 Chapter 6 of the Piano Forte Sonata by John South Shedlock This Leap of Oaks recording is in the public domain. Predecessors of Beethoven 1. Muzio Clemente Muzio Clemente, born at Rome in 1752, was brought to England by Alderman Beckford, father of the author of Vulfrec, and at Font Hill Abbey he had leisure to study the works of Handel, John Sebastian Beck, Emanuel Beck, Domenico Scarlatti, and Paradis. Clemente, like Scarlatti, was a virtuoso. But although both indulged largely in technical display, they were true and intelligent artists. In Scarlatti, the balance between his musical ideas and the form in which they were presented was almost perfect. In Clemente, virtuosity often gained the ascendancy of a virtuoso. With the latter, however, as indeed with E. Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and many other composers, the necessity of earning a living, and therefore of writing for long years, mixed with the love of fame, produced works which, like the Old Eden Tree, contained both good and evil. To judge such great men really fairly, the chaff ought to be separated from the wheat, and the chaff ought to be thoroughly removed, with the risk of sometimes losing a portion of wheat. To the true lover of music, choice selections are more precious than complete collections. The latter are, of course, necessary to those whose business it is to study the rise and development of the various composers. The pianoforte sonatas of Mozart, Haydn, Dusek, and Clemente might be reduced to very moderate compass. To suggest that any one of Beethoven's 32 should be removed out of its place would now sound flat blasphemy, but art progresses, and some even now are falling into oblivion. The catalogue of music performed at the popular concerts during the history of the past 35 years shows pretty clearly which sonatas of Beethoven are likely to live long and which not. But to return to Clemente, he publishes first three sonatas, Opus 2, Numbers 1-3, in 1770, the year in which Beethoven was born, and the influence which he exerted over that master was considerable. In Beethoven's library were to be found many sonatas of Clemente, and the master's predilection for them is well known. The world seldom renders full justice to men who prepared the way for greater than themselves. Pacabel, Berm, and Bux de Huda, the immediate predecessors of Bach, and again Emmanuel Bach, to whom Haydn was so indebted and whose works were undoubtedly studied by Beethoven are notable examples. This is, of course, perfectly natural. The best only survives. But musicians who take serious interest in their art ought, from time to time, to look back and see how much was accomplished and suggested by men who, in comparison with their mighty contemporaries and successors, are legitimately ranked as second-rate. Among such, Clemente holds high place. Beethoven overshadowed the Italian composer, but the harsh judgment expressed by Mozart footnotes, Clemente is a charlatan, like all the Italians. Letter to his sister, June 7th, 1783, end of footnote, has contributed not a little, we imagine, to the indifference now shown to the Clemente sonatas. Footnote, it is 35 years since the fine one in B minor was performed at the popular concerts, and 18 since a Clemente sonata has appeared on a popular concert program, end of footnote. The judgment was a severe one, but Otto Jahn relates how Clemente told his pupil Berger that, at the period of which Mozart writes, he devoted his attention to brilliant execution and in particular to double runs and extemporized passages. And again, Berger himself was of opinion that the sonata selected for performance by Clemente at the memorable concert with Mozart in presence of the Emperor Joseph II, December 1781, was decidedly inferior to his earlier compositions of the same kind. The sonata in question was the one in B flat, B and H, number 61, on Holler, number 37, of which the opening theme commences in the same manner as the Allegro of the Overture to the Magic Flute. Mozart suffered from the predominant Italian influence at court and the, like all the Italians, in the letter just mentioned shows to say the least, a bitter spirit. But the letter was a private one, hastily written. The judgment expressed was formed from an inferior work. It must not be taken too seriously. Mozart, by the way, was not the only composer who failed to render justice to his contemporaries. Clemente's sonatas may be roughly divided into three classes. Some he wrote merely for the display of technique, while some were composed for educational purposes. But there remain others in which his heart and soul were engaged and in these he reaches a very high level. Our classification is a rough one, for often in those which we consider his best, there is plenty of showy technique. With the exception of Mozart's sonata in C minor and Haydn's Ginzinger and London sonatas, both in E flat, also some of rusts of which we shall soon have something to say, there are, to our thinking, none which in spirit come nearer to Beethoven Clemente's. Mr. E. Danrauter in his article on the composer in Sir George Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians justly remarks that a judicious selection from his entire works would prove a boon. In order to trace the relationship between Clemente and Beethoven, it may be well to state that Clemente in 1783 had published after Opus 11, Sonata and Toccata. It appeared in the Breitkopf and Hartel edition. It appeared first, we believe, together with the sonata in a London edition. Beethoven's first sonatas, Opus II, appeared only in 1796. Footnote. The three sonatas in E flat, F minor and D, dedicated to Maximilian Frederick Elector of Cologne and published at Spater account. End of footnote. By 1802, Clemente had published up to Opus 40, in which year Beethoven composed two of the three sonatas, Opus 31, Numbers 1 to 3. Between 1820 and 21 appeared Clemente's sonata Opus 46, dedicated to Kalkbrenner. And the last set of three sonatas in, including the Didone Abandonata, Opus 50. Beethoven's sonata in E, Opus 109, appeared in November 1821. Thus, Clemente had first influenced Beethoven, but later on, the reverse must have been the case. Breitkopf and Hartel have published 64 sonatas of Clemente, and of these 63 are to be found in the Holler edition. Footnote. In mentioning any of them, we shall first give the Breitkopf and Hartel numbers, and then the Holler numbers in brackets, so that either edition may be referred to. End of footnote. The three sonatas, Opus 2, Numbers 1, 2, 3, 25, 26, 27, have only two movements, and they are principally remarkable for their showy technique. Footnote. At the time of their production, Dusek was not born, Hartel was still a child, and Beethoven an infant, mulling and puking in the nurse's arms. If indeed, the Beethoven's were able to afford the luxury of a nurse. Even Emanuel Bach had not published any of his Leipzig collections, neither had Haydn written his best sonatas. As Clemente was not only the survivor of Beethoven, but also his predecessor, a reminder as to the state of the sonata world, when Clemente first entered it, the unnecessary. End of footnotes. Clemente, of course, was well acquainted with Scarlatti's music, yet it would perhaps be difficult to point out any direct influence of the one over the other. In the next three sonatas, Opus 9, Numbers 4, 5, 6, 11, 28, 12, the first and third are most interesting. In the second, Clemente indulges favourite passages of 3rds, 6th and octaves. There is indeed a presto movement, a motopepettuo for the right hand in octaves, which, if taken up to time, would tax even pianists of the present day. The first sonata may be noticed for its bold chords and its sforzandos on unaccented beats, which sounds Beethoven-ish. The third sonata reminds us in many ways of the Bonn master. In the opening Allegro, there is a sighing figure, which plays an important part throughout the movement, and therefore gives a marked character to it. In the development sections, the bold contrasts, the powerful chords, the sighing figure in augmentation all point to Beethoven, and curiously enough the principal theme, which now appears in major, G minor, reminds one very strongly of the Eroica. It is worth noticing that the sighing figure may be traced in the other two movements of the sonata. The next sonata, number 10, 44, has three movements, all in the same key. The trio of the minuet is in the key of the subdominant. In the first movement may be noticed an extension of a phrase by repetition, pianissimo, of its last two notes, a feature often to be met with in Beethoven. See, for instance, the first movement of the appassionata development section. The piano phrase in the rondo of number 11, 45, before the organ point and the pause bar is striking. Number 14, 2 is interesting. The broken octaves at the end of the exposition section, to the principal theme, call to mind passages in Beethoven's Opus 22 and Opus 109. Sonata number 16, 4, has a delightful first movement, and the evolution of the second subject from the first deserves attention. In number 18, 51, there is one point to notice. The key of the first movement is in F, but the principal theme in the recapitulation section appears in E flat. The second theme, however, according to rule in the tonic. Sonata number 19, 52, in F minor demands more than a passing word. Our readers will, perhaps, be tired of our noticed foreshadowings of Beethoven, yet we must add others here. We can assure them, however, or rather those who are not familiar with Clementi's sonatas, that the passages to which we call attention only form a small proportion of those to which we might refer. The first movement, allegro agitato, is concise. There is no padding. Every bar of the exposition section may be termed thematic. The second subject, in the orthodox relative major, is evolved from the principal theme. And the latter descends, but the former ascends, a true Beethoven contrast. The coda to the first section, into working of a thematic figure in augmentation, forms a striking feature. At the close of the development section, a long dignified dominant passage seems a preparation for the return of the principal theme. But the composer has a surprise. After a pause bar, the second theme appears, and in A-flat, a modulation soon leads back to F minor and quite in Beethoven fashion. And the exposition coda is repeated in extended form. In the next movement, lago issostenuto, sombatones still prevail. The key is that of the dominant minor. There is evident kinship between the first and last movements. Of this, the opening bar of the former and the closing bars of the latter offer signal proof. In number 23, 43, at the end of the last movement, an end point reminds us that the full intentions of the composer are not recorded. Thus, in Clementi's early sonatas at any rate, the interpreter, as in E-boxwork, was expected to make additions. In number 26, 7, the opening of the theme of the Areetta recalls, and in no vague manner, the opening of the finale of Beethoven's septet. Number 34, 8 is an excellent sonata. There is considerable freedom in the recapitulation section. In number 39, 35, Clementi returns to an old form of sonata. There are only two movements, a larghetto and tempo diminueto, and both in the same key. With sonata number 41, 32, the first of two published as opus 34, Clementi breaks new ground. The idea of incorporating the subject of an introductory slow movement had already occurred to Haydn footnote. London symphony in E-flat number 8, number 1 in the Breitkopf and Hartl catalogue, end of footnote, but Clementi goes to greater lengths. It must not be forgotten that Beethoven's sonata pathetique, opus 13, appeared in 1799, possibly before Clementi's. From the opening characteristic subject of the larghetto is evolved the principal subject of the allegro confrocco, and there is also a relationship between it and the second subject. In the unusually long development section, a dramatic passage evolved from the concluding bars of the larghetto leads to a slow section in which the opening tones of the larghetto are given out in loud tones, and in the unexpected key of C major, the three repeated Spazzando sets reminds one of the fate notes in the C minor symphony, and when the tempo primo is resumed, the also reminds one of in the same movement of the above mentioned symphony. Then again, in an important coda, the theme is given out in modified, yet intensified form. In the finale of the sonata, the larghetto still makes its influence felt. Exception may perhaps be taken to the length of the first movement and to the prominence throughout the work of the principal key, but the evident desire of the composer to express something which was inwardly moving him gives great interest to the music. The sonata in B minor, Opus 40, is one of Clemente's most finished productions. The name of Beethoven must again be mentioned, for depth of meaning, boldness, solid development and gradation of interest, the music comes within measurable distance of the greater master. Not only is there no padding, but here the technique serves a higher purpose than that of display. There are no formal successions of thirds, sixths or octaves, no empty bravura passages. The long development section of the first movement, with its bold contrasts, its varied presentation of thematic material, purely a mode of dealing with fragments of a theme, and its long dwelling on dominant harmony previous to the return of the principal theme. All these things remind one of Beethoven. The movement is followed by a lago, Mesto epatetico, leading to the final allegro. These two are intimately connected, and moreover, the latter includes reminiscences from the introductory adagio. After a brief reference to the lago, the movement concludes with a passionate presto coda. In Mr. Bannister's Life of McFarron, we learn that the latter considered the B minor of Clemente, one of the finest sonatas ever written, and many musicians will probably agree with him. Of the three last sonatas, Opus 50, Numbers 1, 2 and 3, it must be remembered that when they appeared, Beethoven had published up to Opus 106 and possibly Opus 109. If, then, in some of the earlier Clemente sonatas we spoke of his influence on Beethoven, it is just the reverse here. Nevertheless, of these sonatas which must have been known to that master, one may have led him to think again about the idea of revealing the poetic basis of his sonatas. Clemente gives the title Didone Abandonata Sena Tragica to his work. The introductory lago is Sostenuto and Patetico, while the Allegro which follows bears the superscription Deliberando in Meditando. The adagio is Dolente and the Allegro finale Agitato Econ Disparazione. The music expresses throughout the sorrow and despair of the Forsaken Queen, while certain wild passages as, for example, the coda of the first Allegro tell also of her anger. This Allegro is an admirably sustained movement and, at moments, the composer rises to the height of his argument. It is interesting, too, from a technical point of view, for there is no empty display. Whatever degree of inspiration may be accorded to the music, it will surely be acknowledged that the composer is full of his theme, that all his powers of head and heart were engaged in the task of illustration. This dido-senata, of course, suffers if compared to those of Clementi's great contemporary, and some of the writing is formal and old-fashioned and, at times, too thin to attract the sympathy or to excite the interest of pianists of the present day, who enjoy the richer inheritance of Beethoven, the romantic tone pictures of Beethoven and Brahms, the fascinating miniatures of Chopin, and the clever glitter of Liszt. Still, it does not deserve utter oblivion. Here what Frau Rohlitz said of it in Algemeiner Musikalischer Zeitung It, the sonata, is indeed a tragic scene, one so clearly thought out and so definitely expressed that it is by no means difficult, not only in each event, but in its various divisions to follow literally the course of changing feeling which is here developed. Schindler, with regard to the work, also remarks as follows who understands nowadays how to interpret this musical soul picture, written unfortunately in old stereotype sonata form, at best glancing hastily over it, a pianist carelessly remarks that the poetic contents of the sonata are only expressed in the title. And again, in the year 1827 at Baden, near Vienna, Clementi gave me details respecting the contents and interpretation of this tone poem. A new edition of the work by J. Andre of Offenbach enabled me to insert a preface with the explanations of the veteran master. Footnote Schindler, biography of Beethoven third edition, volume 2, pages 223 to 4, end of footnote and further as a tone picture expressing states of the soul, he knows of no other work in title sonata more worthy of a place besides those of Beethoven. 2 Johann Ludwig Dussek This composer comes next to Clementi in order of time, and we may add of merits. His natural gifts really exceed those of Clementi but the latter made a deep study of his art and also of the piano forte to which, indeed, like Chopin he devoted his whole attention. Dussek was fond of ease and pleasure and never developed his powers to the full. It may be noted that both these celebrated pianists were connected with English music publishing houses Clementi prospered though not in his first undertaking with Longman and Broderick Dussek was unsuccessful and left England, so it is said, to avoid his creditors. There is, indeed, a letter written by Dussek from Hamburg dated 12th June 1801 to Clementi and apart from the curious spectacle of these two pianists in commercial correspondence with each other the letter is of interest in that it belongs to a period of Dussek's life concerning the details of which there is some uncertainty. Dussek, it may be mentioned does not ever appear to have returned to London. In 1803 he became attached to Prince Louis Thirdinand to whom he offered advice in piano forte playing and composition. There is another letter extant of Dussek's written in the same year in which that Prince fell on the battlefield of Salfelt, 13th October 1806 and this also we will give as we believe like the one above it has never been published. The catalogue of Dussek's works in Sir G Grobe's dictionary of music and musicians mentions three quartets for strings over 60 in G, B-flat and E-flat most probably the works referred to in the second letter. Dussek, born in the year 1761, studied first with his father J.J. Dussek and in his 22nd year received further instruction from Emmanuel Buck. He soon enjoyed great fame as an executant. Tomaszek, himself a pianist of note, thus speaks of him in his autobiography. There was in fact something magical about the way in which Dussek with all his charming grace of manner through his wonderful touch extorted from the instrument delicious and at the same time emphatic tones. His fingers were like a company of ten singers endowed with equal executive powers and able to produce with the utmost perfection whatever the director could require. I never saw the Prague public so enchanted as they were on this occasion by Dussek's splendid playing his fine declamatory style especially in cantabile phrases stands as the ideal for every artistic performance something which no other pianist has since reached. The above quotation refers to a concert given at Prague in 1804. There is unfortunately great confusion in the opus numbers of Dussek's work and moreover it is difficult if not impossible to give the dates either of composition or publication. Breitkopf and Hartl have published more than 50 sonatas but we shall only refer to some of the more important ones. Dussek, like all the prominent composers of his time, not even accepting Haydn and Mozart wrote music on a practical rather than on a poetic basis. One of the letters given above acknowledges this in very frank terms. But to Dussek's credit be it said his least valuable works are masterpieces as compared with those which the sonata makers Steibelt, Cramer and others fabricated by the hundred. In Dussek we find great charm and refinement while the writing for the instrument is often highly attractive but the art of developing themes was certainly not his strong point. That he was at times careless or indifferent may be seen from such a bar as the following. Opus 47, number one Littolf edition Adagio, bar nine The bar before the return to the principal theme in the Allegro of the sonaterine E flat, Opus 75 furnishes another instance. Again in the Allegro of the sonaterine E flat known as Le Retro à Paris there is a passage commencing 15 bars before the end of the exposition section which with slight alteration might have been materially improved. Of the early sonatas Opus 10, number two in G minor is an interesting work. It consists of two well contrasted movements and Adagio in binary and a Vivace in sonata form. Of the presto of Opus 10, number three professor Prout in his interesting article Ducex Piano Forte Sonatas footnote musical times September and October 1877 end of footnote says both the first and second principal subjects remind us irresistibly of that composer Mendelssohn while the phrase at the conclusion of the first part repeated at the end of the movement is almost identical with a well known passage in the first movement of the scotch symphony. Is the coincidence accidental or did Mendelssohn know the sonata and was he unconsciously influenced by it? In his three last sonatas Opus 70, 75 and 77 Ducex rises to a very high level. He was undoubtedly influenced by the earnestness of Beethoven, the chivalric spirit of Weber and the poetry of Schubert. A new era had set in. These three composers were neither the fools of princes nor the servants of the public. They were in the world yet not of it. They looked upon their art as a sacred thing and most probably the shallowness of much of the music produced towards the close of the 18th century spurred them on to higher efforts. Ducex had lived in an irregular, aimless sort of life. He had wandered from one country to another and had acquired the ephemeral fame of the virtuoso. Perhaps he was a disappointed man. There is a tinge of sadness about these last sonatas which support such a view. Perhaps a feeling that his life was ebbing away made him serious. His music now shows no trifling. Explain it as you may. Ducex's three last contributions to sonata literature rank among the best of his day. And the indifference now shown to them so far at least as the concert platform is concerned is proof of ignorance or bad taste. We say ignorance because the rising generation has few if any opportunities of hearing this composer's music. It is 18 years since his Opus 70 was given at the popular concerts, while 23 and 29 years have passed since Opus 75 and Opus 77 have been played there. The sonata in A flat entitled Le Retour d'Aparie is known in England as plus ultra and in an old edition was dedicated to non plus ultra. The latter was meant for volful. A famous pianist and contemporary his music is now forgotten and his name is principally remembered in connection with Beethoven. Like the latter, his talent for improvisation was great. The late J.W. Davidson in his long and interesting preface to Brewer & Company's edition of Ducex A flat sonata leads us to believe that Ducex publisher and not the composer himself was responsible for the change of title to plus ultra. The Opus number two was changed from 70 to 71. The following story is also told by Davidson in a preface contributed by him to the Brewer edition of the volful sonata who will play it, asked the publisher well, looking through the music of the composer I will it play replied Würfel, yes but you won't buy the copies no one but yourself or Ducex can play the Allegro and I doubt if either of you can play the variations. Volful however, sitting down before an old harpsichord convinced the publisher of his error what shall we call it, said well call it nuplus ultra said volful rubbing his hands with joy and adding now shall we see if Er von Elch Wilmore Blay or Er Bombendo make de variation Ducex plus ultra, Opus 70 is justly admired the music is fine and in the matter of technique looking aside a few sensational passages footnote here is one in the eighth variation end of footnote in volful sonata which his very long fingers enabled him to execute with comparative ease far surpassed the earlier work it must appear strange to many musicians who do not possess a copy of volful sonata that in any mention of the rivalry between the two composers no reference is made to verful sonata beyond the title an examination of the latter however would soon solve the mystery the plain fact is this both the music and the technique are now absolutely uninteresting the sonata in the key of F major commences with a brief introductory adagio followed by a long tedious allegro abounding in passages of thirds a brief adante comes between this allegro and the finale consisting of flimsy variations of the popular melody life let us cherish in a book of small compass such as the present one we only wish to dwell upon matters of interest for some particular purpose volful sonatas might possibly prove of importance and even interest but not here the non plus ultra so far as we are concerned may serve to remind us that volful once lived while the rest of his music like some incidents in his life may be consigned to oblivion we cannot say that we have read all his sonatas but enough of them we believe to judge generally of their contents professor macpharen's opinion of du sec as composer of the piano forte in the imperial dictionary of biography is so excellent that we cannot perhaps do better than write his words the immense amount of du sec's compositions for the piano forte have by no means equal merit many of them were written for the mere object of sale still more for the purpose of tuition and some with the design of executive display of those which were produced however in the true spirit of art expressing the composer's feelings in his own unrestrained ideas there exist quite enough to stamp one of the first composers for his instrument and while these are indispensable in the complete library of the pianist they are above value to the student in the development of his mechanism and the formation of his style a strong characteristic of the composer is his almost redundant profusion of ideas footnote Mendelssohn too complains that du sec was a prodigal end of footnote but his rich fecundity of invention is greatly counter balanced by diffuseness of design resulting from the want of that power of condensation by means of which greater interest is often given to less beautiful matter and then again in an analysis of a du sec quintet he remarks that in that composer's works we may trace not only the origin of many of the most beautiful effects with which later writers have been accredited but some of the identical ideas that many writers have made their way into popularity three Friedrich Wilhelm Rust during the years 1744 to 45 a young man named Johann Ludwig Anton Rust went to Leipzig to study jurisprudence and philosophy but he was also musical and playing the violin at performances given under the direction of J.S. Bach on returning to his home at Leipzig Rust tried to inspire those around him with enthusiasm for the music of Bach with his younger brother Friedrich Wilhelm he was at any rate successful for the latter already at the age of 13 was able to play by heart the whole of the well tempered clavier later on young Friedrich went to Halle to study law and then only made the acquaintance of Friedrich Menbach but in return for attending the correspondence of that gifted musician he received from him instruction in composition organ and clavier playing afterwards at Potsdam he continued his clavier studies under Emanuel Bach surely a finer training never fell to the lot of any pupil Schumann recommends young musicians to make Bach their daily bread and of that Rust must have had full weight but the list of his teachers is not yet exhausted he went to Italy in 1765 and studied the violin under Tatini Rust composed operas, cantatas, concertos and sonatas for violin footnote the one in D Minor has often been performed at the popular concerts and footnote and for Piano Forte the last named of which he wrote 8 Now Concern Us the earliest entitled Sonata Erotica was composed in 1775 this work however was not published until the year 1888 edited by his grandson Dr. Wilhelm Rust footnote 1822-1892 end of footnote late cantor of St. Thomas's it is the first of a series of works extraordinary in many ways in form subject matter developments and technique with regards to the last named something to say and it had better be said at once Dr. E. Prager in his interesting pamphlet F. W. Rust Einvor Ganger Beethoven's remarks as follows while the grandson fallen enthusiasm through his whole soul at the creations of his ancestor he gave a reflection in his edition of the pictures which had been vividly formed in his mind to accomplish this he has strengthened the writing and in some cases modernised it Dr. Prager who has seen some if not all of the autographs has assured us that these editions only concern the exterior and do not affect the fundamental character of the work this statement is to a certain extent satisfactory and we receive it thankfully but a great deal of the writing is far ahead of the age in which it was written by one now of Weber, now of Schumann why one may ask did not the editor indicate the editions in smaller notes then it would have been possible to see exactly what the elder Rust had written and what the younger Rust had added at present one can only marvel at some of the writing and long to know how much of it really belongs to the composer it appears that Rust as editor of his grandfather's work had some intention of describing his editions etc which frequently prevents the best intentioned plans intervened the sonata erotica is noticeable generally for its charm, poetry and spontaneity the first movement an allegro moderato is in sonata form the second in the key of the relative minor entitled fantasy has in it more of the spirit of Beethoven than of Immanuel Bach the finale is in rondo form the middle section consists of a playful duetino containing three imitations the next sonata 1777 in D flat opens with a graceful allegretto and closes with a tempo diminuetto which for the most part points backwards rather than forwards the slow movement adagio sostenuto is however of a higher order than either of these it has Beethovenish breadth and clarity yet lacks the power of the bond master those magic touches by which the latter makes us feel his genius and secures gradation of interest up to the very close of a movement this adagio however were the date of its composition unknown might pass for a very clever imitation of Beethoven's style in 1784 Rust wrote two sonatas one in F sharp minor the other in B flat minor the latter consists of three movements and the music especially in the adagio in E flat minor bears traces of the great Bach still there are passages which sound more modern even in this very adagio which points so clearly to him as the source of inspiration the modern element however admits of explanation for Haydn and Mozart at the time in which the sonata was written had appeared in the musical firmament but in the works we are about to mention the composer suggests Beethoven, Weber and even Schumann in writing about Clementi we were compelled frequently and at the risk of wearying our readers to call attention to foreshadowings of both the letter and spirit of Beethoven the cases of Clementi and Rust however are not quite parallel with the former it was mere foreshadowing the exception of a few passages in which there was no resemblance between the two composers the music still bore traces of Clementi's mode of thought and style of writing but with Rust there are moments in which it is really difficult to believe that the music belongs to a pre-Batobe and period the sonata, footnote the original title is sonata per i cembalo or fortipiano dfw Rust 1788 in D minor 1788 opens with a vigorous yet dignified Allegro the graceful adagio is an 18th century type it is in the key of the relative major but closes on the dominant chord of D minor leading without break to a final Allegro full of interesting details the movement concludes with an impressive pocho adagio coda in which Rust makes use of the principal theme of the opening movement we will venture on one quotation although a few bars separated from the context may convey only a feeble impression the sonata in D major composed six years later opens with an interesting Allegro the second movement in B minor bears the superscription veclega lamentation Rust's eldest son a talented youth who was studying at Halla University was drowned in the river Zala 23rd of March 1794 Matheson the Adelaide poet sent to the disconsolate father a poem entitled to which Rust sketched music and on that sketched is based this pathetic movement which sounds like some tone poem of the 19th century here is the impressive coda there follows a dainty old-fashioned minuet and a curious movement schweermut und frussin melancholy and mirth footnote it is curious to note that in the supplement of the bright cop and huddle edition of Beethoven's works there are two little pieces entitled lustig und traurig end of footnote though after the veclega these make little impression during four years 1792 to 96 Rust was occupied by the sonata in C minor and major the work is a remarkable one it opens with an energetic recitativo in C minor interrupted by a few bars of an arioso adagio in C major then comes a lento in six four time based on the celebrated malbruk song a dignified movement containing among other canonic imitations one in the ninth it leads by means of a bar to a brilliant allegro conbrio a movement of which both the music and the technique remind one of Beethoven's bravura style a second section of the sonata commences with the recitative phrase of the opening of the work only in A minor this leads to a highly characteristic adante which Dr Rust, the editor in a preface to the published sonata likens to the mighty procession in Lenau's Faust the finale consists of an animated allegro with a clever fugato by way of episode there is still an allegro maistoso which except for its length and the fact that it contains a middle section can to be a religioso we should call a long coda the whole evidently program music is a sonata worked out somewhat on cunow lines now was Beethoven acquainted with Rust's music Dr Prager in the pamphlet mentioned above remarks as follows during the years 1807 to 27 Wilhelm Karl Rust born 1787 died 1855 the youngest son of our master was in Vienna and had the good fortune to make the acquaintance of Beethoven who was pleased with his playing and recommended him as teacher among Rust's lady pupils were Baroness Dorothea Ertman and Maximiliana Brentano both of whom belonged to Beethoven's most intimate circle of friends and had been honoured by having works dedicated to them the younger Rust was gifted with an extraordinary memory and therefore it seemed more than probable that he occasionally performed some of his father's works in that circle on the other hand we have Beethoven's energetic nature holding a loop from anything which might influence his own individuality there in a few words is the answer to our question and it is about the only one we can ever hope to obtain Rust was altogether a remarkable phenomenon a musician born as it were out of due time if Beethoven, as seems quite possible was acquainted with his music then Rust exerted an influence over the master quite equal to that of Clementi it almost seems as if we ought to say greater end of chapter 6 recording by Jordan Watts Oxfordshire chapter 7 of the Piano Forte Sonata by John South Shadlock the slip of rocks recording is in the public domain Ludwig van Beethoven Bach's 48 Preludes and Fugues and Beethoven's 32 Sonatas tower above all other works written for the Piano Forte they were aptly described by the late Doctor Hans von Bullo the one as the old the other as the New Testament of musical literature each fresh study of them reveals new points of interest, new beauties they are rich minds which it is impossible to exhaust Bach seemed to have revealed all the possibilities of fugue form and the history of the last 70 years almost leads one to imagine that Beethoven was the last of the great sonata writers to this matter however we will presently return in speaking of the various composers from Kunau onwards we have tried to show the special also the earliest influences acting on them and we shall still pursue the same course with regard to Beethoven when he went to Vienna in 1792 he found himself in the very centre of the musical world Haydn though past 60 years of age was at the zenith of his fame Beethoven for a time studied under him Mozart had died in the previous year so his name was still in everybody's mouth the early works of Beethoven give strong evidence of the influence exerted over him by these two composers then Prince Liknovsky the friend and pupil of Mozart and Baron van Svaiten the patron and friend of both Haydn and Mozart were among the earliest to take notice of the rising genius and to invite him to their musical matinees and soires and one can easily guess what kind of music was performed on those occasions but the little story of Beethoven remaining at van Svaiten's house after the guests had departed in order to send his host to bed with half a dozen of Bach's views by way of Arbenzagen reminds us of another strong and still earlier influence at Bonn under the guidance of his master Christian Gottlob Nefer Beethoven was so well grounded in the well-tempered clavier that already at the age of 12 he could play nearly the whole of it but if we are not mistaken he also made early acquaintances with the sonatas of Immanuel Bach for in 1773 Nefer published Zvolf Klavier Zanaten which were dedicated to the composer just named in the preface he says since the period in which you dearest Hare Capelmeister presented to the public your masterly sonatas worked out too with true taste so guess the anything of a characteristic nature has appeared for this instrument Footnote E. Bach published six easy Klavier sonatas in 1765 but Nefer probably refers to earlier and more important works Footnote most composers have been occupied in writing symphonies, trios, quartets etc and if now and then they have turned their attention to the Klavier the greater number of the pieces have been provided with an accompaniment often of an extremely arbitrary kind for the violin so that they are as suitable for any other instrument as for the Klavier then later on Nefer acknowledged how much instruction and how much pleasure he had received from the theoretical and practical works of E. Bach we seem to be reading over again the terms in which Haydn expressed himself towards Bach may we then not conclude that Young Beethoven's attention was attracted to these masterly sonatas and also to those of his teacher Nefer it is scarcely the moment to describe the Nefer sonatas Footnote besides those mentioned he published in 1774 six new sonatas also variations of the theme Kunst fand einst einen armen Mann end of footnote in connection however with Beethoven one or two points must be noticed in the third of the three sonatas which Beethoven composed at the age of eleven the last movement is entitled Schatzando Allegro Man on Troppel and twice in Nefer do we come across the heading Allegro e Schatzando first set number five last movement and second set number one also last movement then again number two of the second set opens with a brief introductory adagio one by the way to some extent connected with the Allegro which follows in the second of the above mentioned Beethoven's sonatas the one in F minor there is also a slow introduction the young master nomir imitator anticipates his own sonat patetique and repeats it in the body of the Allegro movement lastly no one we believe can compare the Nefer variations with those of Beethoven in the third sonata in A without coming to the conclusion that the people had diligently studied his teacher's compositions which we may add were thoroughly sound full of pleasing cantabile writing and at times not lacking in boldness let us venture on a quotation of only four bars from sonata one in G of the second set of six it is the opening of a short adagio connecting the Allegro with an Allegro e Schatzando the enharmonic modulation from the seconds to the third bar reminds one of E Bach who was so fond of such changes also of a similar one in the patetique Beethoven wrote 32 sonatas and in the following table the opus number each work is given also the date of its publication some have a title and the greater number a dedication opus two number one published 1796 dedicated to Haydn opus two number two published 1796 dedicated to Haydn opus two number three published 1796 dedicated to Haydn opus seven e-flat published 1797 dedicated to Countess Barbetke-Glevix opus ten number one published 1798 dedicated to Countess Browner opus ten number two published 1798 opus ten number three published 1798 dedicated to Countess Browner opus thirteen c-minor sonat patetique published 1799 dedicated to Prince Charles Lignowsky opus ten number one published 1799 dedicated to Baroness Browner opus ten number two published 1799 published 1799 dedicated to Baroness Browner opus twenty-two e-flat published 1802 dedicated to Count Browner opus twenty-six published 1802 dedicated to Prince Charles Lignowsky opus twenty-seven number one published 1802 dedicated to Prince Charles Lignowsky opus twenty-seven number two published 1802 dedicated to Countess Julietta Guccardi opus twenty-eight published 1802 dedicated to Joseph de Sonnenfels opus thirty-one number one published 1803 opus thirty-one number two published 1803 opus thirty-one number three published 1804 opus forty-nine number one published 1805 opus forty-nine number two published 1805 opus fifty-three published 1805 published 1805 dedicated to Count Waldstein opus fifty-four published 1806 opus fifty-seven published 1807 published 1807 dedicated to Count Brunswick opus seventy-eight published 1810 published 1810 dedicated to Countess Teresa of Brunswick opus seventy-nine G published 1810 opus eighty-one A E-flat das Liberwoll das Wiedersen published 1811 dedicated to Archduke Rudolf opus ninety E minor published 1815 dedicated to Count Moritz Lignowski opus 101 A published 1817 dedicated to Baroness Dorothea Ertman opus 106 B-flat published 1819 dedicated to Archduke Rudolf opus 109 E published 1821 dedicated to Maximiliane Brentano opus 110 A-flat published 1822 opus 111 C minor published 1823 dedicated to Archduke Rudolf the autograph of the last sonata does not bear any dedication but from a letter of Beethoven first of June 1823 to the Archduke it is evident that it was intended for the latter footnote as your Royal Highness seemed to be pleased with the sonata in C minor I thought it would not appear too bold to surprise you with the dedication of it and the footnote the fanciful name of Moonlight to opus 27 the appropriate publisher's title of opus 57 and the poetic subscriptions of opus 81 A have without doubt helped those sonatas towards their popularity it does not always happen that the most popular works of a man are his best but these in question justly rank among Beethoven's finest productions the last five sonatas are wonderful tone poems yet with the exception perhaps of opus 110 in A-flat as regards perfection of form and unity of conception not one equals opus 27 opus 31 and opus 57 apart from any aesthetic considerations the difficulties of the last five sonatas prevent their becoming common property the brilliant technique of opus 53 has proved a special attraction to pianists and it has therefore become widely known with this one sonata Beethoven proved his superiority even in the matter of virtuosity over the best pianists of his day in order to be able to enter fully into the spirit of the music of great composers it is necessary to know the history of their lives Beethoven's is fairly well known but it may be worthwhile to refer briefly to the principal men and women to whom the master dedicated his piano forte sonatas of the 32 as will be seen from the above table eight have no dedication in the year 1792 Beethoven left Bonn and went to Vienna there he studied counterpoint under Haydn yet the lessons proved unsatisfactory but the fame and influence of the veteran master no doubt prompted the young artist to dedicate to him the three sonatas opus 2 the title page of the oldest Vienna edition runs thus it was perhaps more of sarcasm than respect in the doctor on music Beethoven is related to have said that he had taken some lessons from Haydn but had never learned anything from him nevertheless he paid heed to his teacher's music there are in the sonatas one or two reminiscences of Haydn which seem to us curious enough to merit quotation one occurs in the sonata in C minor opus 10 number one we give the passage transposed from Haydn and the one from Beethoven letter 5 pole number 58 Haydn footnote the opening theme of that same symphony recalls curiously the last movement of Beethoven's 8th symphony and still more so in the form in which he first sketched it end of footnote opus 10 number one Beethoven and another in native worth creation Haydn opus 31 number one Beethoven while speaking of reminiscences a curious one may be mentioned the theme of the slow movement of Beethoven's sonata in A opus 2 number 2 strongly resembles the theme of the slow movement of his own trio in B flat opus 97 opus 2 number 2 trio opus 97 in opus 111 again the second subject of the Allegro recalls a phrase in the presta of the sonata in C sharp minor Haydn as the most illustrious composer of that day stands first but the next name worthy of mention is Count Waldstein a young nobleman who had been a guide philosopher and friend to Beethoven during the Bond days the well-known entry in the young musician's album just before his departure from Vienna shows him what high esteem he was held by Waldstein Count Ferdinand Waldstein died in 1823 Prince Charles Liknovsky was one of the composer's earliest patrons after the latter had settled in Vienna the prince descended from an old Polish family was born in 1758 and consequently was by 12 years Beethoven senior he lived mostly in Vienna in 1789 he invited Mozart to accompany him to Berlin and the king's proposal to name the latter his capital is supposed to have been suggested by the prince Liknovsky was also a pupil of Mozart's his wife princess of Thun was famous for her beauty her kind disposition and for her skill as a musician Beethoven had not been for 12 months in Vienna when he was offered rooms in the prince's house it was there that the pianoforte sonatas opus 2 were first played by their author in the presence of Haydn Beethoven remained in this house until 1800 in 1799 the sonat patetique was dedicated to the prince and in the following year the latter settled on him a yearly pension of 600 florins in the year 1806 to rupture between the two friends at the time of the battle of Vienna Beethoven was at the seat of prince Liknovsky at Tropeau in Silesia where some French officers were quartered the independent artist refused to play to them and when the prince pressed the request Beethoven got angry started the same evening for Vienna and anger still burning in his breast on his arrival home he shattered a bust of his patron the refusal to play to the French officers was grounded on his hatred to Napoleon who had just won the battle of Vienna Beethoven however became reconciled with the prince before the death of the latter in 1814 it should be mentioned that Beethoven's first published work the three pianoforte trios was dedicated to prince Liknovsky the Archduke Rudolf 1788 to 1831 was one of the master's warmest friends and one of his most devoted admirers his uncle was Max Franz a lector of cologne to whose chapel both Beethoven and his father had belonged the Archduke was the son of Leopold Tuscany and Maria Louisa of Spain his aunt was Marie Antoinette and his grandmother the famous Maria Teresa he is supposed to have made the acquaintance of Beethoven during the winter of 1803 to four and then to have become his pupil the pianoforte part of the triple concerto opus 58 commenced in 1804 and published in 1807 is said to have been written for him concerning the Countess Giulietta Guccardi for whom Beethoven entertained a hopeless passion and the Countess Teresa of Brunswick to whom he is said to have been secretly engaged for some years there is no necessity to enter into detail everyone has probably heard of the famous love letters and of the discussion as to which of these two they were addressed Maximiliani Brentano was a niece of the famous Bettina Bretano the Baroness Erzmann was an excellent performer on the pianoforte and is said to have been unrivaled as an interpreter of Beethoven's music Mendelssohn met her at Rome in 1831 and in a letter describes her playing of the C sharp minor and D minor sonatas we must now turn to the sonatas yet neither for the purpose of analysis nor admiration we shall briefly discuss how far Beethoven worked on the lines established by his predecessors and how far he modified them and naturally the question of music on a poetic basis will be touched upon the number of movements of which Beethoven's sonatas consist varies considerably some have two some three others four the three very early sonatas dedicated to Maximiliani Archbishop of Cologne have only three movements the second opens with a brief Larghetto which however really forms part of the first movement but the four sonatas opus two numbers one two and three and opus seven all have four movements an Allegro a slow movement a Scherzo a minuet and trio and a final Allegro or rondo there are examples in later sonatas of similar grouping but it is an undeniable fact that in some of his greatest sonatas Opus 31 number two opus 27 number two opus 53 opus 57 he reverts to the three movement sonatas so faithfully adhered to by Emmanuel Bach, Haydn, Mozart and Clementi and there is evidence that the omission of the minuet or Scherzo in opus 10 numbers one and two in opus 13 and in others named above was the result of reflection not of Caprice among sketches for the sonatas opus 10 Beethoven writes Zuldenoyen sonaten gans kötze minuetten to the new sonatas quite short minuets and also a little further on die minuetten Zulden sonaten ins Kunstige nicht länger als von Zecksein bis Willen zwanzig takte in future the minuets to the sonatas not to exceed from 16 to 24 bars then again there are two sketches for a movement in the minuet or Scherzo kind which were almost certainly intended for the sonata number one in C minor one of these was afterwards completed and has been published in the supplement to Breitkopp and Hartl's edition of Beethoven's works both of these were finally rejected yet Beethoven made still another attempt there is a sketch for an intermezzo sonaten als Seymoll and in the end of the music the composer writes do ciasso onus trio neu einstück exactly thus without trio only one piece so the minuets were to be short then the limit of length is prescribed and lastly an intermezzo without trio is planned the composer proposed but is Daimon disposed the sonata in C minor finally appeared in print with only an adagio between the two quick movements Schindler in reference to the proposal made by Hofmeister to Beethoven to edit a new edition of his piano forte works tells us that had that project been carried out the master in order to get a nearer approach to unity would have reduced some of his earlier sonatas from four movements to three and he adds he would most certainly have cut out the scherzo allegro from the highly pathetic sonata and violin Opus 30 number two the first and third have only three movements a movement in complete opposition to the character of the whole he always objected to this movement and for the reason just assigned advised that it should be omitted had the scheme been carried out a small number of scherzo's allegros and minuets would have been dismissed in our circle however objections were raised against this proposal for among these scherzo's etc each of us had his favourite and did not like the idea of it being removed from the place which it had long occupied the master however pointed to the three movement sonatas Opus 10 in C minor Opus 13 Opus 14 Opus 31 Numbers 1 and 2 Opus 57 and others the last sonatas Opus 106 and Opus 110 which contain more than three movements must be judged in quite a different manner life of Beethoven third edition volume 2 pages 215 to 16 schindler's statements have sometimes been called in question the above however bears on it the stamp of truth but how came it to pass that Beethoven's first four sonatas Opus 2 Numbers 1, 2 and 3 and Opus 7 have four movements that is a question easier to ask than to answer schindler's remark that he followed customs is difficult to understand in our introductory chapter we spoke of 20 sonatas containing four movements written probably about the middle of the 18th century also of one of Wagenzahl's for clavier with violin accompaniment yet among the known sonatas of that period these form a minority Wurfel's sonata in B flat Opus 15 has four movements Allegro, Adante, Schotto Allegro and Finale theme and variations but that work appeared shortly after Beethoven's Opus 2 even Haydn who is said to have introduced the minuet into the symphony remained faithful to the three movement form of sonata Beethoven however wrote six sonatas consisting of two movements this change in the direction of simplicity is striking for in his quartets the composer became more and more complex it seems as if he were merely intent on exhibiting strong contrast of mood agitation and repose or fierce passion followed by heavenly calm we are referring especially to the sonata in E minor Opus 90 and the one in C minor Opus 111 the two sonatas of Opus 49 really sonatinas written for educational purposes may be dismissed also Opus 54 in the position of which the head rather than the heart of the master was engaged even Opus 78 in F sharp in spite of the countess of Brunswick to whom it was dedicated does not seem the outcome of strong emotion and therefore we do not take it now into consideration the two sonatas Opus 90 and 111 mentioned above are strong tone poems and the master having apparently said all that he wanted to say stopped already related about having no time to complete Opus 111 must not be taken seriously nevertheless we do not for one moment imagine that Beethoven was thus reducing the number of movements in accordance with some preconceived scheme the D minor Opus 31 number two and the F minor Opus 57 sonatas not to speak of others form the apotheosis of the sonata in three movements as established though not invented by Emmanuel Bach to say that Beethoven was the perfecter of the sonata is true but it is scarcely the whole truth the E minor appears a first great step in the process of dissolution the C minor a second they were great steps because they were those of a very great man the experiments as to number of movements of which we spoke in our introductory chapter were interesting and with regard to the number and also the position of the minuet before or after the slow movement those experiments acquired additional interest in as much as Beethoven seems for a time to have been affected by them the two works named are however of the highest importance in them if we are not mistaken are to be found the first signs of the disappearance as it were of the sonata of three movements and perhaps of the sonata itself into the imperceptible after opus 90 Beethoven wrote sonatas in four movements but that does not affect the argument neither does the fact that after Beethoven are to be found several remarkable sonatas with the same number the process of evolution of the sonata was gradual so also will be that of its dissolution the title of sonata given by Beethoven to his opus 90 and opus 111 does not affect the music one jot under any other name it would sound as well you might call the choral symphony a divertimento and the title would be considered inappropriate or a polonaise and the name would be scouted as ridiculous but the music would still remain great and glorious you're taking into consideration the meaning of the term sonata as understood by Manuel Bach, Haydn and Beethoven himself it can certainly be the right one for these tone poems in two sections the sonata form of the first movement in each case may have suggested the title the two early sonatas opus 27, numbers 1 and 2 are both styled sonata but with the additional quasi una fantasia and in neither case was the first movement in sonata form the one in E flat does not even contain such a movement there are other signs of the process of disintegration in the later sonatas sonata 9 in E is peculiar as regards the form of the movement of which it is composed and the fugues of 101 106 and 109 a return by the way to the past show at least an unsettled state of mind the sonata in A flat opus 110 was probably the germ whence sprang the sonata in B minor of list, a work of which we shall soon have to speak Beethoven departed from the custom to possess as Haydn and Mozart and the general practice of sonata writers before him in the matter of tonality in a movement in sonata form the rule was for the second subject to be in the dominant key in the exposition section and in the tonic in the recapitulation section if the key of the piece was major but if minor in the relative major or dominant minor in the exposition and in the tonic major or minor in the recapitulation thus if the key was C major the second subject would be first in G major afterwards in C major if the key was C minor first in E flat major or G minor afterwards in C minor or major in a minor movement the second subject is found more often in the relative major than in the dominant minor the first and third movements of Beethoven's sonata in D minor opus 31 number two illustrate the latter in each case the second subject is in A minor in major keys besides that of the dominant Beethoven shows the mediant E in his sonata in C opus 53 and in the recapitulation it occurs first in the sub mediant A and only afterwards in varied form in the orthodox tonic then in the B flat sonata opus 106 the second subject occurs in the sub mediant G in the last sonata in C minor the second subject is neither in the relative major nor in the dominant minor but in the major key of the sub mediant once again in the sonata in D major opus 10 number three the second theme is introduced in the key of the relative minor before the dominant section is reached with regard indeed to the number of themes and order of keys some other movement of the Beethoven sonatas show departures from the orthodox rules in the important matter of the repeat of the first section of a movement in sonata form we find the master for the most part adhering to the custom delivered under him by his predecessors and yet there were two strong reasons why he might have been tempted to depart from it the repetition was a survival from the old dance movements in binary form e bark, Haydn and Mozart not only repeated but introduced various kinds of ornaments and even harmonic changes and they expected performers to do the same Beethoven however allowed no such license one indeed which in the hands of ordinary pianists would be calculated to spoil rather than to improve the music part then of the raison d'etre of the repeat ceased to exist but a still stronger reputation to suppress it must have been the program or picture which Beethoven had in his mind when he composed the repeat now become almost an empty form must have proved at times a fetter to his imagination in many ways he was bold but in this matter strangely conservative it was only in the sonata in F minor opus 57 that he first ventured to admit the repeat it is not to be found in the opening opus 90 or opus 110 yet in his last sonata opus 111 the composer almost seems as if he wished to atone for his previous sins of admission he had evidently not settled the question one way or the other but the fact that in three of his most poetical works he departed from custom deserves note before his time the repeat like the laws of the Meads and Persians seemed irrevocably fixed Beethoven added important introductions or coders or even both to some of the movements of his sonatas coders are to be found in the sonatas both of Haydn and Mozart but not introductory movements the idea of the latter however did not originate with Beethoven the grave which opens the patetique opus 13 does not merely throw the listener into the right mood for the Allegro but the opening phrase is afterwards made use of in the development section and later on it occurs in double augmentation the maistoso which ushers in the Allegro of the last sonata contains foreshadowings which are better felt than explained at times the coders of Haydn are interesting as for example the one at the end of the first movement of his Ginzinger sonata in E flat yet they do not present the thematic material in any new or striking light with Beethoven it is different in the sonata in E flat opus 7 not only is their contrapunctal working but the principal theme just at the close is as it were rounded off completed similar treatment may be seen in the first movement of the sonata in D opus 10 number 3 here the effect is intensified by contrary motion also in the Allegro of opus 13 and other sonatas the opening movement of opus 57 offers a striking illustration the coder to the first movement of the valstein sonata opus 53 is on a most elaborate scale it is almost as long as the development section in the latter only fragments of the principal theme had been worked but in the coder it appears in complete form seems to retard its progress and a syncing syncopated figure is opposed to it counteracting its rising expanding nature but it works its way onward and upward until as if exhausted by the effort two descending scales leads to a quiet delivery of the second theme which had not been heard during the development section then principal theme is given for the last time it has overcome all obstacles and proclaims its victory in loud and powerful chords the presto which closes the apacianata opus 57 is one of Beethoven's grandest coders and all the more wonderful in that it follows a movement of intense storm and stress it is a coder not merely to the last movement but to the whole work it recalls the first as well as the third movement the coder of the first movement of the c-minor symphony displays similar intensity and expression of strong will here one of savage despair the coder of the first movement of the adieu sonata opus 81a is another memorable ending the farewell note sounds sad in the opening adagio while in the allegro which follows they are again plaintive or else agitated but in the coder though still sad they express a certain tenderness and the lingering of friends loath to part whatever the special meaning of the music the point which we here wish to emphasise is that the coder presents thematic material already amply developed in quite a new light in the matter of structure Beethoven may be set in the main to a followed Haydn and Mozart but the effect of his music is nevertheless very different by overlapping of phrases by very moderate use of full closes by making passages of transition thoroughly thematic by affinity and yet strong contrast between principal and second themes by a more organic system of development by these and other means Beethoven surpassed his predecessors in power of continuity intensity and unity then again his conception of tonality was broader and his harmonies were more varied the fuller richer tone of the piano forte of his day influenced the character of his melodies while the consequent progress of technique as exhibited in the works of some of his immediate predecessors and contemporaries enabled him to present his thoughts with greater variety and more striking effect than was possible to either Haydn or Mozart once more Beethoven seems to be elaborating some central thought Haydn and Mozart with few exceptions to be deftly weaving together thoughts so as to obtain pleasing contrasts in a similar manner the first and last movements of a sonata with Beethoven are of kindred mood though perhaps of different degree Haydn and Mozart seem again to be aiming at contrast after a dignified opening allegro and a soft graceful slow movement they frequently wind up with a finale of which the chief characteristics are humor playfulness and merriment so that the listener may part company from them in a pleasant frame of mind. We've been comparing the composer and to his advantage with Haydn and Mozart but the latter however sometimes come within near reach of the former and had the means at their disposal been similar they might possibly have equaled him and on the other hand Beethoven's inspiration was sometimes at a comparatively low ebb speaking generally however the comparison we believe stands good. John Sebastian Bach devoted the greater part of his life to the art of developing themes his skill was wonderful and so too considering the restrictions of the fugue form was the imagination which he displayed in Beethoven the old master seems to live again only under new and more favourable conditions Bach was brought up in the way of the fugue Beethoven of the sonata and it may be added from these respectively neither departed. From early youth onwards our composer was a deep student of Bach and assimilated some of his predecessors methods. One special feature of Beethoven's mode of development was to take a few notes or sometimes merely a figure from his theme and to expand them into a phrase as for instance in the opening movement of the sonata in C minor in which forms the material for the closing phrase in the exposition section and the opening figure of the finale of the same sonata is employed in a similar manner at the commencement of the second section of the movement the rondo of opus 10, number 3 furnishes good illustrations now let us turn to Bach in the thirteenth fugue of the well-tempered clavier the closing notes of the subject are expanded bar 24 into a melodious phrase also in the prelude which follows, number 14 becomes and some magnificent examples might be called from the noble preludes in E flat and B flat minor book 1, numbers 8 and 22 again another special feature of Beethoven is the extension of a phrase by repetition of the last clause a method too familiar to need quotation but let us give one illustration from Bach book 1, fugue 6 the eighth prelude of book 1 has been already mentioned to illustrate one point but there are other Beethovenisms in it these comparisons must not be misunderstood study of Bach strengthened Beethoven's genius we are not speaking of balled imitation not even of conscious imitation he not only received the message of the old master as a child but while he was a child and that no doubt helped him more than all the works of his predecessors from Emmanuel Bach upwards it appeals to him strongly because it was based on nature Bach's fugues are living organisms they are expansions of some central thought development reveals the latent power the latent meaning of the themes where it merely artificial no matter how skillful it would be letter not spirit a clever contrapunctist once conceived the bold idea of competing with Bach he wrote a series of preludes and fugues in all the keys and displayed wonderful skill in all the arts of counterpoint canon and fugue while in the matter of elaborate combinations he actually surpassed Bach we refer here only to the well temple clavier but the result was failure the laborious work was wasted Klingel had mistaken the means for the end and had worked as a mathematician not a musician Beethoven felt the true secret of Bach's greatness and his own genius taught him how to profit by it next to the necessity of having something of importance to say something which development will enhance the great lesson which Beethoven learned from Bach was unity and variety the highest law in all creation as Dr H Heisman well remarks in his book of musical aesthetics very many probably the greater number of Beethoven's sonatas rest upon some poetic basis Bombets in his life of Haydn tells us how that composer sometimes imagined a little romance which might furnish him with musical sentiments and colours and the titles which he gave to many of his symphonies certainly support that statement and other times the romance was already to hand as in the case of the 32nd sonata which was inspired by Haydn's dear friend Frau von Genzinger of the poetic basis underlying some of Beethoven's sonatas we have fair knowledge Schindler in the second edition of his biography of Beethoven gives a few extracts of the conversation books Conversations Hefter in which on account of the master's deafness questions or answers were written down by those holding conversation with him Beethoven read and of course replied we have not it is true his words yet it is possible at times to gather their purport from the context for instance there is a conversation or rather half of it recorded which took place in 1823 between the composer and Schindler the latter says do you remember how I ventured a few years ago to play over to you the sonata opus 14 now everything is clear the next entry runs thus I still feel the pain in my hand a footnote explains that after Schindler had played the opening section of the first movement Beethoven struck him somewhat roughly on the hand pushed him from the stall and placing himself on it played and explained the sonata then Schindler says two principles also in the middle section of the patetique as if the teacher had called upon him to give illustrations from other sonatas as to what he had explained concerning opus 14 but there is another record of a conversation which took place between Beethoven and Schindler in the very month March 1827 in which the composer died as you feel well today says the disciple we can continue our talk concerning the poetic basis Vida et vas poetisieren of the trio in B flat and after some remarks about Aristotle's view of tragedy and about the Medea of Euripides we come across the following but why everywhere a superscription in many movements of the sonatas and symphonies where feeling and one's own imagination might dictate such a heading would do harm music or not and cannot on all occasions give a definite direction to feeling Beethoven must have been alluding to some scheme of his for indicating the nature of the contents of his works and its boldness seems to have astonished Schindler it is possible that Beethoven conscious that his end was not far distant carried away by the enthusiasm of the moment and desires of giving all possible help to the right understanding of his music when far beyond the modest lines by which he was guided when writing his pastoral symphony footnotes Schindler by the way relates in his biography of Beethoven third edition second part page 212 that already in 1816 when there was a proposal made by Hofmeister to Beethoven to issue a new edition of his piano forte music the master conceived the intention of indicating the poetic idea Poetischer Ide underlying his various works the biographer adds this term i.e. poetic idea belongs to Beethoven's epoch and was used by him as frequently as was for example the expression poetic contents by others in opposition to works which only offer an harmonious and rhythmic play of tones writers on aesthetic of our day claim against the latter term with good reason if it refer to program music without reason if they extend their negotiation to all Beethoven music and deny its poetic contents when that tendency which so frequently manifest itself and that strong desire to give pictorial explanations especially of the Beethoven symphonies and sonatas if they contained nothing but a well-ordered harmonic and rhythmic play of tones and if they or at least some of them were not based on this special idea what other composer creates this almost irresistible desire end of footnote but let us return to the conversation good says Schindler then you will next set about writing an angry sonata Beethoven would seem to have declared even that possible for Schindler continues oh I have no doubt that you will accomplish that and I rejoice in anticipation and then as if remembering that his master was an invalid and that it would not be right to excite him by prolonging the argument he added probably in half jocular manner your housekeeper must do her part and first puts you in a towering passion the above extract show pretty clear that the poetic basis of his music was a subject which Beethoven took pleasure in discussing with his friends Beethoven's back was however at once up if he found others pushing the matter too far of this we will give an instance in the year 1782 Dr. Christian Muller of Bremen organised concerts among the members of his family and already at the beginning of the 19th century Beethoven's name figured on the programs a friend of the family Dr. Karl Icken who took part in the musical proceedings was an ardent admirer of Beethoven's music and he ventured to draw up explanations and picture programs of the master's works and these were read out before the performances of the works in question it seems indeed that he was the first who felt impelled to give utterance to the poetic feelings aroused by Beethoven's music Dr. Icken's intentions were of the best and he may often have succeeded in throwing his audience into the right mood a poetic program if not too fantastic would also prove a better effect than the most skillful of analyses these Icken programs so delighted Dr. Muller that he sent several of them to the master at Vienna Beethoven read but his anger was stirred he sent for Schindler and dictated a letter to Dr. Muller it was a friendly but energetic protest against such treatment of his or anyone else's music he drew attention to the erroneous opinions to which it would give birth if explanations were needed he declared let them be limited to the general characteristics of the compositions footnote Mr. E. Power in his preface to Ernst von Elterline's Beethoven's piano forte sonatas explained for the lovers of the musical art a valuable and interesting book remarks Elterling's design is not so much to describe the beauties of Beethoven's sonatas as to direct the performer's attention to these beauties and to point out the leading and characteristic features of each separate piece the italics are ours end of footnotes which it would not be difficult for cultured musicians to furnish thus relates Schindler and there seems no reason to doubt his word it is to be hoped that Dr. Muller's letter will one day be discovered it was not the plan to which Beethoven objected but the manner in which it was carried out before quitting this subject let us refer to one or two sonatas concerning which there are well authenticated utterances of the master Schindler once asked him for the key to the sonatas in D minor opus 31 number 2 and F minor a passionata and Beethoven replied read Shakespeare's Tempest le conic Beethoven no doubt could have furnished further details but he abstained from doing so and in this he was perfectly justified then Schindler growing bold mentioned a further question what did the master intends to express by the lago of the sonata in D opus 10 number 3 and the latter replied that everyone felt that this lago describes the condition of the soul of a melancholy man with various nuances of light and shade Beethoven's quiet dignified utterances deserve special attention in these days of program music it is perhaps well that he did not carry out his idea of furnishing the clue to the poetic idea underlying his sonatas it would of course have been highly interesting to know the sources of his inspirations but it is terrible to think of the consequences which would have ensued composers would have imitated him and those lacking genius would have made themselves and their art ridiculous Berlioz went to extremes but his genius saved him and Schumann, a true poet though inclined to the superscriptions kept within very reasonable lines it was undoubtedly this poetic basis that so affected the form of Beethoven's sonatas the little romances by which Haydn spurred his imagination were as children's tales compared with the deep thoughts the tragic events and the masterpieces of Plato, Shakespeare and Goethe which in Beethoven sharpened feeling an intensified thought the great sonatas of Beethoven are not merely cunningly devised pieces nor mere mood painting they are real living dramas in aiming at the higher organization he actually became a disorganiser all things are growing or decaying says Herbert Spencer and in Beethoven so far as sonata and sonata form are concerned we seem as it were to perceive the beginning of decay End of Chapter 7 Recording by Jordan Watts Oxfordshire