cox was held in his own day and evince at least some sort of a connection with Melanchthon. Add Leonardo M. Coxon. In Clite, Sarmaticae, Cracauia, Gloria Gentis. Virtutes novet coxae dessertae tuas. Novet et eloquii, phoenix et trusque Melanchthon. Quam te fibes amet, periusque corus. Praga tuas cacinit, cacinit che, lutetia laudes. Urbs erga doktos officiosa virus. Talia cum constant, genitrix tua propria debet. Anglia te simili con calibrare modo. Et faciet nam me cantatum nuper adorta. Hoc ipsum usit significare tibi. In or about 1530, then, Cox was appointed master of the grammar school of Reading, Berks, under the patronage of the Abbott Hugh Farrington, a man of some prominence in the political and religious affairs of the day. And soon afterwards, Cox was incorporated at Oxford, receiving his BA degree there, February 19, 1530, NS. Cox appears to have remained at Reading as school master, with occasional journeys elsewhere connected with other matters from 1530 to 1541. In or about 1530, also I date conjecturally the first edition of Cox's rhetoric, for the reasons given above. The second edition appeared in 1532, with a few slight changes to be noted further on. In 1530 appeared John Paul's Graves, le es classisme de la langue francoie, in which occur two sets of prefatory Latin verses written by Cox. The first being headed, Leonardo Coxi, Readingiensis ludi moderatoris ad Galliche lingue studiosos Carmen, while the second are complementary verses. Oustam Coxi ad ereditum virum gefridum troi de Berges gallum. In 1532 we hear of Cox again at Reading. About the middle of this year, John Frith, the martyr venturing back to England after his long exile abroad, visited Reading, where on his arrival he was set in the stocks. Cox, says Wood, who soon discovered his merit by his conversation, relieved his wants and out of regard to his learning procured his release. A deed worthy of a humanist and friend of Erasmus. In 1534 we get a glimpse of Cox's occupations and ambitions in a letter of his dated from Reading, 13 May 1534. And addressed to the Goodman toy at the sign of St. Nicholas in Powell's churchyard. It is to be found among the letters and papers of the reign of Henry VIII in the record office, volume 7, number 659. Goodman toy, I heartily commend me to you and your good wife, and here I have sent you the paraphrase of Erasmus with the epistle of St. Paul to Titus. And my preface made, as you can bear me record, but suddenly, wherefore it cannot be but easy. Nevertheless, I will desire you to show it unto the right worst of pull, master Cromwell, and in any wise to know his pleasure whether it shall abroad or not. If his master ship think it be meet to be printed, I shall, if it so please him, either translate the work that Erasmus made of the manner of prayer, or his paraphrase upon the first and second epistle to Timothy, or else such works as shall please his master ship, and dedicate also any such labours to him. But if this that I have done shall not please his master ship, my trust is yet that he will take no displeasure with me, seeing I did it for a good intent as the preface to the reader declared, and again I would not have it abroad without his pleasure of foreknowing. I am also a translating of a book which Erasmus made of the bringing up of children, which I intend to dedicate to the said master Cromwell, and that shortly after Whitsun tied. Moreover, it showed me that his master ship is recorder of Bristol, wherefore, if I may know by your letters that he is content with my doings, I intend to write to him and beseech him to be my good master for the obtaining of the free school there. For though I have many good masters in the cause, yet I had lover have his favour than all the others. Yea, and it so pleased his master ship, I would be right glad to bear the name of his servant, and so if you have opportunity I pray you show him and send me word what answer you have. Fare you well from Reading the 13th day of May, your own Leonard Cox. The good man Toy, to whom this letter was written, was the printer John Toy, who issued in 1531 Grados Comparatonum Converbes Anomales Simul Cum Erum Compositus, imprinted at London in Paul's churchyard at the sign of St. Nicholas by me John Toy. Wolsey's fall occurred in 1529, and by 1533 Cromwell's position and power were well established. Cox is turning to the rising sun. We do not hear of Cox again until 1540 when we find him writing directly to his patron Cromwell as follows. Please your good lordship, whereas I, your poor bounden servant and daily beadman, have often times considered your special good favour toward me in times past when I was waiting in the court on Sir John Wallop, which it afterward pleased you to renew of your singular goodness when I was last in your lordship's presence at Thornbury. I have been at all times greatly ashamed of myself that I had nothing whereby I might declare again to your good lordship my faithful heart and serviceable mind for your so great benevolence, whereupon I have at the last drawn a comment upon a book made sometime by Master Lily and corrected by Erasmus, which work of grammar is much set by in all schools both on this side the sea and beyond. This comment of mine made upon the said book, I have here sent and dedicated to you my special good lord as part of witness of my faithful service owed to you for your singular goodness to me, your poor beadman, and though my said diligence be far beneath my duty to your so singular benevolence, yet I must humbly beseech your most good lordship to accept it, and I shall, God willing, or long dedicate to you better things, our lord preserve your estate with all prosperity and increase of honor, your good lordships bound in servant and beadman Leonard Cox. Endorsed to the right honorable and my special good lord, the lord Previ Seal. The second letter is as follows, my singular good lord, please your good lordship to understand that a little of four wits and tide I received a letter from Monsieur Berthlet printer to the king's most honorable highness, wherein he certified me of your lordship's goodness toward me as well in accepting my poor book as in admitting me into your service, and of a further promise of your special benevolence, for the which I am most bound in of all men not only to employ myself with all true diligence to your lordship the best service that I can, but also to be your daily beadman during my life. I beseech your good lordship to pardon me that I have not, or this time, as my duty is given attendance on your lordship, but I trust, or Micklemist, to bring with me to you a fair better work than that which I have dedicated to you already, and that upon rhetoric which I intend to entitle a Rotamata retorica. I know right well the feebleness of my wit is such that in other things I can do your lordship but small service or none, yet in this I trust so to serve you that the world shall always be mindful of your singular beneficence, not to me only, but to all that be studious of good learning. Wherein I will neither spare busy study and labour nor cost on books, and once every year I intend during my life, by God's grace, to set abroad one thing or other to the perpetual praise of your lordship's most excellent virtues and the common profit of students. Thus with all humility I for this present time take my leave beseeching the blessed Trinity long to preserve your good lordship with continual increase of most prosperous honour. Written at Carlyon in Wales on Trinity Sunday, your good lordship's poor servant and bounden beadman Leonard Cox endorsed to the right honourable and my singular good lord, the Lord Previ Seal. The Erotamata retorica unfortunately we do not possess. It is likely enough that the confusion and change of fortune intervening on the tragic ending of his patron so soon after writing these letters prevented Cox from going on with his plan. This last letter it will be noticed is dated from Carlyon in Wales. Whether Cox whose birthplace was in Wales was there simply on a visit or whether he had gone to reside there, perhaps after the equally tragic death of his old patron the Abbot of Reading in 1539, and was teaching school there as wood conjectures is uncertain. It is however certain whether in the meanwhile he had left Reading or not that on February 10th 1541 a royal patent was issued granting and confirming to Cox the office of master of the grammar school at Reading. Dadimos et concedimos as the document runs, act per presentes, demos, and concedimos, either Leonardo, officium, magistri, sieve, preceptores, scola grammaticales, sieve ludi literati, ville nostre de Reading, in comitatu nostru bergs. The patent then proceeds also to grant to Cox the message which he was then occupying. Together with a plot of ground adjoining, It is also provided that Cox, during his lifetime, may hold the grant by chance. It is also provided that Cox, during his lifetime, may hold the grant by chance. It is also provided that Cox, during his lifetime, may hold the grant by deputy. In addition, he is to receive condom annuitatum sieve annulem raditum decim librerum, de exitibus proficulis fermis reventi onibus manieri nostri de Chelsea in dictu comitatu nostru bergs. The manner of Chelsea, from which Cox was to receive his annual stipend of ten pounds, belonged to the lately dissolved monastery of Reading. Of Cox's later years, we know very little. Bale, in his brief account of Cox, mentions vaguely only one date. Claruit, he writes, anno domini quindecim quadraginta. Tanner, giving Bale as his authority for the first date, says Claruit grandavos a quindecim quadraginta, vel a quindecim quadraginta nolem vid prefat parafres a titum. Tanner thinks that perhaps Cox was master of the grammar school founded at Coventry by his friend John Hales, to whom he dedicates the translation of the paraphrase just referred to. Colville and Cooper both positively assert that he became master there in 1572. Cooper adds that if he held that appointment till his death, he must have died in 1599, when John Tovey succeeded to the mastership. At this last date, Cox would have been probably over a hundred and on his appointment at Coventry over 70. If the name of Leonard Cox appears in the list of the masters of the Coventry school, the conjecture may be hazarded that this was perhaps a son of our Leonard Cox, bearing the same name. At all events, it is evident that Cox lived on into the reign of Edward VI, under whom it is stated that he was one of the licensed preachers. He left a son, Francis, who became a DD of New College Oxford in 1594, and according to Knight, another son, William, who was more likely as other state a grandson. Cox's name since his death has been known to few except professed antiquarians. End of Section 2. Section 3 of the Art or Craft of Redrick. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Amelia Chesley. The Art or Craft of Redrick by Leonard Cox. List of works by Cox. Works about the existence of which there is considerable doubt are enclosed in brackets. 1. Cox's L. De Laudibus Cracoviensis Academy, Acto Idus December's Habita Oratio a Quindecum Duode Vigenti. Cracovie Quattro Blietor. Copy in the Zartor Schisha Museum in Crocao. 2. Adriani Cardinalis Venatio Unacum Scolis Non Ineridutis Leonardo Coxi Britani. Colophone. Cracovie in Edibus Heronimi Vietores Typografi De Legentissimi. Menci Ioannio. 1. Mil Vecinti Quattro. There is a copy in the British Museum and one also in the National Library at Paris. In the dedication, Cox discusses the Latinity of his author, the value of the book for reading in schools, and how it has helped to repel barbarous Latinity and to lead the way back to Cicero. There is a word in praise of Politian, who it will be noticed is cited also in The Rhetoric. This text is merely a scholastic commentary, line by line on Adrian's verses. At H4, recto, there is a mention of Erasmus. 3. Leonardo Coxi Methodus Humaniorum Studiorum. Cracovie in Edibus Heronimi Vietores Ipsis Calendis Augusti. Quindecum Viginti Quattro. B. Also in the same year, a second edition with the same title, but the following imprint. Cracovie in Ovecina Topografica Mattias Scharfenberg. Anno Quindecum Viginti Sex. From Pander Anales Typografici Norenberge 1798. Volume 6 pages 468 through 469. It will be noticed that the first edition is from the same printer as number one. I've been unable to discover a copy of either edition. 4. De Erudienda Inventute Ad P. Tomecum. Cracovie 1526 Fietor. 5. A. The art or craft of rhetoric. No date. Colophon. Imprinted at London in Fleet Street by me Robert Redman. Dwelling at the sign of the George. Cum privilegio. B. The art or craft of rhetoric. Within a rude ornamental border. Imprinted at London in Fleet Street by St. Dunstone's Church at the sign of the George by me Robert Redman. The year of our Lord God 1532. Cum privilegio. The dedication in both editions is addressed to Hugh Farrington. Abbott of Reading by Cox. Leonardo Cox C-O-X in A. And Leonardo Cox C-O-C-K-E-S in B. Both are printed in eights in very small octavo size. In A the signatures run from A1 to F4. A total of 88 pages, about 30 lines to the page. In B to F8 or 96 pages, 91 pages of text, about 29 lines to the page. Both are in black letter of apparently the same font. For reasons given above, I date A conjecturally circa 1530. It is not impossible, however, that B was the first edition, although it is highly improbable. Considering the close similarity of the two in typographical appearance, it is not likely that they were separated in date more than two or three years. A is the basis of the present reprint, although all the more important variations in B have been noted. There is a copy of A in the British Museum and of B in the Baudelaire Library at Oxford. Mr. A.W. Pollard of the British Museum conjectures from its appearance that A was printed circa 1530. Mr. R. Proctor puts it circa 1535. In the British Museum catalogue, and by most bibliographers, it is put in 1524. Redmond the printer of this work began business in 1525 and died in 1540. Herbert, however, says in a note, Mr. Ames was informed that he, Redmond, began printing in the year 1523. But he had not seen any proof of it before 1525. Neither have I. This is the work mentioned by Tanner in his list of Cox's works as Holland's Head, 3978. Holland's Head, in the passage referred to, merely mentions Cox as the author of a rhetoric in English, not mentioned by Bale. Six. Latin verses appearing on the verso of the title page of John Paul's Graves. 1530. Folio, as follows. Leonardo Coxi, writing sciences ludi-moderatoris at Caliche-lingue studiosos Carmen. Calica, quis-quis amas exacte verbasonare, et parite certis ungare dicta modis. Nuna sit intoto mend'a ut cermone reperta pro vero calo quin facile ipse probes. Hec io lui me pal grevi scripta deserti. His linguam normis usche poliare stude. Secte mereture laudeche ebes docta lo quentem. Notitia indigenam ioret et esse sum. Eustem Coxi ad eruditum urum gafridium troi deburgis galum. Campi floridi ahtorim, quem ilae sua lingua camp, fliori vocat. Nominei ominum angliurum valutium. Campo col totias gafridi docte, in florenti tu cupisti habemus. Nam sub legibus hic bene aprobates. Sermo galicus ecche edocitur. Non rem grammaticam paliumon ante tractarat menius suis. Latinis. Quot-quot florentu posteriorum. Nac grekes menius putato gazzam. Intruxis sos libris politis. Sui cot-quot pretio prius friere. Quam nunc galica este nostra tradit. Es doctus vacilis bruschei quantum. Res permitit et inde nos wamos. Campo col totias gafridi docte, in florenti tu cupisti habemus. These doubtless and perhaps others are to be included in the diversi generis carmina et epistolas. Lib unus, written by Cox, according to Bale, and described by Tanner in the following terms. Epigramata veria et epistolas. Duo eius carmina. One ad lingua galicae studiosos. Two ad galfre troi actoram galicum. Prefiguntur lexico. John Paulsgrave, London, 1530. Folio. The Jeffrey Troy addressed is alluded to by Paulsgrave in the epistle as Jeffrey Troy de Burges, a late writer of the French nation. In his book, entitled Cham Flurie, Troy or Tori, Latin Torinus, was a celebrated printer, engraver, scholar, and author of the time. See, for example, the Sumer des Chroniques, translate des Latines in langue francois, par maître Geoffrey Tori de Burges, 1529. He was born at Burges, circa 1485, and died 1533 at Paris. Paulsgrave's phrase above probably does not mean to refer to him as dead, but as having lately written books. Son oeuvre capital est un ouvrage qu'il compose et publie sur les titres de Cham Flurie. Acquel est contenu à une science de la due et très proportion des lettres antiques, Conte autrement lettres antiques et vulgèrement lettres romaines proportionnées selon les corps et le visage humain. Paris, 1529. Où il jette les baisses d'une nouvelle grammaire française. Translation of Erasmus' paraphrase of the Epistle of Paul to Titus with a preface. Made in 1534, but apparently not printed till 1549, in the paraphrase of Erasmus upon the New Testament. London, Edward Whitechurch, 1548-49, two volumes, folio, in volume 2. Bracket, 8. Translation of a book which Erasmus made of the Bringing Up of Children in 1534. C, page 13, probably not printed. Close bracket. Nine. Commentaries upon Lily. Deocto orationis partium construccion liberus, editus agil lilo, emendatus ab Erasmus rote, iscolis non solo Henry I, verum etiam doctissimis Leonardo Coxi illustratus. Ano quindecim quadraginta. Ex oficina regi impressores, cum privilegio solo, ano quindecim quadraginta. Corto. From Herbert Ames' typographical antiquities, volume 1, page 438, among works printed by Thomas Berthlet, many other editions of this work of Lily's appeared during the 16th century, but none other, I believe, with Cox and Scolia. A copy is said by Herbert to have been in the collection of Dr. Lort. I have not been able to find one. Referred to in Cox's letters above, page 14. Bracket, 10. Erotomata ratorica, probably not printed, but evidently nearly completed in May 1540. C above, page 15. Close bracket. Bracket, 11. A, the translation described by Bale. E greco in latinum venerabilis antiquitate scriptorum, marcam er mitam de lega espiritu, libe unus. B, to which Tanner adds. E ustim de ustificatione operum. Close bracket. B is perhaps the same work referred to by Tanner when he says that Cox. Bracket, 12. Scripsit contra ustificationem ab operibus libe unus. And by Bale. Scripsit contra eus qui ab operibus ustificat libe unus. Close bracket. So far as I can discover, none of these last mentioned works were ever printed. End of section three. Section four of the art or craft of rhetoric. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Amelia Chesley. The art or craft of rhetoric. The rhetoric of Cox, its predecessors and successors. The work of Cox and his chief service to his age was that of a translator and commentator. A sort of work much more important in that century than in this. Cox, like Collette Grossen, Linnaker and Lily, served as an intermediary in the transmission to England of the Renaissance and humanistic influence and literature. He had a reputation of his own among European scholars and men of the new learning and he helped to carry their work into England. And so the questions of rhetoric and of literary form which deeply concerned all the men of the new learning came to concern Cox also and to their elucidation as is evident from the foregoing inspection of his letters and of the list of his writings. He devoted a large share of his attention. The rhetoric of the Renaissance are mainly founded upon Hermogenes, Cicero and Quintillion. And following the divisions of these authors are chiefly of two sorts. Those that concern themselves with questions of invention and disposition. And those that mainly discuss matters of style and diction. Cox, whose work falls in the first class, refers his readers who may wish to carry their studies further to Hermogenes among the Greeks or Alstulli and Trapassants among the Latins. The Trapassants or Trapasuntius referred to was a typical rhetorician of the Renaissance period. Born in Crete in 1396, he taught Greek at Venice and philosophy and Bell's Letrus at Rome. On account of an attack of his on Quintillion, he was involved in various literary quarrels with Vala, Poggio and other scholars. He made numerous translations from the Greek into Latin. He died at Rome in 1486. His rhetoric, the first edition of which appeared at Venice circa 1470, is a paraphrase from Hermogenes. His work transmitting that of his original was widely circulated and exercised a great influence throughout Europe during the succeeding century. His divisions and order of treatment in a general way are those of Cox and of course Cox's original Melanchthon. Orations are of three sorts, judicial referring to the past, deliberative to the future, and demonstrative to the present. The chief parts of an oration are the Exordium, Noratio, and Contentio, whereunder are discussed Confirmatio and Confutatio, Quotz in status, the states of Cox, and de proposizione e divisione. In the last book, Book 5, is comprehended a discussion de allocutione, wherein the different qualities and kinds of style are considered, a part included by Melanchthon but omitted by Cox for reasons hinted at in his dedicatory epistle. In Cox's rhetoric, so in most of his predecessors, we frequently find appeal made not only to direct classical authority, but occasionally also to medieval authority, and to that of the fathers of the church, especially the Greek fathers as Origen, Basil, and Chrysostom. Most interesting for the history of English rhetoric, however, is the first rhetoric printed in England, which was also the first book printed at St Albans, the Latin treatise of Trafforzones, entitled Fratris Lorenzi Guilelmi Desuana, Prohimium in Novum Rhetoricum. The call-phone is Quattro decim octoginta. The work follows in general the divisions of the ancient rhetorics, especially Cicero, and draws its examples both from Cicero and from the Bible. It is scholastic in tone with frequent reference to the fathers of the church, as St Bernard, St Anselm, St Basil, Beda, etc. Book one discusses Quizet oratis, Quiz oratis oficium, Quiz ellos finis edepatibus ellos e orachionis. In the third book, style and diction, including tropes and figures, are treated. In this work, however, notwithstanding certain signs of the approaching dawning of the new learning, we are still in the atmosphere of the Middle Ages, with Cox fifty years later, in spite of the rudeness of the new vernacular in which he is working, and the elementary nature of his design, we feel ourselves in a new age. Between Trafforzones and Cox, there are two passages in English literature relating to the art of rhetoric, which are significant. The former of these, which is perhaps the first printed account of rhetoric in English, is the short passage on the subject in Texton's mirror and description of the world, with many marvels of the seven sciences as Grammar rhetoric with the art of memory, etc., 1481, which is of sufficient curious interest to reproduce here in its entirety. D3 Recto Rhetoric is a science to cause another man by speech or by writing to believe or to do that thing which thou wouldst have him for to do. To the which thou must first devise some way to make thy hearers glad and well willing to hear. The which thing to bring to pass thou must devise diverse ways. The first is that thou promise him some marvelous thing, or some other strange thing, or something touching himself or some things touching his friends or his enemies. Also, when thou hast made him glad to hear thee, thou must take heed that in the matter which thou showest thou must use five manner things. The first is invention, as to imagine the matter which thou intendest to show, which must be of true things, or like to be true, and to note well how many things in that matter ought to be spoken. The second thing is disposition, which is to show everything of thy matter in order, as when thou hast invented and appointed in thy mind how many things thou would speak of. Then thou must dispose everything in order, and which matter shall be first spoken, and which shall be last. The third thing is eloquence, as when thou hast disposed how every point and matter shall be showed in order, then thou must utter it with fair eloquent words, and not to use many curious terms, for superfluity in everything is to be dispraised, and it hindreth the sentence. When a man delayteth his matter too long, ere that he uttered the effect of his sentence, though it be never so well uttered, it shall be tedious unto the hearers, for every man naturally that heareth another, desireeth most to know the effect of his reason, that telleth the tale. As the philosopher saeth, omnis homo natur latia saia da zidirat. Therefore the principal point of eloquence, righteth, bracket, resteth, close bracket, ever in the quick sentence, and therefore the least point belonging to rhetoric is to take heed that the tale be quick and sententious. A passage on ours memoratua, or memory, and one on voice and gesture follow. Equally curious are the chapters in Hawes' pastime of pleasure, chapters 7 through 13, in which we are told how grand amore was received of rhetoric and what rhetoric is of the first part called invention and a commendation of poets of disposition, the second part of rhetoric, of elocution the third part of rhetoric, with colouring of sentences, of pronunciation the fourth part of rhetoric, of memory the fifth part of rhetoric, and the like. No one can complain of the importance attributed to the art of rhetoric in Hawes' allegorical system. Cox's aim in presenting an art or craft of rhetoric to the English public of his day was a simple and a practical one. Education was spreading, new grammar schools were being founded, in much of the work of teaching in these schools the vernacular necessarily was used. The new learning brought with it a new sense of style and form in prose, and there were no textbooks of the subject in existence written in English. Lawyers, ambassadors, preachers, and all public speakers, says Cox in his interesting preface, have need of rhetoric, yet nothing today is less taught. What wretched work do we daily see around us for lack of such teaching, so that when we hear a speaker very often, great tediousness is engendered to the multitude being present by occasion whereof the speaker is many times, or he have ended his tale either left almost alone to his no little confusion, or else, which is a like rebuke to him, the audience falleth for weariness of his ineliquent language on sleep. Furthermore, Cox aims especially to help those who have by negligence or else false persuasions be put to the learning of other sciences, or ever they have attained any mean knowledge of the Latin tongue. For of course, not only is Latin the accepted central discipline in the humanistic theory of education, but it is the storehouse of all existing learning. The book is intended for young beginners, others who can read Latin or Greek, may consult homogenies among the Greeks, or else to lay or trapezoids among the Latins, and to them that be young beginners, nothing can be too plain or too short. We are reminded of the similar words of Colette in his prohime to the introduction of the parts of speaking, or children and young beginners into Latin speech, written for his new school of pals in 1510, where that kindly humanist maintains that nothing may be too soft nor too familiar for little children. Cox is thus, it will be seen, little concerned with the theory of rhetoric. His aim is to tell very plainly the manner of the putting together the invention of orations of the several kinds then recognized by the rhetoricians. Every point is illustrated by an example. We are told in a given situation what is the leading idea pertinent thereto, which it is incumbent on the orator to bring forward. Most of these leading cases are drawn from Cicero, others from Libby, Salus and the like. Then we are shown how Cicero or another actually did put his oration together. The whole method is that of the Ciceronians and the Renaissance educators simplified and put into the vernacular for the use of those who cannot use Latin texts and manuals. 50 years later, the same method without simplification or vernacularization is still in use in the English universities, where the orations of Cicero continue to serve as models in the teaching of rhetoric. Cox's work then is designed as a schoolbook and as an elementary introduction for those who have missed the advantages of a scholastic training. His plan is restricted to the treatment of invention and the formal ordering of speech. For that, once mastered, there is no very great mastery to come by the residue. And it is in this that the public speaking of the day is particularly deficient. Questions of style must be postponed to a later generation after the matter of structure has been mastered. And indeed, by the time of Sir Thomas Wilson in 1553, the question of style has begun to assert itself, until with the Elizabethans it is the question of questions. Furthermore, if this work, the first essay of My Poor and Simple Wit, Find Favor, the author promises to indict other works both in this faculty and other. And as much as the rhetoric passed to a second edition, we may conclude that it met with success, and probably the erotimata rhetorica upon which Cox was engaged in 1540 were designed as a part fulfillment of this promise. Cox's art or craft of rhetoric is only in part his own composition. It is, as he frankly avows, largely founded upon the work of another. I have partly translated out of a work of rhetoric written in the Latin tongue and partly compiled of mine own, and so made a little treatise in a manner of an introduction into this aforesaid science and that in the English tongue. And later in the conclusion Cox says, but now I have followed the fashion of Tully who made a several work of invention. Cicero, however, is not Cox's chief authority, nor does he seem to have taken very much directly out of Cicero's rhetorical writings. The work of rhetoric written in the Latin tongue, out of which Cox translates and on which his work is mainly founded, is the institutione sretoricae of Melanchthon, published in 1521. Melanchthon is our auctor, so frequently referred to in the course of Cox's work. Readers of Professor C. H. Herford's scholarly work on the literary relations of England and Germany in the 16th century are aware how close was the connection of English and German scholarship and letters in the first half of that century. Cox, like Melanchthon, was an educator and humanist and inclined to the reformed religious doctrine, while his failure to mention Melanchthon's name anywhere is doubtless to be attributed to the prejudice against the German reformers in high quarters in England at this moment. When the idea of bringing out a work on the art of rhetoric written in English first occurred to Cox, it was natural that he should turn to the convenient compendium of the subject recently written by the great humanist educator and religious reformer of Germany, with whom, probably enough, he had already come in contact on the continent. In 1519, Melanchthon had written a larger work on rhetoric, his De Ritorica Libre Tres, to which Cox refers two or three times, and from which he borrows several passages. In 1521, however, a shorter and a much simplified version adapted to school use was compiled, perhaps from the notes of Melanchthon's lectures and published with the title Institutionis Ritoricae, Philip Melanchthon. From the first book of this work, Treating of Invention, Cox draws the greater part of his treatise, and this book accordingly is herewith reprinted for convenience of comparison. A reserve for the notes, the discussion of the exact relation between the two works. A cursory comparison of the two texts will show the closeness of Cox's dependence on his original. At the same time, numerous passages in Cox seem to be of independent composition. Particularly interesting among these are many of the illustrations drawn from Renaissance and medieval history and literature, as well as some things also from Cicero and the classics. Not only does Cox add to Melanchthon, but he freely omits and condenses as suits his purpose. Thus, as already stated, he omits the whole of books two and three on Disposizio and Elocutio. Melanchthon's own direct prototype seem to be Hermogenes or Trapezius, the latter he refers to with approval. Cicero and Quintillion. All of these, except the last, are expressly named by Cox as trustworthy authorities. Cox's rhetoric doubtless served its turn with its own generation, but any direct influence from it on later English rhetorical writers can scarcely be traced. Cox's work helped to teach better order and method in public speaking, an aim which also inspires his next important successor, Sir Thomas Wilson. But with anything beyond the structural part of composition, Cox is hardly concerned. The preoccupation with style comes in with the next generation. Cox's own prose has some historical value among the none too numerous monuments of English prose in the first half of the 16th century. His style is of purpose extremely simple and plain in order to meet the understanding of young beginners, but joined with his simplicity there is a certain rudeness, which is not the strong and eloquent rudeness of Latimer, and a certain awkwardness of phrase and syntax which prevent our placing him as a writer of English anywhere near his great predecessor Mallory, his great contemporaries Moore, Cullet, Tyndale, and Coverdale, and Elliot, or his great successors, Asham and Wilson. He writes purely didactic prose, it is true, in which there is no opportunity for style. He saves himself from excessive Latinisms, his manner is straightforward and to the point, but little more than this can be said for him as a writer of English. In Cox's day English prose is but in the making, and with few except one or two original spirits does it advance to style. And Cox is not one of the originators, nevertheless in his way by precept if not by example he contributed to the formation of the new art, and so is to be reckoned with in the history of English prose. The next and the only other important English rhetoric of the 16th century after Cox was the art of rhetoric for the use of all such as our studious of eloquence set forth in English by Thomas Wilson. Anno Domeni, Quim Decim, Quim Colinta Tres, Mente Iannuari. Wilson's work is much superior to Cox in originality and scope. Wilson follows the Ciceroanian tradition with more independence. He seems to cover the entire field of the older rhetorics, treating in order of invention, disposition, elocution, i.e. diction, or an applying of apt words and sentences to the matter, memory, and utterance, or a framing of the voice, countenance, and gesture after a comely manner. The rest of an oration too, from the entrance to the conclusion, are as in Cox and his predecessors, and so are the sorts of oratory, oration demonstrative, deliberative, and judicial. In his first and second books, except for greater amplification and assurer hand, Wilson's work differs little in structure and design from Cox's. The rest of the work, however, is entirely additional matter, and the chief interest of Wilson's rhetoric is in his discussion of English style and diction in his third book. It is probable enough that Wilson may have seen Cox's book, but evidently he owes less to it than to their common sources. After Wilson, the emphasis in the popular rhetorics of the day is upon style and ornament, rather than upon structure and argument, as with Cox and Wilson. No original work, however, is done until Ben Johnson's scholarship touches the subject in his timber or discoveries, and until Bacon, in his advancement of learning, stirs the earth a little about the roots of this science, reprehending the first distemper of learning when men study words and not matter, and uttering upon the rhetorical precept and practice of the preceding century, upon car and ashem, upon stermius and erasmus, the trenchant comment that the whole inclination and bent of those times was rather towards copy than weight. The outline and analysis of Philip Melanchthon's institutiones rhetoric has been omitted from this recording. End of section four. Section five of the Art or Craft of Rhetoric. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Amelia Chesley. The Art or Craft of Rhetoric by Leonard Cox. Dedication. To the Reverend Father in God and his singular good Lord, the Lord Hugh Farrington, Abbot of Reading, his poor client and perpetual servant, Leonard Cox, desire a long and prosperous life with increase of honor. Considering my special good Lord, how greatly and how many ways I am bound into your Lordship, and among all other that in so great a number of cunning men which are now within this region, it hath pleased your goodness to accept me as worthy to have the charge of the instruction and bringing up of such youth as resorted to your grammar school, founded by your antecessors in this your town of Reading. I studied a long space what thing I might do next, the busy and diligent occupying of myself in your said service, to the which both conscience and your stipend doth straightly bind me. That might be a signification of my faithful and serviceable heart which I owe to your Lordship, and again a long memory both of your singular and beneficial favor toward me. End of mine industry and diligence employed in your service to some prophet or at the least way to some delectation of the inhabitants of this noble realm, now flourishing under the most excellent and victorious prince, our sovereign Lord King Henry VIII. And when I had thus long perpenced in my mind what thing I might best choose out, none offered itself more convenient to the prophet of young students, which your good Lordship hath always tenderly favored, and also metered to my profession, than to make some proper work of the right pleasant and persuadable art of rhetoric, which as it is very necessary to all such as will either be advocates and proctors in the law or else apt to be sent in their princes, ambasades, or to be teachers of God's word in such manner as may be most sensible and accept to their audience. And finally to all them that have anything to propose or to speak for any company, whatsoever they be. So contraryly I see no science that is less taught and declared to scholars, which ought chiefly, after the knowledge of grammar once had, to be instruct in this faculty, without the which oftentimes the rude utterance of the advocate, greatly hindrath and appereth his client's cause. Likewise, the unapped disposition of the preacher in ordering his matter confound with the memory of his hearers, and briefly in declaring of matters, for lack of invention and order with due elocution, great tediousness is engendered to the multitude being present, by occasion whereof the speaker is many times ere he have ended his tale, either left almost alone to his no little confusion, or else, which is alike rebuke to him, the audience falleth for weariness of his ineliquent language fast on sleep. Willing therefore for my part to help such as our desirous of this art as all surely ought to be, which intends to be regarded in any commonality, I have partly translated out of a work of rhetoric written in the Latin tongue, and partly compiled of mine own, and so made a little treatise in manner of an introduction into this aforesaid science, and that in the English tongue. Remembering that every good thing after the saying of the philosopher, the more common that it is, the better it is, and furthermore trusting thereby to do some pleasure and ease to such as have by negligence or else false persuasions be put to the learning of other sciences, or ever they have attained any mean knowledge of the Latin tongue. Which my said labour I humbly offer to your good lordship as to the chief maintainer and nourisher of my study beseeching you, though it be fair within your merits done to me to accept it as the first assay of my poor and simple wit, which if it may first please your lordship and next to the readers, I trust by the aid of Almighty God to indict other works, both in this faculty and other, to the Lord of the High Godhead, of whom all goodness doth proceed, and to your lordship's pleasure, and to profit and delectation of the reader. End of Section 5. Section 6 of the Art or Craft of Rhetoric. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Amelia Chesley. The Art or Craft of Rhetoric by Leonard Cox. The Art or Craft of Rhetoric. Whomsoever desired to be a good orator, or to dispute and commune of any manner thing, him behooveeth to have four things. The first is called invention, for he must first of all imagine or invent in his mind what he shall say. The second is named judgment, for he must have wit to discern and judge, whether the things that he hath found in his mind be convenient to the purpose or not. For oftentimes, if a man lack this propriety, he may as well tell that that is against him, as experienced doth daily show. The third is disposition, whereby he may know how to order and set everything in his due place. Lest, though his invention and judgment be never so good, he may happen to be counted as the common proverb, sayeth, to put the cart up for the horse. The fourth, and is such things last, as he hath invented and by judgment known app to his purpose when they are set in their order, so to speak them that it may be pleasant and electable to the audience. So that it may be said of him that histories make mention that an old woman said once by Demosthenes, and since hath been a common proverb among the Greeks, aftos estes, which is as much to say as, this is he. And this last propriety is called among learned men, eloquence. Of these four, the most difficile or hard is to invent what thou must say, wherefore of this part the rhetoricians which be masters of this art have written very much and diligently. Invention is comprehended in certain places, as the rhetoricians call them, out of whom he that knoweth the faculty may fetch easily such things as be meet for the matter that he shall speak of, which matter the orator calleth the theme, and in our vulgar tongue it is called improperly the end to theme. The theme proposed we must after the rules of rhetoric go to our places that shall anon show unto us what shall be to our purpose. Example, in old time there was a great envy between two noble men of Rome, of whom the one was called Milo and the other Claudius. The witch Malus grew so far that Claudius laid wait for Milo on a season when he should ride out of the city, and in his journey set upon him, and there as a chance Claudius was slain, whereupon this Claudius's friends accused Milo to the senate of murder. Tully, which in those days was a great advocate in Rome, should plead Milo's cause. Now it was open that Milo had slain Claudius, but whether he had slain him lawfully or not was the doubt. So then the theme of Tully's aeration, or plea for Milo was this, that he had slain Claudius lawfully, and therefore he ought not to be punished. For the confirmation whereof, as doth appear in Tully's aeration, he did bring out of places of rhetoric arguments to prove his said theme or purpose. And likewise must we do when we have any matter to speak or commune of, as if I should make an aeration to the lord and praise of the king's highness. I must for the invention of such things as be for my purpose go to the places of rhetoric where I shall easily find, after I know the rules, that that I desire. Here is to be noted that there is no theme but it is contained under one of four causes, or for the more planes, four kinds of orations. The first is called logical, which kind we call properly disputation. The second is called demonstrative. The third deliberative. The fourth judicial. And these three last be properly called species or kinds of orations, whose natures shall be declared separately hereafter with the craft that is required in every one of them. All themes that pertain to logic, either they be simple or compound, as if a man desire to know of me what justice is, this only thing justice is my theme. Or if disputation be had in any company upon religion and I would declare the very nature of religion, my theme should be this simple or one thing, religion. But if it be doubted whether justice be a virtue or not and I would prove the part affirmative, my theme were now compound, that is to say justice is a virtue, for it is made of two things, knit or united together, justice and virtue. Here it must be noted that logic is a plain and a sure way to instruct a man of the truth of everything and that in it the natures' causes, parts and effects of things are by certain rules discussed and searched out so that nothing can be perfectly and properly known but by rules of logic, which is nothing but an observation or a diligent marking of nature whereby in everything man's reason doth consider what is first, what last, what proper and what improper. The places or instruments of a simple theme are the definition of the thing, the parts, the causes, the effects. Example, if thou inquire what thing justice is, whereof it cometh, what parts it hath, and what is the office or effect of every part, when hast thou diligently searched out the whole nature of justice and handled thy simple theme according to the precepts of logicians, to whom our author, Lineth, such matters to be discussed of them, how be it somewhat the rhetoricians have to do with the simple theme and as much as shall be for their intent we will show hereafter. For many times the orator must use both definitions and divisions but as they be in logic plain and compendious so are they in rhetoric extended and painted with many figures and ornaments longing to the science. Nevertheless to satisfy the reader's mind and to alleviate the tediousness of searching these places I will open the manner and fashion of the handling of the theme aforesaid as plainly as I can after the precepts of logic. First to search out the perfect knowledge of justice I go to my first place definition and fetch from Aristotle in his ethics the definition of justice which is this justice is a moral virtue whereby men be the workers of rightful things that is to say whereby they both love and also do such things as be just. This done I search the cause of justice that is to say from whence it took the first beginning and because that it is a moral virtue and Plato in the end of his dialogue Menon concluded that all virtue cometh of God I am assured that God is the chief cause of justice declaring it to the world by his instrument man's wit which the same Plato affirmeth in the beginning of his laws. The definition and cause had I come to the third place called parts to know whether there be but one kind of justice or else many and for this purpose I find that Aristotle in the fifth of his ethics divided justice in two species or kinds one that he call it justice legitimate or legal and another which he called equity. Justice legal is that that consisteth in the superiors which have power to make or statute laws to the inferiors and the office or end of this justice is to make such laws as be both good and according to right and conscience and then to declare them and when they are made and published as they ought to be to see that they be put in use for what availeth it to make never so good laws if they be not observed and kept and finally that the maker of the law apply his whole study and mind to the wealth of his subjects and to the common profit of them. The other kind of justice which men call equity is whereby a man neither take neither giveeth less nor more than he ought but in giving take the good heed that every man have according as he deserveeth. This equity is again divided into equity distributive of common things and equity commutative by equity distributive is distributed and given of common goods to every man according to his deserving and as he is worthy to have as to divide among such as long to the church of the church goods after the quality of their merits and to them that be civil persons of the common treasure of the city according as they are worthy. In this part is comprehended the punishment of misdoers and transgressors of the law to whom correction must be distributed for the common well according to their demerits after the prescriptions of the laws of the country made and determined for the punishment of any manner transgressor. Equity commutative is a just manner in the changing of things from one to another whose office or effect is to keep just dealing in equity as buying selling and all other bargains lawful and so are here with the species of justice declared their offices which was the fourth and last place. Our officer also in a great work that he had made upon rhetoric declared the handling of a theme simple by the same example of justice adding two places more which are called a fines and contraries on this manner. What is justice? A virtue whereby to everything is given that that to it belong. What is the cause thereof? Man's will consenting with laws and manners. How many kinds? Two. Which commutative and distributive for in two manners is our meddling with other men either in things of our substance and wears or in gentle and civil conversation. What thing is justice commutative? Right and equity in all contracts. What is justice distributive? Justice of civil living. How many fold is justice distributive? Either it is common or private. The common is called in Latin, but in English it may be most properly named good order which is the crown of all virtues conserving honesty and civil conversation of men together as the heads with the mean commonality in good unite and concord. Private or several justice distributive is honesty and amiable friendship and conversation of neighbors. What are the offices to do for every man rich or poor of what some ever state he be and for our country for our wives children and friends that ought to be done for every of them. Affines or virtues, nigh to justice are constancy, liberality, temperance. Things contrary are fear, covetous, prodigality. And this is the manner of handling of a simple theme, dialectual. But yet let not the reader deceive himself and think that the very perfect knowledge in here what hath been showed now is somewhat general and brief. More sure and exact knowledge is contained in logic to whom I will advise them that be studious to resort and to fetch everything in his one proper faculty. Of a theme compound. Every theme compound either it is proved true or false. Now whether thou wilt prove or improve anything it must be done by argument. And any theme compound be it logical or rhetorical it must be referred to the rules of logic by them to be proved true or false. For this is the difference that is between these two sciences that the logician in disputing observed certain rules for the setting of his words being solicitous that there be spoken no more nor no less and that it be even as plainly spoken as it is thought. But the rhetorician seeketh about and borroweth when he can as much as he may for to make the simple and plain logical arguments gay and delectable to the ear. So then the short judgment of arguments or reasons must be learned of the logician but the craft to set them out with pleasant figures and to delay the matter longeth to the as in Milo's cause of whom was made mention afore. A logician would briefly argue whosoever violently will slay another may lawfully of the other be slain in his defense. Claudius would violently have slain Milo wherefore Claudius might lawfully be slain of Milo in Milo's own defense. And this argument the logicians call a syllogism in Dari which Tully in his oration extendeth that in four or five leaves it is scant made an end of nor no man can have knowledge whether Tully's argument that he maketh in his oration for Milo be a good argument or not. And how it holdeth, except he can by logic reduce it to the perfect and brief form of a syllogism taking in the mean season of the rhetoricians what ornaments have been cast so for to light and augment the oration to give it a majesty. The places out of whom are found arguments for the proving or improving of compound themes are these following definition, cause, parts, like, contrary. Of the places of arguments shall be spoken hereafter for as touching them in all things the rhetorician and logician do agree but as concerning the craft to form arguments when thou hast found them in their places that must be learned of the logician where he treated of the form of syllogisms and the memes and inductions. End of section six