 Good morning everybody. This is Yichui. I'm a professor of material science right here. It's a great pleasure to host today's event. I'd like to welcome all of you from around the world and thank you for joining us for today's Stanford Global Energy Dialogue. Sally Benson and I will jointly host today's dialogue. As you know, Sally Benson and together with Aluma Janda were the recent directors of Preco Institute for Energy. It's my great honor to take over the post from these two outstanding scientists. We have a little bit more background about today's conversation. One of the most striking features of today's energy and climate landscape is how the corporate world is making climate commitments and thereby using its role in society to address the climate change problem. According to a study by natural capital partners as of September 2019 roughly 25 percent of Fortune 500 global companies had made some kind of commitment with 2030 or 2050 goals of the $32 trillion of total revenues of Fortune 500 companies once that have made climate commitment add up to about $10 trillion roughly half of the US GDP just to give you a perspective. By all means, this is a massive movement which is likely to grow in the next decade. What impact would this have on the world? How can industry transformation drive change and will it move the needle on the global carbon footprint? Now let me pass this to Sally to introduce Cara Hurst a little bit. So it's great to be here and to address these issues we're really fortunate to have a very special guest, Cara Hurst, who's the Vice President of Worldwide Sustainability at Amazon where her work involves addressing carbon reduction efforts through Amazon's enterprise, social and environmental external engagement, and uniting the industry in a pledge around carbon reduction. In 2019, Amazon co-founded the Climate Pledge, a commitment to being net zero carbon across the business by 2040, and has pledged $2 billion towards investing in companies creating products, services, and technologies to protect the planet. So we're looking forward to a really terrific conversation with Cara. So thank you for joining us. As always, we like to warm up the audience with a little quiz. So the quiz is, according to Amazon sustainability commitment, how many electric vans will Amazon have on the road by 2030? Okay, so your choices are 1,000, 100,000, 500,000, or a million. So let's take a look at what you said. Okay, oh my goodness, our audience is getting to be so knowledgeable. Okay, so a lot of you know it's not 1,000. Actually, the single largest answer was 100,000, which is the right number. Anyway, so you're all too smart. Okay, so let's go on to your second quiz. What percent of Amazon's worldwide electricity consumption comes from renewable energy resources? So 7%, 26%, 42%, or 75%. Okay, so let's pull up what you all think about that. Okay, all right. Well, most of you thought it was 26%, but actually not. In 2019, Amazon reported that 42% of its electricity came from renewable sources. Okay, so already on a terrific path to progress there. So just for audience to know, to build out a background, I think the conversation today is very timely. So looking at the overall the whole world right now, the US right here, we have a new government supporting clean energy. We are back to a Paris Accord. And in the private investment, certainly there's a lot of capitals going in to invest in clean energy. And so these numerous companies, including Amazon, is you know really buying into the fighting the climate change. So with all this background, it's a very exciting time for myself as a Stanford faculty. And also I'm sure for our students, I know for my graduate students, they're very excited about what they can do to help to speed up this process to fight the climate change. Let me start by asking Kara the first question. Kara, I have set up the all the background for you. Now the audience is already warm up, too, are ready to get engaged. But let Sally and I have a few questions for you first, just to further warm up everybody. Kara, the first question is what let's start with Amazon's commitment to net zero business. Can you describe the climate pledge for our audience? You know, we saw this in the news all the time about climate pledge. Introduce that a little bit. What does the Amazon hope to achieve as an organization? And what have been some of your recent successes? Great. Well, thank you so much. And you know, it's always a journey in this pandemic to get everything working. So I appreciate all the patience, but it's really wonderful to be able to be here today. And thank you to Sally and me and the Stanford community and certainly the students for hosting this and allowing us to talk a little bit about our work. We're really excited about the climate pledge and really all of our sustainability initiatives at Amazon. So looking forward to this conversation today very much. The climate pledge is our commitment to be net zero carbon by 2040. And I'll back up and maybe just talk a little bit about how that's come about and what that means to us. We have been engaged in sustainability for a very long time at Amazon and looking across all of the different very complex businesses that we're in from fulfillment and logistics to our retail business, certainly our cloud computing business with AWS and thinking about, you know, our studio's business on and on as we expanded now into even physical stores. So as we looked at that and we were looking at where we really need to integrate sustainability into our business, how we operationalize that, we were also, as many of you have been as well, thinking about the science, reading the IPCC reporting in dialogue with folks like yourselves and the scientific community to really understand what the world was telling us about what we're seeing and the fact that these devastating effects of climate change are not only happening more rapidly, but really that we think they're going to be more devastating potentially than we had realized. And so as we were evolving the work that we were doing internally at Amazon, we were also thinking about what metrics do we need? What information do we need to collect? How could we go faster? And that culminated in a dialogue with our leadership about a commitment for us that was an accelerated commitment 10 years ahead of the Paris Agreement to commit to 2040. And then we thought, you know, with the complexity of the businesses that we're in, the multiple different industries that we're in, we would love to invite others into this because one of the biggest things we know that we need is truly a transformation of systems, transformation of industries. We need to be sending those very strong signals collectively that we have a demand for products and services that will help us to decarbonize. And so bringing together other companies in this, we went out first and of course partnered with Global Optimism, which is a group led by Tom Rivet-Karnak and Cristiana Figueres. Many of you will know Cristiana. She was the architect of the Paris Agreement from 2015, the former UN climate chief. And they work a lot across the corporate sector in particular, but also NGOs to think about how these commitments can come together and really be substantive, credible, transparent, and operationalized within businesses. So we're very lucky to have Cristiana and Global Optimism along with us. And we set the intention in September 2019 for a climate pledge. It has three components to it. One is to map and measure reports on a regular basis, GHG emissions. The second is to decarbonize, make real operational changes within business, to decarbonize business operations, things like renewable energy, energy efficiency, electrification of fleet. And then the third is where companies cannot get to zero. And this is kind of a both and solution where they cannot get to zero to use natural climate solutions or offsets, but specifically the language is around them being real, credible, socially beneficial, permanent. So those words very much matter in how we look at those kinds of solutions. We also think investing in natural climate solutions is a necessary part of keeping our planet below 1.5. So I think there's a lot of interesting rigor and kind of background to how those components, while they may be kind of simplified in those three things, are coming together for the pledge. Well, thank you, Kara. This is fantastic. I will personally like to thank Amazon for playing a leadership role in this process. Now, let me pass to Sally. Okay. Well, thanks for the terrific introduction to the Climate Pledge. And one of your goals was also to engage other companies, and I believe 30 companies across a wide range of industries have joined you. And, you know, do you plan to work together to achieve your goals? And if so, how? That's a great question. And, you know, this past year certainly has been incredibly challenging for so many of us, you know, not to mention just the loss of life and what people have been grappling with in terms of adapting to the situation. And I think it's really interesting and very important that climate remained a top priority for many companies. And so when we launched this, obviously, as I was just describing in September 2019, we knew that climate was on the agenda for many of our, the corporate partners that we work with. But of course, we didn't know what 2020 would bring. And I think the fact that we have an additional 30 organizations, and not just, you know, any organizations, but really large, impactful companies like Microsoft, Unilever, Best Buy, Verizon, Uber, JetBlue, we even have a football team from Spain, Real Betis. So it's kind of a wide sector, sectoral approach. A lot of big companies that have come together and said, you know, we also see the need to take urgent climate action. And, you know, they're committing to this kind of transformational, you know, decarbonization within their own operations, as I mentioned. But they're also thinking about what it means for their sector. They're thinking about what it means for their supply chains and their value chains. And companies we're seeing with a lot of really complex physical infrastructure. I mean, what it means for a company like JetBlue to commit to this is amazing. We have different paths for how we're all going to reach net zero because we require different things. But by agreeing to kind of those principal actions that I was detailing previously, you know, we will meet those net zero commitments, and I hope inspire others to come along with us. We also have a number of partners. I mentioned global optimism before, but we thought it's very important, of course, to create, you know, a kind of a system or a collaboration of NGO partners in different areas to help support this. We partnered with We Mean Business, which many of you will be familiar with. And we probably have a lot of members from We Mean Business because they work with over 1200 companies. They have, you know, led by seven international nonprofit organizations and really about driving policy ambition to accelerate the zero carbon transition. Groups like SBTI, the Science-Based Targets Initiative is part of this, and we encourage, we've joined SBTI, we encourage companies to set science-based targets. Groups like Ceres that work a lot on policy. We've also partnered with Race to Zero, which of course is important. It's a lead up to COP26 and thinking about how to accelerate across multiple different sectors. We've partnered with Ted Countdown, which is really focused on cutting many of you familiar with Ted, certainly in all the Ted talks, and they're focused on cutting greenhouse gas emissions in half by 2030, creating world that is safer and cleaner and more fair for everybody. So they're also focused on a wider kind of target audience of the general population. We have a new partnership that we recently announced with the Linux Foundation, and this is really to empower investors and banks, insurers, companies, governments, NGOs, and academia with AI-enhanced open source analytics and open data to address climate risk. And this is an opportunity that's been supported by a number of companies that have joined us as founding members, Allianz, Microsoft, S&P Global. So those kinds of partnerships are very, very important to thinking about all of the different ways which we can partner together and meet the goals of the climate pledge. Okay, thank you. It's really, really encouraging to hear. It also strikes me that all of you in pursuing these sustainability goals in the climate pledge that there will be so many lessons learned, and it would be great to find a way to share those, perhaps who don't have the same level of ambition as you, but nevertheless, would be really important to also begin the journey that you've already started and brought others along to partner with. So, Yi, back to you. Well, thank you, Sally. So, Kara, just to update you, I mentioned a little bit already. Stanford has a very comprehensive energy ecosystem in research. Since I took the post from Sally from Arloon, I have been learning a lot about Stanford's energy program. So one area I'm learning is to study how the company would decarbonize. So Amazon is one of the companies, I think is leading this, and I've been looking into how Amazon is doing it. I mean, it's just fascinating. So, through this process, certainly there's one project you guys are doing called Carbon System of Record Project. Can you tell us about this? Sure. I think what's interesting and hopefully resonant with you and with a number of the companies that are joining us today and other organizations is that when we took a look at how we were going to think about our carbon footprint, there had been already probably decades, if not 15 years of work that people were doing in looking at carbon, there were certainly protocols set up that we refer to things like the GHG protocol, ISO, other kinds of credible systems that allow kind of information to be codified and ways of reporting to be standardized. So we were aware of all that. We've been building a team of climate scientists at Amazon for a number of years now. They're a phenomenal team. I'm so lucky to have them working on this. And we kind of came together and said, you know, it won't surprise anybody, maybe who knows who knows Amazon, how we operate. We're extraordinarily data driven. And we're also a tech company. So we like to obviously use tech to build systems that are scalable. And so when we were thinking really hard about our carbon footprint, how we would not only understand it, map and measure it, but over time be able to give the partners in our business, our operators, the business leads that we work with throughout the company and understanding of what this carbon footprint meant. I was extraordinarily passionate about the idea that having a carbon footprint as a static number that's just reported every year is not as useful and not as important to really being able to go deep and understand. So frankly, we took our time. And over a number of years, we worked really hard to build what we call what you mentioned a comprehensive carbon system of record, which is really two different software technologies that the team built. We're very lucky to also have software technologists on our team, software developer engineers, and a whole, you know, tech team that can do this for us. But it's a really sophisticated take. So we think it's probably one of the more sophisticated ways to approach carbon that we've seen. So we are building this system of record. We continue to iterate and build on it all the time, but it measures the sources of carbon across our business, and then enables us to provide that data at a very granular level to each of the business owners to think about not only what is their current footprint, right? So what is this? What is it for, you know, a middle mile line hall trucking business? What is it for our last mile fleet business? What is it for our whole foods business? And we provide that data and allow them to see not only what it is in a kind of numbers way, but information about what are the biggest levers that then they could begin to pull to decarbonize within their own business. And then most importantly, I think, operationalizing this conversation around carbon, which says, how do you think about integrating carbon into your decision making? So sustainability functions sit sometimes in a silo in many companies. And while I run a central team that sits across all of Amazon, integrating sustainability thinking into our businesses is incredibly important. So when we talk about operationalizing how we do this, that carbon system of record, the granular level data that we get down to the shipment level, which is very useful data, we can really think about then when we make a decision, whether it's optimization and placement of inventory, or it's change in modality in one of our transportation networks, shifting modalities from, you know, what ocean to rail or one fleet to another. When we make those kinds of changes, it allows us to really understand the potential carbon impact of those changes. So it becomes an input to our decision making and a way to think about how we run our business. It's certainly not the determinant. We have many other factors, safety, quality, timeliness, cost, like any business does. But what it does is it puts carbon and sustainability thinking into the way that our business leaders are really operating our business. And so for me, that's kind of going a number of steps further when you think about not just reporting out a carbon number, but really understanding from a kind of a grassroots level what that means for the business, what is it going to mean when we make changes? And it really makes sustainability kind of grow and scale within our company. Well, thank you, Kara. So I really like this approach from the big data angle. It really helps you to figure things out. I will digest this information a little bit. I might come back to that later about this topic. Now let me pass on to Sally. Hi. Anyway, that was such a fantastic description. And I must say that I think certainly from the perspective of Stanford University and thinking about our operations, I'm really jealous because I would love it if we could have a similar system. And I'm sure many others do. So you're really setting a great example there. I want to move on to another area of innovation. Amazon is known for innovation in so many domains. And maybe thinking a little bit about the customer facing domains of Amazon, and that is that deliveries, the air freight, ground transportation, last mile delivery, something that we all see in our engagement with Amazon, and also packaging. What are you doing in terms of making these more sustainable? Yeah. Great questions. And we should go back and talk a little bit, too, about you asked a question before about how are we sharing this knowledge? And that carbon system record that we built, the products, the services, the tools, we want to make them available to others. We do want them. We're looking at how that can be maybe more available. We're still kind of figuring out ourselves, of course, and all the ways in that works at Amazon. But that's a really that's a really important point. So I just didn't want to let that go, Sally. But on the innovation, and particularly our transportation, if you look across our carbon footprint, it's not a surprise that our transportation, our fulfillment networks, our operations are the biggest part of that carbon footprint. And so we have really focused in there, and we're working across those businesses to, again, utilize that information that we now have about what that footprint is, what the biggest lovers are we can pull. We set, in addition to the climate pledge, we set an interim goal, because I think it's really important also to not, you know, to have a long term vision, incredibly important to set that intention to go 10 years earlier than the Paris Agreement, incredibly important, and frankly, really, really hard to do. But we also wanted to set interim goals. And so one of those is we know that it's really important to our customers that they receive their items in the most sustainable manner possible. So we set a goal, we called shipment zero, which is 50% of all of our shipments to be net zero carbon by 2030. And this is, you know, the fulfillment lanes of the package. So we have internal language that we use, we would call it maybe slam to step or pick to porch. So when an item is picked in our fulfillment network, and is kind of picked, packaged, transported and arrived to the customer, that part of it, we want to be at least at 50% net zero carbon by 2030. So that includes the number of things that you're talking about. And of course, the customer facing pieces of this. We also, you know, I'm sure a number of you have seen delivery vehicles on the roads in your communities. And we know it's really important. It's one of the biggest signals that we can send again to go back to that point that we are demanding really products and services that help us decarbonize. We can't do this alone. We know that that's why it's a pledge. When we announced the climate pledge, we announced the largest ever order of electric delivery vehicles. So we partnered with a company called Rivian. We ordered 100,000 vehicles, which will begin deployment this year. And we'll scale that electrification, the infrastructure pieces of that incredibly complex as well, not just the vehicle itself, which is innovative, but how do we then transform our infrastructure to support electrification of a fleet? And how does that extend to everyone beyond us? We also partnered with Mercedes-Benz who assigned the pledge and ordered 1800 EVs in Europe, which is their largest ever order of electric vehicles. So we're both sending those signals that we want this. We're placing those orders, driving that demand, hopefully driving scale as well. We know that our middle mile business also our operations is a really tough thing. So this comes with a very unique set of challenges. And unlike our last mile delivery network, you know, we have a plan for our cargo to be transported potentially further distances, which requires specific equipment and charging and infrastructure that looks different. Air and line haul cargo are two parts of that. And so to find sustainable alternatives to work on innovation within those industries and accelerate the transportation is really challenging. Last year, we did, I don't know this last year, I'm confusing this year, it feels like a very long year, but let's just say last summer, we secured sustainable aviation fuel. So we partnered with our Amazon Air business, and we secured six million gallons of this sustainable aviation fuel as an enabler of its production, right? So again, one of those signals as the fuel industry looks to see is this going to be something companies want? And we're introducing our first battery electric trucks to our trucking fleet and deploying more than 450 of those trucks on compressed natural gas instead of diesel. So we're really proud of these kinds of investments as well. They're tangible, they're visible, they're sending strong signals to really scale up sustainability and investment. And we also have a climate pledge fund, which I can talk about in some of the investments that we're making there. Okay, yeah, that's incredible. I mean, you really have the purchasing power to be game changing in terms of establishing new sustainable businesses. So that's really exciting to hear. So in the beginning, we started with a quiz about 42% renewable energy that you already have. Could you say a little bit more about your plans going forward and what's your strategy regarding renewable energy? Sure. Another area where we've been focused for a while, but we're ramping up quickly. So when we launched the pledge, we committed at that time, again, September 2019, to reaching 80% renewable energy by 2024 and 100% by 2030. This is one of those things that I think is really interesting about also the data, the systems, the information that we have now generated alongside of these commitments. We took a look at that path and we thought we could actually, I think we could go faster. So right now we think there's a path to getting to 100% by 2025. And as of the close of 2020, we were the largest corporate buyer of renewable energy. So we've really accelerated along those lines. We've done 127 renewable energy projects. That's projects, if those of you are wondering size, it's capacity to generate about 6,500 megawatts of energy annually, which is, again, another way to think about it. It powers about 1.7 million U.S. homes. And these are large utility scale wind and solar projects. We also put solar on our fulfillment centers. They supply renewable energy for our corporate offices, fulfillment centers, our AWS data centers, and really help us to get to net zero by 2040. So we are working with so many companies across the globe to really deploy these projects. It's different in every region. And so that's complex. We need to know about the grids. We need to know about the policies. We need to know about what's available to us in terms of projects in every region. That's incredibly complex when you think about going beyond what we already know in the U.S. And so depending on those specific projects, we deploy different solutions. That's similar for our own fulfillment center. Depending on the project, the time of year, factors, the size of the solar system on top of the rooftop, that can range in what that provides to that energy facility needs. But it's an area that we feel like, again, we can send strong signals in and we have been. And we're really excited about what's happening in that sector as well. Yeah, that's really exciting. So Stanford has also really committed to renewable energy. And by 2022, we'll be 100% renewable energy. We're already at about 60% or so. And on our last acquisition, we've also added some energy storage. So it's great to see that lots of people are doing this. So anyway, back to you. Yeah, thank you, Sally. Well, Carol, this is fantastic. So I want to compare now and about 20 years ago, a little bit, just looking at, you just mentioned about renewable energy, mentioned about solar cells. If I look back about 18 years ago, when Stanford started maybe the first clean energy center, a global climate energy project, later becoming the prequel institute of energy, this whole process. Well, if you look at about 18 years ago, the solar electricity cost is so high. Now we are really getting to very low. Then you look at the electric car 20 years ago, unthinkable, you know, electric car will be everywhere. Now we have electric car on right here locally around Stanford campus. Percentage is very high. So we start to see technology area, each of these components, you know, generation by usage, transportation, this all coming out as individual component, very promising. It's really the now you are fast forward to now exciting time to think about a whole energy ecosystem, how do you design it? I want to come back to the big data you mentioned earlier on. The global carbon reduction really need very deep decarbonization of the whole supply chain. Now it's very exciting time and also challenge to design the whole energy ecosystem. A big data of utilizing AI is going to be the key in addressing these globally a carbon reduction problem at scale. Here at Stanford, we are looking at launching a major effort around energy, climate AI utilizing big data and machine learning to plan for the whole energy ecosystem and also to map out the carbon footprint and climate patterns. So Kara, you mentioned quite a bit about that already. So what opportunities do you see for universities like Stanford to work together with the company companies like Amazon to achieve yours and others sustainability goals? Yeah, thank you for that question. We're really excited about this space as well. And I think it's a phenomenal role for universities to play. We need universities stepping into this and we need, you know, really big initiatives, partnerships with folks who have expertise in these areas. We're looking for that. I can give you a couple examples maybe about some of the things that we are leaning into in this area and I think, you know, figuring out how all of us come together to really map out utilizing available climate data, utilizing new technologies, but also thinking about where the gaps, what do we need to build, right, on the innovation side of things? What are we need that is not available to us now? We started something, a number of years ago called the Amazon Sustainability Data Initiative. It's a partnership across a couple teams, including mine with teams at AWS to really accelerate sustainability research and innovation. One of the things we were seeing is that there were isolated data sets, large petabyte level data sets in different areas and being hosted on, you know, on various servers around the world. They were at times difficult for researchers, academics to access, particularly in areas that did not have great compute power and areas that were, you know, take weeks. Sometimes I was even hearing months to download data and, you know, and analyze that and utilize it. So ASDI really supports these innovators and researchers with data and tools and technical expertise by moving a lot of these data sets to the cloud. We host them in an open data environment. And what we also are starting to see is the synergies now as we put these data sets in that environment, people are seeing new insights as they're seeing those data together and they can connect them and do new analytics and find, you know, new ways of looking at issues. So we work with university researchers, local governments, federal agencies, startups, all of these organizations to help them leverage ASDI, also to really help them in many times whether we're talking about our partners, you know, all over the world to help them understand cloud computing and train them up on how to utilize cloud computing. So I should give you a couple, maybe concrete examples of that. We have, you know, work with NOAA and NASA and the UK Met Office and the government of Queensland to identify and deploy these kinds of data sets on the AWS cloud. These include weather observations, forecasting data, hydrological data, satellite data, climate projection data, air quality data is important one, ocean forecast data. And these data sets are available to anyone. And there are case studies now that have been written and are available on our website about things that people have done with the data, ideas, projects that are underway. We work with a group called the Group Earth Observations that offers research organizations access to AWS cloud services and help countries realize the potential of Earth observations for sustainable development purposes. So again, maybe bringing social and economic data to this. And Digital Earth Africa, which enables one of my favorite projects enables African nations to track changes across the continent and really look at unprecedented levels of detail around Earth observation data and gives you insights into flooding and droughts and soil erosion, coastal erosion, agricultural forest cover. So things that we know are contributing to our ability to manage climate change, land use and land cover change, water availability and quality changes even to human settlements. So when we work with those kinds of organizations and allow them to see that those inputs then can drive the right types of public policies, the right strategies. And we work with clean energy startups, of course, as well to produce sort of real time historical forecast data, you know, around the world. And then we utilize a lot of these insights in our own business. So I think projects like that are growing, the partners are growing, they're growing in scale and size and geographic diversity, which is interesting. And I think climate is such a complex issue, finding ways to kind of have those partnerships and come together and share data is so incredibly important. Yeah, thank you, Kara. What just to update you, I think you might already know, maybe the audience here already know, you know, Stanford evolved from energy project to energy institute having that. Now we are planning a new school of climate and sustainability. You can see the commitment from university side to fight for the climate change to maintain sustainability. So this is very exciting. Academia and industry and government and also NGO working together, it's just fantastic. Now let me pass back to Sally. Okay. So, Kara, we started off with the climate pledge and you described that as having three major components. The first was mapping, measuring and reporting emissions. And we've talked about that. The second one was to decarbonize operations. Let me talk quite a bit about that. But the last point you mentioned was natural climate solutions or nature based solutions. So I wondered if you could talk a little bit about nature based climate solutions and the right now climate fund and what's Amazon doing in this space and what do you hope to accomplish and maybe give us some examples? Sure. This is another area where I would say we are in a very in depth learning mode and have been since we started the climate pledge alongside of the pledge. I mentioned a couple of things that we've announced on goals and vehicle purchasing, but we also started something called the right now climate fund, which we committed $100 million to understand, support and really begin to build a more credible landscape and potentially marketplace for natural climate solutions. So we know people care very deeply about their communities and their land and that one of the best things we can do is to preserve the natural world. So we put this money into a partnership with the Nature Conservancy. We've started hiring forestry scientists of our own and building a team as well. But really what we want to do is start deploying funds immediately to take action to remove and avoid carbon emissions by supporting these natural climate solutions. This is not about us deploying offsets right now. We're not doing that. We're thinking right now about how do you support this community, which has had various kind of challenges with credibility, but conservation and restoration and improved land management, actions that really increase the carbon storage or avoiding greenhouse gas emissions in our forests, our wetlands, our peatlands, our grasslands, all around the world are just such an incredible part of this work. And we've been working on these projects. Again, the language is reflected in the pledge, but we want to conserve and restore and support these sustainable forestry and wildlife nature-based solutions. We want to deploy technologies that help us to monitor the permanence of them. This is not really a role for a corporate, and this is my view, is to support this work. Of course, there's experts in multiple different NGOs, multiple different conservation organizations that know this much better than us, but we think it's a part of our work on climate change. And so we've deployed two grants so far, our investments. One was $10 million to nature-based solutions across the Appalachian Mountains. And those projects are helping to conserve and sustainably manage forest land and wildlife in Pennsylvania and Vermont, and plans to expand the projects across kind of another 4 million acres of the 2,000-mile span of the Appalachians and beyond. So they generate some economic opportunities, which are very important in these solutions as well, because you have to take into account the communities and the landowners. So this is a new source of income for family forest owners and rural communities so that they can tap into the carbon storage potential of forests, because in the United States, and this is an insight I learned, I didn't know, families and individuals own the largest portion of forests, not federal governments, not corporations. So it's really that you've got to bring these smallholders, these family farms, into this. And so we're looking to kind of achieve a net reduction of 18, 18 and a half million metric tons of carbon in the atmosphere by 2031, which is a tremendous opportunity and support these local communities with economic development. Outside the United States, we've made one other investment to support an urban greening project in Germany and Berlin, which is using nature-based solutions to help cities become more climate change resilient. So this is a different type of approach, but equally important. So helping city officials and local community organizations to create, implement plans for things like reducing flood risk in their cities and proving rainwater retention, tree planting, revitalizing urban wetlands, adapting existing green spaces. These are things that can help to reduce extreme heat and pollution, which is incredibly important in our urban areas, leveraging unused some public spaces to again, plant trees and revitalize those kind of urban wetlands. And importantly, also increasing urban biodiversity, which we know is another critical component to this fight, introducing pollinator friendly species, climate resilient urban grasslands and things like that. So these are incredibly important components of not only where I think, hopefully I've shared a little bit about how we're rapidly and aggressively decarbonizing in our own business, but how are we supporting communities around the world to also deploy climate change solutions and be a part of this? Well, that's really encouraging to hear that you're really thinking about nature-based solutions in terms of the co-benefits to communities, particularly rural communities, but also in urban regions where often there's sort of a disproportionate access to environments that are very hospitable and there are big gray areas, and the idea that we can start turning gray areas that cities into lush green parts and so forth is really encouraging. So that's terrific. So, Yi, back over to you. Yep. Well, thank you. So the conversation so far has been terrific. So, Karah, let's start to engage our audience. I'm seeing the question, there are about 50 questions now flowing in, there will be more coming. We will not be able to take all the questions, but we are going to pick some. So let's have first a couple questions from our students first. Let me bring back in Rebecca and also Victoria to really ask you some of the questions from the student standpoint. Victoria, maybe let's start from you. Thank you. I'm curious, Karah, you've spoken about several sustainability programs today that are really fantastic and many of them just depend on Amazon, but I'm thinking that there are several programs that depend on the customer as well, for example, when we get that prompt to maybe combine our packages and get them a bit slower instead of having them shipped separately. So how do you think about that human psychology side of things and motivating customers to participate when they may not necessarily be focused on sustainability or climate? Great question. And I just want to say for Victoria and the other students, I told them before we're joining this, I'm so excited to see students studying sustainability. I'm so excited with the in-depth knowledge that they're bringing and just really impressed with the engagement. So thanks for the question. I think there are a couple ways I would think about this off the top and then maybe just give you an example. One, I think it's our responsibility to make this very easy for our customer. We have a saying at Amazon that we're customer obsessed and I think we should make the customer experience sustainable. We need to make our company as sustainable as possible with these aggressive commitments and I think it's really our job to do that on behalf of the customer. Of course, customers do also want to participate in sustainability, but we need to provide them with data and information that allows them to be able to do that in a way that also lets them make the choices about how they see sustainability. So one point just on the shipping with the carbon system of record and the software tools that we built, one of the interesting insights we were able to get is people usually do connote slower shipping with increased sustainability. It's a very nuanced and complex question actually and one of the learnings that we had that was a surprise to us as we went in, of course we have all the data on the different shipping modalities, on the different shipping speeds, what that actually means and our lowest carbon shipment option is actually our same day or sub-same day, which means a one to two hour or same day delivery, which was super surprising to people internally and it has to do with the fact that mostly when you put inventory closer to the customer it's a lower carbon footprint, but those kinds of insights help us to, when we think about modalities we know that rail is a great carbon option. So we think about modality shifts, we think about inventory placement, those things mean a lot, but it doesn't necessarily always translate to the customer who may just think if I delay shipping that's more sustainable. So we want to, we have the data and information now, we want to start surfacing that to the customer and then we also obviously sell a lot of products on Amazon and so we wanted to have an option for customers to participate in this and we know it's of critical importance to actively engage customers in sort of sustainable shopping practices and all of that. So we launched something last fall called Climate Pledge Friendly, which is a program we thought a lot about this and worked on it for a number of years, but we're thinking about how we can make it easier for customers to shop and discover more sustainable products on Amazon. So this goes across our beauty, fashion, grocery, household, office, electronics products included, both for our consumers and our businesses that are customers on Amazon. And so they're badged in the shopping results, you can see, you can dig in and see additional sustainability information and they're also featured in a dedicated part of the store if you want to do it that way. But we thought, how do we do this in a way that's very credible? So we looked at trusted third-party certifications that already had established sustainability standards. So this is a wide range of kind of global certifications. We started with a funnel of about 480 and ended up, depending on your geography, but with roughly about 20. And there are things like cradle by cradle or blue sign. Part of this initiative, we also discovered we saw a gap in those externally validated certifications. So we created one called Compact by Design, which removes excess air and water so that the products require less packaging and are then therefore more efficient to ship. So at scale, these are kind of small changes, but in product size and weight, but they make a significant carbon emission reduction impact when you bring them to scale across. So we know that the customer wants to reduce their environmental, or some of our customers want to reduce their environmental impact when they shop online. We've also done a lot of study and research in our sustainability science team to study shopping online. And we know it's inherently more carbon efficient than going to the store. So we also spent a number of years developing these models and tools and metrics to kind of understand that. We know shopping online consistently generates less carbon than driving to a store. A single delivery van trip can take approximately 100 round trip car journeys off the road on average. We have models to look at the carbon intensity of ordering groceries online versus the nearest store. And we know this because we have physical stores. We have supermarkets and we have an online shopping business. Online grocery deliveries generate 43% lower carbon emissions per item compared to shopping in stores. And then smaller basket sizes generate even greater carbon savings. So we're really looking into this and thinking about what are the ways our customers might want to shop, but also how can we continue to surface this information and inform the conversation? Well, Kara, I know this information myself is fantastic. I don't do much shopping, but my wife does a lot. So I'll tell her about this data so to be more green and shopping. Let me bring Rebecca in to ask the questions she has. Thanks, Kara. We've talked a lot about kind of the transportation aspect of getting packages from Amazon to the consumer. And there's actually been quite a bit of questions coming in from the audience on this topic as well. But so it's been clear that Amazon has put a lot of effort into thinking about packaging. Could you tell us a little bit more about the frustration-free packing program and give us some insight into that initiative and kind of your thoughts on expanding it to globally? Sure. Yeah, no surprise. The most sort of tangible, invisible impact in our business sometimes is our packaging. And so we've tried a number of ways to continue to make progress on our packaging ways to utilize less packaging materials. It's great for the customer. It's great for us, frankly, as well. So it's one of those kind of good win-win areas. Frustration-free packaging started at Amazon well over a decade ago. It was an idea generated by our CEO and really started with the frustration, the literal frustration that people had when you buy a toy, let's say, at the holidays. And it comes encased in a plastic clamshell and it's got twist ties and it takes forever to open and then it's in a million components and you can't put it together. So it was literally about how do we get things to customers frustration-free? This has been one of the more kind of exciting areas to you that as I came in to Amazon, I've been here six and a half years now and worked with our packaging teams and sustainability, the possibilities of e-commerce to dematerialize in general, but packaging specifically are really incredible because when you're in a physical store, the packaging is your advertising. You need to put all the information on there. There's colorful pictures. There's embedded security devices. The twist ties are there to keep the product upright on the shelf so that the customer when they walk by can see it. When you think about e-commerce or shopping or anyone who's selling online, you can dematerialize all that. So meaning that you don't need all those bells and whistles, you don't need the advertising, the billboard, the twist ties, the security devices, you don't need the protection. And so frustration-free packaging was about elimination of plastic clamshells and twist ties, 100% recycled packaging, easy to open, quick to get to the product. So it's a great customer experience and it's much more sustainable. And so we've leaned into that quite heavily and now there are two million products, over two million products available through the frustration-free programs. So these include things that have just been completely reformulated and repackaged to be frustration-free. Also just things where we've eliminated the Amazon overbox. So if you are young family and you have young kids and you order diapers constantly, those diapers can just come to you in the diaper box. They do not need another Amazon smile box and extra material packaged over it. Generally, they're not going to be a gift. They're not going to be damaged in transit. That packaging is a courgette already. So we looked through, again, back to Yeast Point, machine learning, AI, we looked through all of our tools and we're able to go through our catalog and select great candidates for what we call shipped and owned container. If the customer wants to conceal it, we have that option for them if they're sending a gift or something like that. But for the most part, people are happy to not receive the secondary box, just their item. And these machine learning algorithms that help us make these smart packaging choices take into account damage and concessions. Because of course, if you damage an item in transit, it's actually environmentally worse. It's better to put minimal packaging on it so that that doesn't have reverse logistics. It doesn't come back and doesn't have to go to the landfill. So we're really careful about these things and the unintended consequences of some of these packaging decisions. But the team has done a great job inventing these machine learning algorithms, thinking about this packaging to right size it for the customer order, which translates into fewer trips, less fuel burned, more being able to fit in a truck. So all of these things also have great impacts throughout the entire life cycle and carbon savings. And so we've been working on this since 2015. We've reduced the weight of our outbound packaging by 33%, which is huge on our scale. We've eliminated more than 915,000 tons of packaging material, which is the equivalent of 1.6 billion shipping boxes. So we are really taking this and running with it, going at scale. We've also tried to enable our customers the opportunity to learn more about where to recycle. We have a public site called Amazon Second Chance that any of you can visit, which has ways to refurbish, return, repair products, recycle products and packaging materials. And it's specific to your geography. So you'll see the packaging materials you might receive from us and then where the proper disposal opportunities are, but also encouraging you to shop for refurbished, reused products. So those are some of the ways that we're tackling packaging. Well, I think Rebecca is asking this question. I personally have a lot of experience every Sunday. I will need to, you know, de-sample the cardboard box and in my house, why he pie out like this thick and for the Mondays, you know, charge a car to come in to pick up. It's a lot of boxes. I appreciate this frustration-free packaging. That's a really high impact. So with this, we have a really large number of questions flowing in from the audience. I will let Sally to get the first question to you. Okay. Terrific. So you talked about electric vehicles, really impressive. So the question from the audience is about hydrogen. And there's been a lot of work in the last year or so about hydrogen as a source of energy. Of course, they hadn't do the trucking or you can also buy hydrogen forklifts that allow you to keep the forklifts operating continuously throughout the day because they can be filled quickly. So we're wondering, does Amazon have any plans or interests and fuel cells and hydrogen and how might that fit into your strategy? Sure. We are very much sort of looking at studying involved with hydrogen as a fuel, green hydrogen, you know, to potentially make our transportation operations more sustainable. We've started actually, we had hydrogen and fuel cells in our pit equipment, which are the smaller pieces of equipment in our fulfillment network. We've had that for a number of years. We have an internal hydrogen working group. So we're looking at this, and of course, thinking about new technologies that we're investing in through the Climate Pledge Fund, which I mentioned very briefly, but it's a $2 billion fund we set up last summer to invest in early-stage decarbonizing technologies. And we've already made a couple of different investments there, including in ZeroAvia, which is an interesting potential solution in aviation. So this is an area that we are, you know, I would say early days on, but very, very interested in. Terrific. Okay, Yi, back to you. Yeah, continue the topic, Kara, on you know, on the transportation part. Amazon use a lot of electrical vehicles now, but they're only as green as the grid can charge them, the electricity where it comes from. So what's Amazon's plan to increase the percentage of renewables on the main grids in order to make the electricity also green to go into the vehicles? Yeah, it's a great question, something, again, we're also, you know, looking at all the time is greening of the grids. And not only how do we, you know, utilize our power as a purchaser of renewable energy, but how do we work with policymakers in different regions to accelerate the greening of those grids? And that can be through, you know, renewable power standards, it can be through utility engagement, it can be through a number of different things. But we are looking at that as well and thinking about our role. And there's a couple of different corporate coalitions as well that we helped to stand up one at Ceres, which is an EV coalition. We're also part of the Renewable Energy Buyer's Alliance, which is looking at this issue and AEE, ACORE, which is the American Committee on Renewable Energy. So there's a couple of different industry coalitions, I think, that are coming together, which I think is one of the better solutions for this and saying, we need public policies to in order to help us green the grids. We'll do our part as potential buyers, but we're sending signals, we want to see that. We pay attention to grid mix, we look at that. I will say there is not one really good definitive source of grid mix data, so we're also looking at that. How do you get information, you know, about different grids that you're on? So it's kind of a combination again of like everything we've been talking about data science policy and the corporate participation is being a buyer. Yeah. Back to you, Sally. Okay. All right. So academics, you know, what we like, we like to find problems that are really hard that nobody else knows how to solve. So the question from the audience is that, you know, what are those specific sustainability challenges that you find most difficult to tackle? And if you could kind of steer us in the direction that we could be really helpful. Great question. The one that comes to mind immediately is on sustainable materials. So thinking about biodegradable materials that can scale for automation, you know, you've seen a number of companies challenged with this kind of materials question. We know that we have, you know, we want to enable a circular economy. We know also that our municipal recycling systems, particularly in the United States, are quite broken. So by enabling, you know, more sort of looking deeply into material science, enabling more sustainable materials and thinking about that is something that we've been focused on a number of companies have. I mean, I look at the work that Starbucks has done on their cup challenge, right? Thinking about how do you address these issues of waste and materials and circularity in all of the things that you have? There are some great materials out there, for example, in the packaging space. Corrigate is a great material that generally has recycling enabled, but it's a heavy material, right? So when you think about the light weighting that plastic allows you to do, the protective, you know, kind of capability that it brings you, it allows you, when you think about that impact all the way through the life cycle, it allows you potentially to have other kinds of carbon savings like fuel transport savings and, you know, truck savings and things like that. But as a material, it's challenging as well because recycling is not generally enabled. So can you get more, can you get different kinds of materials? And then when you think about the sort of biodegradable or other types of materials that are available, they tend not to work in scale because they don't automate well. Right? When they get exposed to heat in machinery, they don't, they don't do well. So those are the kinds of like, when you think about the solution, people will say sometimes, just use more of this, but the complications, right, as academics are probably well-seated to research, like where are those pain points through something like that in sustainable materials? Or how do we enable and, and better address some of the issues we have in our, our government systems on recycling, you know, we're willing to be a partner we don't know always. We're invested in things like the closed loop fund and the recycling partnership. We've done commitments to, you know, kind of recycling in California, specifically when you think about, you know, the, the mixed use that's going on there. But we don't always know the best places for us to go. And I think academics actually could, you know, play a huge role in that. And then there's new areas like we just talked about with hydrogen, where we want to learn as much as we can as fast as we can about, you know, where the best places to play and deploy in that, in that are. So I think there's, there's so many things evolving in sustainability, but those are, those are a couple that come to mind. Okay. Oh, that's great. Yeah. So we have a lot of work going on in sustainable plastic where you can take carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which you capture and then make it into a plastic so that, you know, it's sort of negative products. And one of the companies even that we have a small startup that came out and they manufactured sustainably made sunglasses. And, and there was a trip to Antarctica and the explorer wanted to have a hundred percent sustainable product. So he took those sunglasses with him. So that was pretty cool. Okay. Thank you for those. Thank you for those insights. Okay. Eat back to you. Yeah, Kara, let's talk about the carbon price a little bit. So as Stanford right here, since I joined in faculty now, more than 15 years, every time I talked to a secretary of George Schott, he as Stanford, he keep emphasizing we need to have a price on carbon, right? You know, it could be carbon tax, but it could be probably something else. And to levelize the playing field between clean energy and carbon base and energy sources. So there's a question from the audience right here. Put your spot a little bit. Hope you don't mind. What is Amazon's position regarding placing a US price on carbon at a federal level? What would Amazon support this position? Well, we're looking at this. So, you know, we've obviously had a lot of debate internally about carbon pricing. We are looking at what other companies have done to also, you know, put a price on carbon internally, so that we can understand it and nothing more to share today. But, you know, this is something that we're obviously debating and talking about quite a bit. Yeah, thank you. Sally? Actually, I think we're going to go to Rebecca. Yeah, Rebecca, please. This is a common thread between some of the student questions and also several of the audience questions. But basically, how are you making your data centers and warehouses more sustainable, both in new build as well as kind of retrofitting what you guys have already built? Yeah. Great question. I think the built environment, sort of heavy industrial sectors, the built environment is probably one of those things which is not just as exciting to talk about in terms of, you know, some of the other industries that we're in. But it is one, I am super passionate about it. It's one of the biggest kind of levers that we can pull to transform that built environment. So, we're thinking, of course, from a data and science perspective first, where we built systems to understand, building management systems, of course, but then also thinking about, you know, where are the pieces that need transformation? So, we look at HVAC. We look at refrigeration. We look at building materials. Of course, we look at the energy footprint of our buildings as well to be most energy efficient. But the building material space is really interesting. We've made a couple of investments. I'd point you out of the Climate Pledge Fund in this area, which we're beginning to deploy. One is in carbon cure, which is a cement product that has carbon sequestration. And we're deploying that in some of our built environment already, particularly in our second headquarters in Washington, D.C. area. We are looking at, you know, other things like steel and other building materials, because those have such a big impact in the world, not just for us, but just for everybody. We also invested in a company called Turntide, which is the energy efficient rotor on HVAC equipment. Huge energy savings there. So, these kinds of things that, you know, we both want to support and then deploy within our network to collect the data and see how they're doing and then, you know, continue to scale up are really, really important. When we think about, you know, all of our facilities, we're looking across, not just again, that footprint, but also, you know, how they're constructed, how they can be more efficient in the data center world, like water evaporation and cooling, of course, is a big component as well in the physical stores world with Whole Foods. It's about refrigerants and where are there more sustainable options for refrigerants? Because that has an impact to the carbon footprint. So, we're really excited about all the, you know, the opportunities that some super inventive, great companies are coming along with in terms of products and services. We're continuing to, I think, one of the best things that we can do is not just invest, but deploy, right? And put them in an environment where we see how they do and then share that data back and continue to scale. So, Victoria, you have a question. Yeah. So, to your point, Kara, about the balance between investing and deploying, we had a question about the climate pledge fund and specifically the question was, how does it fit into the sustainability initiative and what are its key investment criteria? Sure. You know, I mentioned we just started this this summer, so we're just, you know, still early days learning and going. We are first and foremost the fund is set up to invest in decarbonizing technologies that we think will help us at Amazon, but of course, you know, will help the world. So, we look at things from, you know, our operations perspective, where our biggest carbon challenges are. That's why we've looked at things like the built environment with carbon cure and turn tide. We've looked at zero avia for, you know, airplanes. We just made an investment yesterday in, you know, a fuel solution that we announced. So, we've also invested in a company called Pachama, which is interesting because they do sort of satellite monitoring technologies for forests, right? So, we talked a little bit about that before. So, really, it's a very wide-ranging set of things that we're going to look at, everything from agroforestry solutions to built environment, transportation, operations of fulfillment kind of solutions, product, and so forth. And we really just want to invest in things we think are going to have big carbon lovers. Of course, you know, Rivian and our electrification fleet is in there as well. There's no set criteria beyond that. There is an intake process. You can go to our website. There's a, you know, on theclimatepledge.com and there's a way to, you know, go in there, suggest ideas, get information in front of the team. And then we, you know, internally, we have a mix of our scientists and our sustainability team, along with our corporate development function, who come together. And obviously, our skill sets are to look at the, you know, from a science perspective and a sustainability expertise perspective to look at the impact of these potential solutions. And then, you know, the, we do the due diligence from a corp dev perspective, as anyone would on, you know, the company itself and where they're at. But we really look at any stage company. And it really, the focus has been on the prioritization to, and the importance and ability to decarbonize. Sally. Okay, great. Yeah. Anyway, I've just been thinking about some of the things you said earlier and your comments about the circular economy, you know, brought to mind some work that we've just started doing on circular economy for batteries. And with the rapid growth of EVs, you know, I think we're going to, at some point, start seeing a lot of, you know, batteries that actually can have a very useful second life. And it seems like Amazon is sort of uniquely suited to, you know, on both sides of the, you know, you'll be using a lot of batteries for transportation. And then you'll have an opportunity for repurposing those for electricity systems improvements. Anyway, but that wasn't really my question. But I do think, you know, Amazon is a really interesting opportunity to be on both sides of the batteries, both as a first life and second life user and maybe catalysts also for thinking about second life batteries. Anyway, the question is, sorry for that diversion, that, you know, we have a new administration, you know, it's a new day. And the question is, is, you know, how does Amazon think about working with the Biden administration and, you know, even beyond, beyond the United States, you know, in governments around the world, you know, you're doing so much, you're such a leader, you know, how do you think about cooperating governments? Yeah, I mean, I think first and foremost, we'll cooperate with any government that wants to lean into, you know, combating climate change. So it's, you know, regardless of the Biden administration or any specific administration, if we're aligned on our goals to accelerate the fight on climate change, that's great. And we're happy to partner in whatever way we can. It is exciting to see the Biden administration come out strong on climate change and all of the attention that's being paid right now to rejoining the Paris Agreement and I think aligning, you know, with those goals. We're certainly talking to them about our goals and making sure that they're aware and that we're a partner, we're, you know, we're leading to the same things. I know there was something the other day too about electrification of the federal fleet. So I think all of those things where we're aligned and we're just wanting to share just like we would with any other corporate or NGO or partner, how we should do this, what are the best ways. And then, you know, along with our industry partners, be a voice about what are the enabling policy environments that we need to address this. But that's true of what we're seeing in Europe with the EU Green Deal and the focus in particularly so far, I think on product circularity there. And some of the things, you know, that we're, we need these partners to come together. We can again play a certain part in advancing technologies, deploying them, investing in them, you know, creating demand. But you need that enabling policy environment to make sure one that everybody can come along with that, right? Because I think this is something the world needs to transform at not one by one. And then I think also we need to understand what systems government's going to invest in. So again, the infrastructure pieces I talked about in electrification are very important pieces for government to really think about, right? That's not something the private sector, I mean, we can invest in infrastructure, but that's a government role and responsibility. Same with municipal recycling. We would love to see that, you know, more fully tackled and enabled on behalf of us and all of our customers around the world. That is not something that I think a corporate's going to solve. So we can come along with some of the ideas, but in terms of partnership, there are certain responsibilities that I think are fully in the domain of government. And we're there to partner, but love to know what's going to happen there. And then, you know, there's other things where the Biden administration is certainly sending a signal right now that climate is at the top of the priority. And it's, it's a priority for Treasury. It's a priority for our new transportation secretary. It's a priority for, you know, Secretary Kerry and his whole team that's doing a great job thinking about specifically what the U.S. role is going to be nationally determined contributions to the Paris Agreement or deploying policies to change, you know, the practices of the federal government. And that's really exciting to see. And so I'm really looking forward to that partnership. Okay. Well, thank you so much, back to you. So, Kara, while you're answering that question, I was looking into our attendance list. There are many people, of course, coming from industry listening to your, you know, what you share. There are a lot of people from academia as well. And I look at the list, I see my friends, Stan Wittingham, our Stan alumni is also in the audience. He's a Nobel Prize winner for the Lithium Iron Battery. This gives you a feel of what a mixed audience we have right here. But very exciting one is, of course, we have a lot of students, really a lot of students while watching. Even after the event, it is video available. I'm sure there will be a lot more. So I want to give you a chance. You, you know, yourself is a role model for many young students. What otherwise do you have as they are seeking careers in clean energy or sustainability? So what otherwise do you have? Well, thank you for those kind comments. But yeah, I, you know, we have the opportunity to talk to students a lot. And I think one of the most exciting things for students right now, when you think about the opportunities that are in front of you, when I know when I was coming out of graduate school, I was interested in sustainability. I worked my entire career in sort of, I worked for a senator, I worked for a mayor, I worked in NGO. I worked actually in an academic consortium prior to joining Amazon. It was a consortium of four universities where all my staff were, you know, professors and in academia. So I've done multiple different kind of sectoral approaches to sustainability. And then at Amazon, of course, the private sector approach, one of the most exciting things that students have in front of them right now is the fact that one, if you're interested in sustainability, it is a growing field. And there are opportunities in a multitude of different sectors. And so I think looking at, you know, the opportunities within academia, within government, within the NGO world, within corporate is fantastic. Two, if you're going to seek a job in corporate, or in the private sector, you know, what's really, really interesting is I sort of spent a lot of time, I think, upfront talking about the system that we built and how we want to enable our business operators and our leaders to really embed sustainability into their thinking. We have so many sustainability roles that are not on my team. And that is exactly what we want to see in any corporation, which is there's a central team, of course, it's going to have to drive it, set goals, set governance, set practices, you know, codify things, and drive it throughout a company, particularly as large as Amazon. But look at those roles as you want to learn that are in operations, that are in product development, that are in data center infrastructure, and think about those roles as huge opportunities to learn the implementation. So not just coming to the sustainability team, if there is one, but maybe taking a role where you are an advocate for sustainability and you are the driver of sustainability in an incredibly important part of the business. When we find those people who are rethinking how we design our products, reassessing our topology, thinking about how to incorporate climate risk into our planning, that is the best thing that can happen, I think, to Amazon. And the resourcing of those functions is increasing, I think, overall. So when you think about where your scientific knowledge or your coming out and your knowledge of energy markets can fit, I would say think about the landscape very broadly and the impact that you could potentially have in a different kind of corporate role through that sustainability lens. I think that is one of the more exciting things that we are seeing. And then that experience of doing it and having to execute it and operationalize it, maybe bringing that back into a more policy or central function at some point can be very helpful. But I think the world is your oyster. There are a million opportunities to you to embed your sustainability knowledge and thinking in a variety of different roles. So sometimes spending some time in a supply chain organization or an operating organization can be very, very valuable. Well, Kara, that was an excellent conversation. Thank you very much for joining us today and to all of you joining us from around the world. We hope you find today's Global Energy Dialogue informative and relevant during these difficult times. We will now conclude our broadcast of today's program on behalf of the entire Stanford Preco Institute for Energy. And we have Sally Alun. We would like to thank you for joining us and we will see you next time. Thank you.