 Section 33 of Manners, Customs, and Dress. Manners, Customs, and Dress during the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance period by Paul Lacroix. Section 33 The greater part of the principal ceremonies of the Middle Ages acquired from various accessory and local circumstances, a character of grandeur well fitted to impress the minds of the populace. On these memorable occasions, the exhibition of some historical memorial, of certain traditional symbols, of certain relics, etc., brought to the recollection the most celebrated events in national history, events already possessing the prestige of antiquity, as well as the veneration of the people. Thus, as the memorial of the Consecration of the Kings of Hungary, the actual crown of Holy King Stephen was used. At the Consecration of the Kings of England, the actual chair of Edward the Confessor was used. At the Consecration of the Emperors of Germany, the Imperial insignia actually used by Charlemagne, formed part of the display. At the Consecration of the Kings of France at a certain period, the hand of justice of Saint-Louis, which has been before alluded to, was produced. After their Consecration by the Church and by the spiritual power, the sovereigns had simply to take possession of their dominions and, so to speak, of their subjects. This positive act of sovereignty was often accompanied by another class of ceremonies called Joyous Entry or Public Entry. These entries, of which numerous accounts have been handed down to us by historians, and which, for the most part, were very varied in character, naturally took place in the capital city. We will limit ourselves to transcribing the account given by the ancient chronicler Juvenile des Orsins of the entry into Paris of Queen Isabel of Bavaria, wife of Charles VI, which was a curious specimen of the public fets of this kind. In the year 1389, the King was desirous that the Queen should make a public entry into Paris, and this he made known to the inhabitants in order that they should make preparations for it. And there were at each crossroads divers histoire, historical representations, pictures or tableauxs vivants, and fountains sending forth water, wine, and milk. The people of Paris in great numbers went out to meet the Queen with the provost of merchants crying Noël. The bridge by which she passed was covered with blue taffeta embroidered with golden fleur-de-lis. A man of light weight dressed in the guise of an angel came down, by means of some well-constructed machinery from one of the towers of Notre-Dame to the said bridge through an opening in the said blue taffeta at the moment when the Queen was passing and placed a beautiful crown on her head. After he had done this he withdrew through the said opening by the same means and thus appeared as if he were returning to the skies of his own accord. Before the grand chastelet there was a splendid court adorned with azure tapestry which was intended to be a representation of the Lid-de-Justice, and it was very large and richly decorated. In the middle of it was a very large pure white artificial stag, its horns gilt, and its neck encircled with a crown of gold. It was so ingeniously constructed that his eyes, horns, mouth, and all its limbs were put in motion by a man who was secreted within its body. Hanging to its neck were the King's arms, that is to say three gold fleur-de-lis on an azure field. Near the stag there was a large sword beautiful and bright unsheathed, and when the Queen passed the stag was made to take the sword in the right forefoot to hold it out straight and to brandish it. It was reported to the King that said preparations were made and he said to Savoisee, who was one of those nearest to him, Savoisee, I earnestly entreat thee to mount a good horse and I will ride behind thee, and we will so dress ourselves that no one will know us and let us go and see the entry of my wife. And although Savoisee did all he could to dissuade him, the King insisted and ordered that it should be done. So, Savoisee did what the King had ordered and disguised himself as well as he could and mounted on a powerful horse with the King behind him. They went through the town and managed so as to reach the chastelette at the time the Queen was passing. There was a great crowd and Savoisee placed himself as near as he could and there were sergeants on all sides with thick birch wands who, in order to prevent the crowd from pressing upon and injuring the court where the stag was, hit away with their wands as hard as they could. Savoisee struggled continually to get nearer and nearer and the sergeants who neither knew the King nor Savoisee struck away at them and the King received several very hard and well-directed blows on the shoulders. In the evening in the presence of the ladies the matter was talked over and they began to joke about it and even the King himself laughed at the blows he had received. The Queen, on her entry, was seated on a litter and very magnificently dressed as were also the ladies and maids of honour. It was indeed a splendid sight and if anyone wished to describe the dresses of the ladies, of the knights and squires and of those who escorted the Queen it would take a long time to do so. After supper singing and dancing commenced which continued until daylight. The next day there were tournaments and other sports. In the course of this simple and graphic description mention has been made of the Lie du Justice, seat of justice. All judicial or legislative assemblies at which the King considered it his duty to be present were thus designated. When the King came there simply as a looker on they were more commonly called pli d'oie and in this case no change was made in the ordinary arrangements. But when the King presided they were called consai and then a special ceremonial was required. In fact by Lie du Justice or Code de Père we understand a court consisting of the high officers of the crown and of the great executive of the state whose duty it was to determine whether any peer of France should be tried on a criminal charge, gravely to deliberate on any political matter of special interest or to register in the name of the absolute sovereignty of the King, any edict of importance. We know the prominent and we may say even the fatal part played by these solemnities which were being continually reenacted and on every sort of pretext during the latter days of monarchy. These courts were always held with impressive pomp. The sovereign usually summoned to them the princes of the blood royal and the officers of his household. The members of the parliament took their seats in scarlet robes, the presidents being habited in their caps and mantles and the registrars of the court also wearing their official dress. The High Chancellor, the First Chamberlain and the Provost of Paris sat at the King's feet. The Chancellor of France, the presidents and councillors of the parliament occupied the bar and the ushers of the court were in a kneeling posture. Having thus mentioned the assemblies of persons of distinction, the interviews of sovereigns and the reception of ambassadors, without describing them in detail which would involve more space than we have at our command, we will enter upon the subject of the special ceremonial adopted by the nobility taking as our guide the standard book called Honour de la Cour, compiled at the end of the fifteenth century by the celebrated Alunor de Poitiers. In addition to her own observations she gives those of her mother, Isabelle de Souza, who herself had but continued the work of another noble lady, Jean d'Accord, married in 1391 to the Count William de Namour, who was considered the best authority to be found in the Kingdom of France. This collection of the customs of the court forms a kind of family diary embracing three generations and extending back over more than a century. Notwithstanding the curious and interesting character of this book and the authority which it possesses on the subject, we cannot, much to our regret, do more than borrow a few passages from it. But these carefully selected will no doubt suffice to give some idea of the manners and customs of the nobility during the fifteenth century and to illustrate the laws of etiquette of which it was the recognized code. One of the early chapters of the work sets forth this fundamental law of French ceremonial, namely that according to the traditions or customs of France women, however exalted to their position, be they even king's daughters rank with their husbands. We find on the occasion of the marriage of King Charles VII with Mary of Anjou in 1413, although probably there had never been assembled together so many princes and ladies of rank, that at the banquet the ladies alone dined with the queen and no gentlemen sat with them. We may remark, whilst on this subject, that before the reign of Francis I it was not customary for the two sexes to be associated together in the ordinary intercourse of court life, and we have remarked elsewhere, C. CHAPTER ON PRIVATE LIFE, that this departure from ancient custom exerted a considerable influence not only on manners but also on public affairs. The authoress of the Honour de la Cour especially mentions the respect which Queen Mary of Anjou paid to the Duchess of Burgundy when she was at Champagne and Champagne in 1445. The Duchess came with all her retinue on horseback and in carriages into the courtyard of the mansion where the king and queen were, and there alighted, her first maid of honour acting as her train-bearer. Monsieur de Bourbon gave her his right hand and the gentleman went on in front. In this manner she was conducted to the hall which served as the ante-chamber to the queen's apartment. There she stopped and sent in Monsieur de Coquille to ask the queen if it was her pleasure that she should enter. When the Duchess came to the door she took the train of her dress from the lady who bore it and let it trail on the ground and as she entered she knelt and then advanced to the middle of the room. There she made the same obeisance and moved straight towards the queen who was standing close to the foot of her throne. When the Duchess had performed a further active homage the queen advanced two or three steps and the Duchess fell on her knees and the queen then put her hand on her shoulder, embraced her, kissed her, and commanded her to rise. The Duchess then went up to Margaret of Scotland, wife of the Dauphin, afterwards Louis XI, who was four or five feet from the queen and paid her the same honors as she had done to the queen, although the Dauphin appeared to wish to prevent her from absolutely kneeling to her. After this she turned towards the Queen of Sicily Isabelle de Lorraine, wife of René of Anjou, brother-in-law of the king, who was two or three feet from the Dauphin and merely bowed to her and the same to another princess, Madame de Calabre, who was still more distantly connected with the blood-royal. Then the Queen and after her the Dauphin kissed the three maids of honor of the Duchess and the wives of the gentlemen. The Duchess did the same to the ladies who accompanied the Queen and the Dauphin, but of those of the Queen of Sicily the Duchess kissed none, inasmuch as the Queen had not kissed hers. And the Duchess would not walk behind the Queen for she said that the Duke of Burgundy was nearer the crown of France than was the King of Sicily, and also that she was the daughter of the King of Portugal, who was greater than the King of Sicily. Further on, from the details given of a similar reception, we learn that etiquette was not at that time regulated by the laws of politeness as now understood, inasmuch as the voluntary respect paid by men to the gentle sex was influenced much by social rank. Thus, at the time of a visit of Louis XI, then Dauphin, to the court of Brussels, to which place he went to seek refuge against the anger of his father, the Duchesses of Burgundy, of Charolais, and of Cleve, his near relatives, exhibited towards him all the tokens of submission and inferiority which he might have received from a vassal. The Dauphin, it is true, wished to avoid this homage, and a discussion on the subject of more than a quarter of an hour ensued. At last, he took the Duchess of Burgundy by the arm and led her away in order to cut short the ceremonies about which Madame made so much to do. This, however, did not prevent the princesses on their withdrawing from kneeling to the ground in order to show their respect for the son of the King of France. We have already seen that the Duchess of Burgundy went about to appear before the Queen, took her train from her train-bearer in order that she might carry it herself. In this, she was only conforming to a general principle which was that in the presence of a superior, a person however high his rank, should not himself receive honors whilst at the same time paying them to another. Thus a duke and a Duchess amidst their court had all the things which were used at their table covered, hence the modern expression, Maitre le couvert, to lay the cloth, even the wash-hand basin and the cadenas, a kind of case in which the cups, knives, and other table-articles were kept. But when they were entertaining a king, all these marks of superiority were removed as a matter of etiquette from the table at which they sat and were passed on as an act of respect to the sovereign present. The Book of Dame Allenor, in a series of articles to which we shall merely allude, speaks at great length and enters into detail respecting the interior arrangements of the rooms in which princes and other noble children were born. The formalities gone through on these occasions were as curious as they were complicated, and Dame Allenor regretted to see them falling into disuse. Owing to which, she says, we fear that the possessions of the great houses of the nobility are getting too large, as everyone admits, and chicanery or concealment of birth so as to make away with too many children is on the increase. Morning is the next subject which we shall notice. The king never wore black for morning, not even for his father, but scarlet or violet. The queen wore white and did not leave for apartments for a whole year. Hence the name of Chateau, Hôtel, or Tour de la Reine Blanche, which many of the buildings of the Middle Ages still bear, from the fact that widowed queens inhabited them during the first year of their widowhood. On occasions of morning the various reception rooms of a house were hung with black. In deep morning, such as that for a husband or a father, a lady wore neither gloves, jewels, nor silk. The head was covered with a low black headdress, with trailing lapets called chaperon, barbettes, couvre-chef, or touré. A duchess and the wife of a knight or a bannerette, ongoing into morning, stayed in their apartments for six weeks. The former, during the whole of this time, while in deep morning, remained lying down all day on a bed covered with a white sheet, whereas the latter, at the end of nine days, got up, and until the six weeks were over, remained sitting in front of the bed on a black sheet. Ladies did not attend the funerals of their husbands, though it was usual for them to be present at those of their fathers and mothers. For an elder brother they wore the same morning as for a father, but they did not lie down, as above described. In their every day intercourse with one another, kings, princes, dukes, and duchesses, called one another Monsieur and Madame, adding the Christian name or that of the estate. A superior, speaking or writing to an inferior, might prefix to his or her title of relationship, beau or belle, for instance, mon belle-oncle, ma belle cuisine. The people in a lower sphere of life, on being introduced to one another, did not say Monsieur Jean ma belle tante, Mr. Jean allow me to introduce you to my aunt, but simply Jean ma tante. The head of a house had his seat under a canopy or dosorette, which he only relinquished to his sovereign when he had the honor of entertaining him. Such, says Alionore in conclusion, are the points of etiquette which are observed in Germany, in France, in Naples, in Italy, and in all other civilized countries and kingdoms. We may hear remark that etiquette, after having originated in France, spread throughout all Christian nations and when it had become naturalized, as it were, amongst the latter, it acquired a settled position, which it retained more firmly than it did in France. In this latter country it was only from the seventeenth century, and particularly under Louis XIV, that court etiquette really became a science and almost a species of religious observance whose minutiae were attended to as much as if they were sacramental rites, though they were not infrequently of the most childish character, and whose pomp and precision often caused the most insufferable annoyance. But notwithstanding the perpetual changes of times and customs, the French nation has always been distinguished for nobility and dignity, tempered with good sense and elegance. If we now direct our attention to the tiè état, that class which, to quote a celebrated expression, was destined to become everything after having for a long time been looked upon as nothing, we shall notice that there too custom and tradition had much to do with ceremonies of all kinds. The presence of the middle classes not only gave, as it were, a stamp of grandeur to fets of an aristocratic and religious character, but in addition the people themselves had a number of ceremonies of every description in which etiquette was not one wit less strict than in those of the court. The variety of civic and popular ceremonies is so great that it would require a large volume illustrated with numerous engravings to explain fully their characteristic features. The simple enumeration of the various public fets, each of which was necessarily accompanied by a distinct ceremonial, would take up much time were we to attempt to give it even in the shortest manner. Besides the numerous ceremonies that were purely religious, namely the procession of the Fet Dieu in Rogation Week, and the fets which were both of a superstitious and burlesque character, such as des foues, de l'en, des enocins, and others of the same kind, so much invoked during the Middle Ages, and which we shall describe more in detail hereafter. We should like to mention the military or gymnastic fets. Among these were what were called the processions of the Confraire, the Lac-et-Bousse, the Archers, the Papago, or the Roi de l'Empinette at Lille, or the Forestier at Bruges. There were also what may be termed the fets peculiar to certain places, such as those of Bayeur, of the Champs-Galas at Epinale, of the Laboureur at Montalimar, of Guy de la Nuff at Anjou, also of the Fets of May, of the Sheaf, of the Spring, of the Roses, of the Fires of Saint John, etc. Then there were the historical or commemorative fets, such as those of the Gaiant-Rousse at Dunkirk, of the Gaiant at Douai, etc., also of Gouet de Saint-Maxime at Ries in Provence, of the processions of Génard at Orléans, of Génachet at Beauvais, and lastly the numerous fets of public corporations, such as Écolier, the Nation, the Université, also the Landis, the Saint-Charlemagne, the Bayer de Roses au Palmon, the literary fets of the Paillis de Chambre de Rhetorique, of Piccadilly and Flanders, of the Clémence Isor at Toulouse, of the Capitole at Rome, etc., the Fets of the Cermont, Metier and Devoir of the Workingmen's Corporation, and lastly the Fet Patronal, also called Assemblée du Casse, Folie, Frère, Hermès, Pardon, etc. From this simple enumeration it can easily be understood what a useless task we should impose upon ourselves, where we merely to enter upon so wide and difficult a subject. Apart from the infinite variety of details resulting from the local circumstances under which these ceremonies had been instituted, which were everywhere celebrated at fixed periods, a kind of general principle regulated and directed their arrangement. Nearly all these fets and public rejoicings, which to a certain extent constituted the common basis of popular ceremonial, bore much analogy to one another. There are, however, certain peculiarities less known and more striking than the rest, which deserve to be mentioned, and we shall then conclude this part of our subject. Those right ceremonies and customs which are the most commonly observed, and which most persistently keep their place amongst us, are far from being of modern origin. Thus the custom of jovially celebrating the commencement of the new year, or of devoting certain particular days to the festivity, is still universally followed in every country of the world. The practice of sending presents on New Year's Day is to be found among civilized nations in the East, as well as in our own country. In the Middle Ages the intimate friends of princes, and especially of the kings of France, received Christmas gifts, for which they considered themselves bound to make an ample return. In England these interchanges of generosity also take place on Christmas Day. In Russia, on Easter Day the people on meeting in the street salute one another by saying, Christ is risen. These practices, as well as many others, have no doubt been handed down to us from the early ages of Christianity. The same may be said of a vast number of customs of a more or less local character, which have been observed in various countries for centuries. In former times, at Oshenbach in Vertenberg, during the Carnival, women held a feast at which they were waited upon by men, and after it was over they formed themselves into a sort of court of plenary indulgence, from which the men were uniformly excluded and sat in judgment on one another. At Ramaroupet, a small town in Champagne, every year on the 1st of May, twenty of the citizens repaired to the adjoining hamlet of Saint-Rémy, hunting as they went along. They were called the Fools of Ramaroup, and it was said that the greatest fool led the band. The inhabitants of Saint-Rémy were bound to receive them gratuitously and to supply them, as well as their horses and dogs, with what they required, to have a mass said for them, to put up with all the absurd vagaries of the Captain and his troop, and to supply them with a fine and handsome, horned ram which was led back in triumph. On their return to Ramaroupet they set up shouts at the door of the Curay, the Procuret of Fiscal, and the Collector of Taxes, and after the invention of gunpowder fireworks were let off. Then they went to the marketplace where they danced round the ram which was decorated with ribbons. No doubt this was a relic of the feasts of ancient heathenism. A more curious ceremony still, whose origin we think may be traced to the Dionysian feasts of heathenism, has continued to be observed to this day at Bezier. It bears the names of the Feasts of Pépézouk, the Triumph of Bezier, or the Feasts of Carita or Charité. At the bottom of the Rue Française at Bezier, a statue is to be seen which not withstanding the mutilations to which it has been subjected, still distinctly bears traces of being an ancient work of the most refined period of art. This statue represents Pépézouk, a citizen of Bezier who, according to somewhat questionable tradition, valiantly defended the town against the Goths, or as some say, against the English. Its origin therefore cannot be later than the 13th century. On Ascension Day, the day of the Feasts of Pépézouk, an immense procession went about the town. Three remarkable machines were particularly noticeable. The first was an enormous wooden camel made to walk by mechanism and to move its limbs and jaws. The second was a galley on wheels fully manned. The third consisted of a cart on which a traveling theater was erected. The consuls and other civic authorities, the corporations of trades having the pastors walking in front of them, the ferriers on horseback all bearing their respective insignia and banners, formed the procession. A double column composed of a division of young men and young women holding white hoops decorated with ribbons and many colored streamers was preceded by a young girl crowned with flowers, half-veiled and carrying a basket. This brilliant procession marched to the sound of music and at certain distances the youthful couples of the two sexes halted in order to perform, with the assistance of their hoops, various figures which were called the Dans des Très. The machines also stopped from time to time at various places. The camel was especially made to enter the church of Aphrodis because it was said that the Apostle had first come on a camel to preach the gospel in that country and there to receive the Palm of Martyrdom. On arriving before the statue of Pepezuc the young couple decorated it with garlands. When the square of the town was reached the theater was stopped like an ancient car of Thespis and the actors treated the people to a few comical droleries in imitation of Aristophanes. From the galley the youths flung sugar-plums and sweet-meats which the spectators returned with equal perfusion. The procession closed with a number of men crowned with green leaves carrying on their heads loaves of bread which, with other provisions contained in the galley, were distributed among the poor of the town. In Germany and in France it was the custom at the public entries of kings, princes and purses of rank, to offer them the wines made in the district and commonly sold in the town. At Long, or for instance, these wines were put into four pewter vessels called cimes, which are still to be seen. They were called the lion, monkey, sheep, and pig wines, symbolical names which expressed the different degrees or phases of drunkenness which they were supposed to be capable of producing. The lion, courage, the monkey, cunning, the sheep, good temper, the pig, bestiality. We will now conclude by borrowing from the excellent work of Monsieur Alfred Michel on Dutch and Flemish painting the abridged description of a procession of corporations of trades which took place at Antwerp in 1520 on the Sunday after Ascension Day. All the corporations of trades were present, every member being dressed in his best suit. In front of each guild a banner floated, and immediately behind an enormous lighted wax taper was carried. March music was played on long silver trumpets, flutes, and drums. The goldsmiths, painters, masons, silkenbroiderers, sculptors, carpenters, boatmen, fishermen, butchers, couriers, drapers, bakers, tailors, and men of every other trade marched to abreast. Then came crossbowmen, archboussiers, archers, etc., some on foot and some on horseback. After them came the various monastic orders and then followed a crowd of bourgeois magnificently dressed. A numerous company of widows dressed in white from head to foot particularly attracted attention. They constituted a sort of sisterhood observing certain rules and gaining their livelihood by various descriptions of manual work. The cathedral cannons and the other priests walked in the procession in their gorgeous silk vestments sparkling with gold. Twenty persons carried on their shoulders a huge figure of the virgin with the infant savior in her arms splendidly decorated. At the end of the procession were chariots and ships on wheels. There were various groups in the procession representing scenes from the Old and New Testament such as the salutation of the angels, the visitation of the Magi who appeared riding on camels, the flight into Egypt, and other well-known historical incidents. The last machine represented a dragon being led by Saint Margaret with a magnificent bridle and was followed by Saint George and several brilliantly attired knights. During the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance period by Paul Lacroix. Section 34 Costumes Long garments alone were worn by the ancients, and up to the period when the barbarous tribes of the North made their appearance, or rather until the invasion of the Roman Empire by these wandering nations, male and female dress differed but little. The Greeks made scarcely any change in their mode of dress for centuries, but the Romans on becoming masters of the world partially adopted the dress and arms of the people they had conquered, where they considered them an improvement on their own, although the original style of dress was but little altered. Roman attire consisted of two garments, the undergarment or tunic, and the outer garment or cloak. The latter was known under the various names of Clamis, Toga and Pallium, but notwithstanding these several appellations there was scarcely any appreciable distinction between them. The simple tunic with sleeves which answered to our shirt was like the modern blaze in shape, and was called by various names. The Ciridota was a tunic with long and large sleeves of Asiatic origin. The Manuleata was a tunic with long and tight sleeves coming to the wrists. The Talaris was a tunic reaching to the feet. The Palmatta was a state tunic embroidered with palms, which ornamentation was often found in other parts of dress. The Lacerna, Loena, Cuculus, Clamis, Sagum, Paludamentum were upper garments, more or less coarse, either full or scant, and usually short, and were analogous to our cloaks, mantles, etc., and were made both with and without hoods. There were many varieties of the tunic and cloak invented by female ingenuity, as well as of other articles of dress which formed elegant accessories to the toilet. But there was no essential alteration in the national costume, nor was there any change in the shape of the numerous descriptions of shoes. The barbarian invasions brought about a revolution in the dress, as well as in the social state of the people. And it is from the time of these invasions that we may date, properly speaking, the history of modern dress. For the Roman costume, which was in use at the same time as that of the Franks, the Huns, the Vandals, the Goths, etc., was subjected to various changes down to the ninth century. These modifications increased afterwards to such an extent that, towards the fourteenth century, the original type had altogether disappeared. It was quite natural that men living in a temperate climate, and bearing arms only when in the service of the state, should be satisfied with garments which they could wear without wrapping themselves up too closely. The northern nations, on the contrary, had early learned to protect themselves against the severity of the climate in which they lived. Thus the garments known by them as Brey, and by the Parthians as Sarabara, dartlers gave origin to those which have been respectively called by us Chos, Aude Chos, Tros, Grègue, Coulotte, Pantalon, etc. These wandering people had other reasons for preferring the short and close fitting garments to those which were long and full. And these were their innate pugnacity which forced them ever to be under arms, their habit of dwelling in forests and thickets, their love of the chase, and their custom of wearing armour. The ancient Greeks and Romans always went bareheaded in the towns, but in the country in order to protect themselves from the direct rays of the sun, they wore hats much resembling our round hats, made of felt, plaited rushes, or straw. Other European nations of the same period also went bareheaded or wore caps made of skins of animals having no regularity of style, and with the shape of which we are but little acquainted. Shoes and head dresses of a definite style belong to a much more modern period, as also do the many varieties of female dress which have been known at all times and in all countries under the general name of robes. The girdle was only used occasionally, and its adoption depended on circumstances. The women used it in the same way as the men, for in those days it was never attached to the dress. The great difference in modern female costume consists in the fact of the girdle being part of the dress, thus giving a long or short waist according to the requirements of fashion. In the same manner in the same manner a complete revolution took place in men's dress according as loose or tight, long or short sleeves were introduced. We shall commence our historical sketch from the fifth century, at which period we can trace the blending of the Roman with the barbaric costume, namely the combination of the long shapeless garment with that which was worn by the Germans, and which was accompanied by tight-fitting bray. Thus in the recumbent statue which adorned the tomb of Clovis in the church of the Abbey of Saint-Jean-Vierve, the king is represented as wearing the tunic and the toga, but in addition Gallo-Roman civilisation had actually given him tight-fitting bray, somewhat similar to what we now call pantaloons. Besides this his tunic is fastened by a belt, which, however, was not a novelty in his time, for the women then wore long dresses fastened at the waist by a girdle. There is nothing very remarkable about his shoes, since we find that the shoe or closed sandal was worn from the remotest periods by nearly all nations. The cloak claims an equally ancient origin. The principal thing worthy of notice is the amount of ornament with which the Franks enriched their girdles and the borders of their tunics and cloaks. This fashion they borrowed from the Imperial Court, which, having been transferred from Rome to Constantinople during the third century, was not slow to adopt the luxury of precious stones and other rich decorations commonly in use amongst Eastern nations. Following the example of Horasteville Castel, the learned author of a history of the Costumes of France, we may here state that it is very difficult, if not impossible, to define the exact costume during the time of the early Merovingian periods. The first writers who have touched upon this subject have spoken of it very vaguely, or not being contemporaries of the times of which they wrote could only describe from tradition or hearsay. Those monuments in which early costume is supposed to be represented are almost all of later date, when artists, whether sculptors or painters, were not very exact in their delineations of costume, and even seemed to imagine that no other style could have existed before their time than the one with which they were daily familiar. In order to be as accurate as possible, although, after all, we can only speak hypothetically, we cannot do better than call to mind on the one hand what Tacitus says of the Germans, that they, quote, were almost naked, accepting for a short and tight garment round their waists, and a little square cloak which they threw over the right shoulder, end, quote, and on the other to carry ourselves back in imagination to the ancient Roman costume. We may notice more over the curious description given of the Franks by Sidouin Apollinaire, who says, quote, they tied up their flaxen or light brown hair above their foreheads into a kind of tuft, and then made it fall behind the head like a horse's tail. The face was clean-shaved, with the exception of two long moustaches. They wore cloth garments fitting tight to the body and limbs, and a broad belt to which they hung their swords, end, quote. But this is a sketch made at a time when the Frankish race was only known among the Gauls through its marauding tribes, whose raids from time to time spread terror and dismay throughout the countries which they visited. From the moment when the uncultivated tribes of ancient Germany formally took possession of the territory which they had withdrawn from Roman rule, they showed themselves desirous of adopting the more gentle manners of the conquered nation. In imitation of their chief, says M. Jules-Quichirat, the eminent antiquarian, quote, more than once the Franks doffed the war coat and the leather belt and assumed the toga of Roman dignity. More than once their flaxen hair was shown to advantage by flowing over the imperial mantle, and the gold of the knights, the purple of the senators and patricians, the triumphal crowns, the fascies, and, in short, everything which the Roman Empire invented in order to exhibit its grandeur assisted in adding to that of our ancestors. One great and characteristic difference between the Romans and the Franks should, however, be specially mentioned, namely, in the fashion of wearing the hair long, a fashion never adopted by the Romans, and which, during the whole of the First Dynasty, was a distinguishing mark of kings and nobles among the Franks. Agathius, the Greek historian, says, quote, the hair is never cut from the heads of the Frankish king's sons. From early youth their hair falls gracefully over their shoulders, it is parted on the forehead, and falls equally on both sides. It is with them a matter to which they give special attention." We are told, besides, that they sprinkled it with gold dust, and plattered it in small bands, which they ornamented with pearls and precious metals. Whilst persons of rank were distinguished by their long and flowing hair, the people wore theirs more or less short, according to the degree of freedom which they possessed, and the serfs had their heads completely shaved. It was customary for the noble and free classes to swear by their hair, and it was considered the height of politeness to pull out a hair and present it to a person. Frédès Guerre, the chronicler, relates that Clovis thus pulled out a hair in order to do honour to Saint Germais, Bishop of Toulouse, and presented it to him. Upon this the courtiers hastened to imitate their sovereign, and the venerable Prelate returned home with his hand full of hair, delighted at the flattering reception he had met with at the court of the Frankish king. During the Merovingian period the greatest insult that could be offered to a freeman was to touch him with a razor or scissors. The degradation of kings and princes was carried out in a public manner by shaving their heads and sending them into a monastery. On their regaining their rights and their authority their hair was always allowed to grow again. We may also conclude that great importance was attached to the preservation of the hair, even under the kings of the Second Dynasty, for Charlemagne, in his capitulaire, orders the hair to be removed as a punishment in certain crimes. The Franks, faithful to their ancient custom of wearing the hair long, gradually gave up shaving the face. At first they only left a small tuft on the chin, but by degrees they allowed this to increase, and in the sixth and seventh centuries freemen adopted the usual form of beard. Amongst the clergy the custom prevailed of shaving the crown of the head, in the same way as that adopted by certain monastic orders in the present day. Priests for a long time wore beards, but ceased to do so on their becoming fashionable amongst the laity. Painters and sculptors therefore commit a serious error in representing the prelates and monks of those times with large beards. As far as the monumental relics of those remote times allow us to judge, the dress as worn by Clovis underwent but trifling modifications during the First Dynasty. But during the reigns of Pepin and Charlemagne considerable changes were effected, which resulted from the intercourse either of a friendly or hostile nature between the Franks and the southern nations. About this time silk-stuffs were introduced into the kingdom, and the upper classes, in order to distinguish themselves from the lower, had their garments trimmed round with costly furs. See Chapter on Commerce We have before stated, see Chapter on Private Life, that Charlemagne, who always was very simple in his tastes, strenuously set his face against these novel introductions of luxury, which he looked upon as tending to do harm. Of what use are these cloaks, he said? In bed they cannot cover us, on horseback they can neither protect us from the rain nor the wind, and when we are sitting they can neither preserve our legs from the cold nor the damp. He himself generally wore a large tunic made of otters' skins. On one occasion his courtiers went out hunting with him, clothed in splendid garments of southern fashion, which became much torn by the briers and begrimmed with the blood of the animals they had killed. Oh ye foolish men! he said to them the next day, as he showed them his own tunic, which a servant had just returned to him in perfect condition, after having simply dried it before the fire and rubbed it with his hands. Whose garments are the more valuable and the more useful? Mine, for which I have only paid a sue—about twenty-two francs of present money—or yours, which have cost so much. From that time, whenever this great king entered on a campaign, the officers of his household, even the most rich and powerful, did not dare to show themselves in any clothes but those made of leather, wool or cloth. For had they, on such occasions, made their appearance dressed in silk and ornaments, he would have sharply reproved them and have treated them as cowards, or as effeminate, and consequently unfit for the work in which he was about to engage. Nevertheless, this monarch, who so severely proscribed luxury in daily life, made the most magnificent display on the occasions of political or religious festivals, when the imperial dignity with which he was invested required to be set forth by pompous ceremonial unrichness of attire. During the reign of the other Carl of Indian kings, in the midst of political troubles, of internal wars, and of social disturbances, they had neither time nor inclination for inventing new fashions. Monuments of the latter part of the ninth century prove indeed that the national dress had hardly undergone any change since the time of Charlemagne, and that the influence of Roman tradition, especially on festive occasions, was still felt in the dress of the nobles. In a miniature of the large manuscript Bible given by the cannons of Saint Martin of Tours in 869 to Charles the Bald, National Library of Paris, we find the king sitting on his throne surrounded by the dignitaries of his court, and by soldiers all dressed after the Roman fashion. The monarch wears a cloak which seems to be made of cloth of gold, and is attached to the shoulder by a strap or ribbon sliding through a clasp. This cloak is embroidered in red on a gold ground. The tunic is of reddish brown, and the shoes are light red, worked with gold thread. In the same manuscript there is another painting representing four women listening to the discourse of a prophet. From this we discover that the female costume of the time consisted of two tunics, the under one being longer, but less capacious than the other. The sleeves of the former coming down tight to the wrists and being plaited in many folds, whilst those of the latter open out and only reach to the elbow. The lower part, the neck, and the borders of the sleeves are trimmed with ornamented bands. The waist is encircled by a girdle just above the hips, and a long veil, finely worked and fastened on the head, covers the shoulders, and hangs down to the feet, completely hiding the hair, so that long plaques falling in front were evidently not then in fashion. The underdress of these four women, who all wear black shoes, which were probably made of Morocco leather, are of various colours, whereas the gowns or outer tunics are white. Notwithstanding that under the Karl-Avingian dynasty it was always considered a shame and a dishonour to have the head shaved, it must not be supposed that the upper classes continued to wear the long Merovingian style of hair. After the reign of Charlemagne it was the fashion to shave the hair from above the forehead, the parting being thus widened, and the hair was so arranged that it should not fall lower than the middle of the neck. Under Charles the Bald, whose surname proves that he was not partial to long hair, this custom fell into disuse or was abandoned, and men had the greater part of their heads shaved, and only kept a sort of cap of hair growing on the top of the head. It is at this period that we first find the cowl worn. This kind of common headdress, made from the fur of animals or from woolen stuffs, continued to be worn for many centuries, and indeed almost to the present day. It was originally only a kind of cap, light and very small, but it gradually became extended in size, and successively covered the ears, the neck, and lastly even the shoulders. No great change was made in the dress of the two sexes during the tenth century. Nothing was more simple than the headdress of women, says Monsieur Jules-Quichirat. Quote, nothing was less studied than their mode of wearing their hair. Nothing was more simple and yet finer than their linen. The elegant appearance of their garments recalls that of the Greek and Roman women. Their dresses were at times so tight as to display all the elegance of their form, whilst at others they were made so high as completely to cover the neck. The latter were called Quote Ardi. The Quote Ardi, which has at all times been part of the dress of French women and which was frequently worn also by men, was a long tunic reaching to the heels, fastened in at the waist and closed at the wrists. Queens, princesses, and ladies of the nobility wore in addition a long cloak lined with ermine, or a tunic with or without sleeves. Often, too, their dress consisted of two tunics, and of a veil or drapery which was thrown over the head and fell down before and behind, thus entirely surrounding the neck. End Quote. We cannot find that any very decided change was made in dress before the end of the eleventh century. The ordinary dress made of thick cloths and, of course, woollen stuffs was very strong and durable and not easily spoiled, and it was usual, as we still find in some provinces which adhere to old customs, for clothes, especially those worn on festive occasions and at ceremonials, to be handed down as heirlooms from father to son to the third or fourth generation. The Normans, who came from Scandinavia towards the end of the tenth century AD 970, with their short clothes and coats of mail, at first adopted the dress of the French, and continued to do so in all its various changes. In the following century, having found the Saxons and Britons in England clad in the garb of their ancestors, slightly modified by the Roman style of apparel, they began to make great changes in their manner of dressing themselves. They more and more discarded Roman fashions, and assumed similar costumes to those made in France at the same period. Before proceeding further in our history of medieval dress, we must forestall a remark which will not fail to be made by the reader, and this is that we seem to occupy ourselves exclusively with the dress of kings, queens, and other people of note. But we must reply that though we are able to form tolerably accurate notions relative to the dress of the upper classes during these remote periods, we do not possess any reliable information relative to that of the lower orders, and that the written documents, as well as the sculptures and paintings, are almost useless on this point. Nevertheless we may suppose that the dress of the men in the lowest ranks of society has always been short and tight, consisting of bray or tight drawers, mostly made of leather, of tight tunics, of saiyan or doublets, and of capes and cloaks of coarse-brown woolen. The tunic was confined at the waist by a belt to which the knife, the purse, and sometimes the working tools were suspended. The headdress of the people was generally a simple cap, made of thick, coarse woolen cloth or felt, and often of sheep's skin. During the twelfth century a person's rank or social position was determined by the headdress. The cap was made of velvet for persons of rank and of common cloth for the poor. The cognet, which was always an appendage to the cap, was made of cloth with which the cap might be fastened or adjusted on the head. The mortier, or round cap, dates from the earliest centuries, and was altered both in shape and material according to the various changes of fashion, but lawyers of high position continued to wear it almost in its original shape, and it became like a professional badge for judges and advocates. In the miniatures of that time we find Charles the Good, Count of Flanders, who died in 1127, represented with a cap with a point at the top, to which a long streamer is attached, and a peak turned up in front. A cap very similar but without the streamer, and with the point turned towards the left, is to be seen in a portrait of Geoffroy Lebel, Count de Men, in 1150. About the same period, Agnès de Beaudement, is represented with a sort of cap made of linen or stuff, with lappets hanging down over the shoulders. She is dressed in a robe fastened round the waist, and having long bands attached to the sleeves near the wrists. Queen Ingeborghe, second wife of Philip Augustus, also wore the tight gown, fastened at the collar by a round buckle, and two bands of stuff forming a kind of necklace. She also used the long cloak and the closed shoes, which had then begun to be made pointed. Robert, Count de Dreux, who lived at the same period, is also dressed almost precisely like the Queen, notwithstanding the difference of sex and rank. His robe, however, only descends to the instep, and his belt has no hangings in front. The Queen is represented with her hair long and flowing, but the Count has his cut short. Women, in addition to their headdress, often wore a broad band which was tied under the chin, and gave the appearance of a kind of frame for the face. Both sexes wore coloured bands on their shoes, which were tied round the ankles like those of sandals, and showed the shape of the foot. The beard, which was worn in full at the beginning of the twelfth century, was by degrees modified both as to shape and length. At first it was cut in a point, and only covered the end of the chin, but the next fashion was to wear it so as to join the moustaches. Generally, under Louis Lejeune, moustaches went out of fashion. We next find beards worn only by country people, who, according to contemporary historians, desired to preserve a, quote, remembrance of their participation in the Crusades, end quote. At the end of this century all chins were shaved. The Crusades also gave rise to the general use of the purse, which was suspended to the belt by a cord of silk or cotton, and sometimes by a metal chain. At the time of the Holy War it had become an emblem characteristic of pilgrims, who, before starting for Palestine, received from the hands of the priest, the cross, the pilgrims' staff, and the purse. We now come to the time of Louis IX, of that good king, who, according to the testimony of his historians, generally dressed with the greatest simplicity, but who, notwithstanding his usual modesty and economy, did not hesitate on great occasions to submit to the pomp required by the regal position which he held. Sometimes says the sire de Joiville, quote, he went into his garden dressed in a camel's hair coat, a surcoat of Lindsay Woolsey without sleeves, a black silk cloak without a hood, and a hat trimmed with peacock's feathers. At other times he was dressed in a coat of blue silk, a surcoat and mantle of scarlet satin, and a cotton cap, end quote. The surcoat, surcot, was at first a garment worn only by females, but it was soon adopted by both sexes. It was originally a large wrapper with sleeves, and was thrown over the upper part of the robe, cot, hence its name, surcot. Very soon it was made without sleeves, doubtless, as Monsieur Kichirin remarks, that the undergarment, which was made of more costly material, might be seen. And then, with the same object, and in order that the due motion of the limbs might not be interfered with, the surcoat was raised higher above the hips, and the armholes were made very large. At the consecration of Louis IX in 1226 the nobles wore the cap, mortier, trimmed with fur. The bishops wore the cope and the miter, and carried the crozier. Louis IX, at the age of thirteen, is represented in a picture executed in 1262, Saint Chapelle Paris, with his hair short, and wearing a red velvet cap, a tunic, and over this a cloak open at the chest, having long sleeves, which are slit up for the arms to go through. This cloak, or surcoat, is trimmed with ermine in front, and has the appearance of what we should now call a fur shawl. The young king has long hose, and shoes similar in shape to high slippers. In the same painting, Queen Margaret, his wife, wears a gown with tight bodice, opened out on the hips, and having long and narrow sleeves. She also has a cloak embroidered with fleur-de-lis, the long sleeves of which are slit up and bordered with ermine. A kind of hood much larger than her head, and over this a veil, which passes under the chin without touching the face. The shoes are long, and seem to enclose the feet very tightly. From this period gowns with tight bodices were generally adopted. The women wore over them a tight jacket, reaching to a little below the hips, often trimmed with fur when the gown was richly ornamented, and itself richly ornamented when the gown was plain. They also began to plait the hair, which fell down by the side of the face to the neck, and they profusely decorated it with pearls or gold or silver ornaments. Jean, Queen of Navarre, wife of Philippe Lebel, is represented with a pointed cap, on the turned-up borders of which the hair clusters in thick curls on each side of the face. On the chest is a frill turned down in two points. The gown, fastened in front by a row of buttons, has long and tight sleeves, with a small slit at the wrists closed by a button. Lastly, the Queen wears over all a sort of second robe in the shape of a cloak, the sleeves of which are widely slit in the middle. At the end of the 13th century, luxury was at its height at the Court of France. Gold and silver, pearls and precious stones were lavished on dress. At the marriage of Philippe III, son of Saint Louis, the gentlemen were dressed in scarlet, the ladies in cloth of gold, embroidered and trimmed with gold and silver lace. Massive belts of gold were also worn, and chaplets sparkling with the same costly metal. Moreover, this magnificence and display, see Chapter on Private Life, was not confined to the Court, for we find that it extended to the bourgeois class, since Philippe Lebel, by his edict of 1294, endeavoured to limit this extravagance, which in the eyes of the world had in his special tendency to obliterate, or at least to conceal, all distinctions of birth, rank and condition. Wealth strove hard at that time to be the soul's standard of dress. End of Section 34 Section 35 of Manners, Customs and Dress This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Ruth Golding Manners, Customs and Dress During the Middle Ages and During the Renaissance Period by Paul Lacroix Section 35 As we approach the fourteenth century, an epoch of the Middle Ages at which, after many changes of fashion and many struggles against the ancient Roman and German traditions, modern national costumes seems at last to have assumed a settled and normal character. We think it right to recapitulate somewhat, with a view to set forth the nature of the various elements which were at work from time to time, informing the fashions in dress. In order to give more weight to our remarks, we will extract, almost word for word, a few pages from the learned and excellent work which Monsieur Jules Guichard has published on this subject. Towards the year 1280, he says, The dress of a man, not of a man as the word was then used, which meant serf, but of one to whom the exercise of human prerogatives was permitted, that is to say of an ecclesiastic, a bourgeois or a noble, was composed of six indispensable portions, the bray or breeches, the stockings, the shoes, the coat, the surcoat or cote ardie, and the chaperon or headdress. To these articles, those who wish to dress more elegantly added on the body a shirt, on the shoulders a mantle, and on the head a hat or fralto. The bray, B-R-A-I-E-S or B-R-A-Y-E-S, were a kind of drawers, generally knitted, sometimes made of woolen stuff or silk, and sometimes even of undressed leather. Our ancestors derived this part of their dress from the ancient Gauls. Only the Gallic bray came down to the ankle, whereas those of the thirteenth century only reached to the calf. They were fastened above the hips by means of a belt called the bray-yay. By shores was meant what we now call long stockings or hoes. The stockings were of the same colour and material as the bray, and were kept up by the lower part of the bray being pulled over them and tied with a string. The shoes were made of various kinds of leather, the quality of which depended on the way in which they were tanned, and were either of common leather or of leather which was similar to that we know as Morocco, and was called Kordouan or Kordua, hence the derivation of the word Kordouanyi, which has now become Kordouny. Shoes were generally made pointed. This fashion of the Poulaine or Polish points was followed throughout the whole of Europe for nearly three hundred years, and when first introduced the church was so scandalised by it that it was almost placed in the catalogue of heresies. Subsequently the taste respecting the exaggerated lengths of the points was somewhat modified, but it had become so inveterate that the tendency for pointed shoes returning to their former absurd extremes was constantly showing itself. The pointed shoes became gradually longer during the struggles which were carried on in the reign of Philippe Lebel between church and state. Besides the shoes there were also the estivieux, thus named from estiva, summer thing, because being generally made of velvet, brocade or other costly material they could only be worn in dry weather. The coat, cote, corresponded with the tunic of the ancients. It was a blouse with tight sleeves. These sleeves were the only part of it which were exposed, the rest being completely covered by the surcoats or cote ardie, a name the origin of which is obscure. In shape the surcoats somewhat resembled a sack, in which at a later period large slits were made in the arms as well as over the hips and on the chest, through which appeared the rich furs and satins with which it was lined. The ordinary material of the surcoat for the rich was cloth, either scarlet, blue or reddish-brown, or two or more of these colours mixed together, and for the poor Lindsay Woolsey or Faustian. The nobles, princes or barons, when holding a court, wore surcoats of a colour to match their arms which were embroidered upon them. But the lesser nobles who frequented the houses of the great spoke of themselves as in the robes of such and such a noble, because he whose patronage they courted was obliged to provide them with surcoats and mantles. These were of their patron's favourite colour and were called the livery, livret, on account of their distribution, livraison, which took place twice a year. The word has remained in use ever since, but with a different signification. It is, however, so nearly akin to the original meaning that its affinity is evident." An interesting anecdote relative to this custom is to be found in the chronicles of Matthew Paris. When Saint Louis, to the dismay of all his vassals and of his inferior servants, had decided to take up the cross, he succeeded in associating the nobles of his court with him in his vow by a kind of pious fraud. Having had a certain number of mantles prepared for Christmas Day, he had a small white cross embroidered on each above the right shoulder, and ordered them to be distributed among the nobles on the morning of the feast, when they were about to go to mass, which was celebrated some time before sunrise. Each courtier received the mantle given by the king at the door of his room, and put it on in the dark, without noticing the white cross. But when the day broke, to his great surprise, he saw the emblem worn by his neighbour, without knowing that he himself wore it also. They were surprised and amused, says the English historian, at finding that the king had thus piously entrapped them. As it would have been unbecoming, shameful and even unworthy of them to have removed these crosses, they laughed heartily, and said that the good king, on starting as a pilgrim-hunter, had found a new method of catching men. The chaperon, adds Monsieur Kichura, was the national headdress of the ancient French, as the cocculus, which was its model, was that of the Gauls. We can imagine its appearance by its resemblance to the domino now worn at masked balls. The shape was much varied during the reign of Philippe Lebel, either by the diminution of the cape or by the lengthening of the hood, which was always sufficiently long to fall on the shoulders. In the first of these changes, the chaperon no longer being tied round the neck, required to be held on the head by something more solid. For this reason it was set on a pad or roll, which changed it into a regular cap. The material was so stitched, as to make it take certain folds, which were arranged as puffs, as ruffs, or in the shape of a cox comb. This last fashion, called coquade, was especially in vogue, hence the origin of the French epithet coca, which would be now expressed by the word dandy. Hats were of various shapes. They were made of different kinds of felt, or of otter or goat's skin, or of wool or cotton. The expression chapeau de fleur, hat of flowers, which continually occurs in ancient works, did not mean any form of hat, but simply a coronet of forget-me-nots or roses, which was an indispensable part of dress for balls or festivities down to the reign of Philippe de Valois, 1347. Frontlets, frontal, a species of fillet made of silk, covered with gold and precious stones, superseded the chapeau de fleur in as much as they had the advantage of not fading. They also possessed the merit of being much more costly, and were thus the means of establishing in a still more marked manner distinctions in the social positions of the wearers. There were two kinds of mantles. One was open in front and fell over the back, and a strap which crossed the chest held it fixed on the shoulders. The other, enveloping the body like a bell, was slit up on the right side and was thrown back over the left arm. It was made with a fur collar cut in the shape of a tippet. This last has been handed down to us, and is worn by our judges under the name of Toge and Epitoge. It is a very common mistake to suppose that the shirt is an article of dress of modern invention. On the contrary, it is one of great antiquity, and its coming into general use is the only thing new about it. Lastly, we have to mention the chape, which was always regarded as a necessary article of dress. The chape was the only protection against bad weather at a period when umbrellas and covered carriages were unknown. It was sometimes called chape de pluie, on account of the use to which it was applied, and it consisted of a large cape with sleeves and was completely waterproof. It was born behind a master by his servant, who, on account of this service, was called a porter-chup. It is needless to say that the common people carried it themselves, either slung over their backs or folded under the arm. End quote. If we now turn to female attire, we shall find represented in it all the component parts of male dress, and almost all of them under the same names. It must be remarked, however, that the women's coats and sir-coats often trailed on the ground, that the hat, which was generally called a couvre-chef, and consisted of a frame of wire work covered over with stuff which was embroidered or trimmed with lace, was not of a conical shape. And lastly, that the chapeurant, which was always made with a tippet or chousse, never turned over so as to form a cap. We may add that the use of the couvre-chef did not continue beyond the middle of the fourteenth century, at which time women adopted the custom of wearing any kind of headdress they chose, the hair being kept back by a silken net, or crepine, attached either to a frontlet or to a metal fillet, or confined by a veil of very light material called a mollicane. With the aid of our learned guide we have now reached a period, end of the thirteenth century, well adapted for this general study of the dress of our ancestors, in as much as soon afterwards men's dress at least, and especially that of young courtiers, became most ridiculously and even indecently exaggerated. To such an extent was this the case that serious calamities having befallen the French nation about this time, and its fashions having exercised a considerable influence over the whole continent of Europe. Contemporary historians do not hesitate to regard these public misfortunes as a providential chastisement inflicted on France for its disgraceful extravagance in dress. We must believe that God has permitted this as a just judgment on us for our sins, say the monks who edited the Grand Chronique de Saint Denis in 1346 at the time of the unfortunate Battle of Cressy, quote, although it does not belong to us to judge. But what we see we testified to, for pride was very great in France and especially amongst the nobles and others, that is to say pride of nobility and covetousness. There was also much impropriety in dress, and this extended throughout the whole of France. Some had their clothes so short and so tight that it required the help of two persons to dress and undress them, and whilst they were being undressed they appeared as if they were being skinned. Others wore dresses plaited over their loins like women. Some had chaperons cut out in points all round, some had tippets of one cloth, others of another, and some had their headdresses and sleeves reaching to the ground, looking more like mountie-banks than anything else. Considering all this, it is not surprising if God employed the King of England as a scourge to correct the excesses of the French people, end quote. And this is not the only testimony to the ridiculous and extravagant tastes of this unfortunate period. One writer speaks with indignation of the goat's beards, with two points, which seemed to put the last finishing touch of ridicule on the already grotesque appearance of even the most serious people of that period. Another exclaims against the extravagant luxury of jewels of gold and silver, and against the wearing of feathers, which latter then appeared for the first time as accessories to both male and female attire. Some censure, and not without reason, the absurd fashion of converting the ancient leather girdle meant to support the waist into a kind of heavy padded band, studied with gilded ornaments and precious stones, and apparently invented expressly to encumber the person wearing it. Other contemporary writers, and amongst these Pope Urban V and King Charles V, invay against the poulène which had more than ever come into favour, and which were only considered correct in fashion when they were made as a kind of appendix to the foot, measuring at least double its length, and ornamented in the most fantastical manner. The Pope anathematised this deformity as, quote, a mockery of God and the Holy Church, end quote, and the King for bad craftsmen to make them and his subjects to wear them. All this is as nothing in comparison with the profuse extravagance displayed in furs which was most outrageous and ruinous, and of which we could not form an idea were it not for the items in certain royal documents from which we gather that, in order to trim two complete suits for King John, no fewer than six hundred and seventy martin skins were used. It is also stated that the Duke of Berry, the youngest son of that monarch, purchased nearly ten thousand of these same skins from a distant country in the north in order to trim only five mantles and as many circuits. We read also that a robe made for the Duke of Ohlion, grandson of the same King, required two thousand seven hundred and ninety ermine skins. It is unnecessary to state that in consequence of this large consumption skins could only be purchased at the most extravagant prices. For example, fifty skins cost about one hundred francs or about six thousand of present currency, showing to what an enormous expense those persons were put who desired to keep pace with the luxury of the times. We have already seen that Charles V used his influence which was unfortunately very limited in trying to restrain the extravagance of fashion. This monarch did more than decree laws against indelicate or unseemly and ridiculous dress. He himself never wore anything but the long and ample costume which was most becoming, and which had been adopted in the preceding century. His example, it is true, was little followed, but it nevertheless had this happy result, that the advocates of short and tight dresses, as if suddenly seized with instinctive modesty, adopted an upper garment, the object of which seemed to be to conceal the absurd fashions which they had not the courage to rid themselves of. This heavy and ungraceful tunic called a oos, consisted of two broad bands of a more or less costly material which, starting from the neck, fell behind and before, thus almost entirely concealing the front and back of the person, and only allowing the undergarments to be seen through the slits which naturally opened on each side of it. A fact worthy of remark is that whilst male attire, through a depravity of taste, had extended to the utmost limit of extravagance, women's dress, on the contrary, owing to a strenuous effort towards a dignified and elegant simplicity, became of such a character that it combined all the most approved fashions of female costume which had been in use in former periods. The statue of Queen Jean de Bourbon, wife of Charles V, formerly placed with that of her husband in the Church of the Celestin at Paris, gives the most faithful representation of this charming costume, to which our artists continually have recourse when they wish to depict any poetical scenes of the French Middle Ages. This costume, without positively differing in style from that of the thirteenth century, in as much as it was composed of similar elements, was nevertheless to be distinguished by a degree of elegance which hitherto had been unknown. The coat or undergarment, which formerly only showed itself through awkwardly contrived openings, now displayed the harmonious outlines of the figure to advantage thanks to the large openings in the overcoat. The surcoat, kept back on the shoulders by two narrow bands, became a sort of wide and trailing skirt which majestically draped the lower part of the body. And lastly the external corset was invented which was a kind of short mantle falling down before and behind without concealing any of the fine outlines of the bust. This new article of apparel, which was kept in its place in the middle of the chest by a steel busk encased in some rich lacework, was generally made of fur in winter and of silk in summer. If we consult the numerous miniatures in manuscripts of this period in which the gracefulness of the costume was heightened by the colours employed, we shall understand what variety and what richness of effect could be displayed without departing from the most rigid simplicity. One word more in reference to female headdress. The fashion of wearing false hair continued in great favour during the middle of the fourteenth century. And it gave rise to all sorts of ingenious combinations, which, however, always admitted of the hair being parted from the forehead to the back of the head in two equal masses, and of being plaited or waved over the ears. Nets were again adopted, and headdresses which, whilst permitting a display of masses of false hair, hid the horsehair or padded puffs. And lastly the escoffion appeared. A heavy roll, which, being placed on a cap, also padded, produced the most clumsy, outrageous and ungraceful shapes. At the beginning of the fifteenth century men's dress was still very short. It consisted of a kind of tight waistcoat, fastened by tags, and of very close fitting breeches, which displayed the outlines of the figure. In order to appear wide at the shoulders, artificial pads were worn, called ma waathe. The hair was allowed to fall on the forehead in locks, which covered the eyebrows and eyes. The sleeves were slashed, the shoes armed with long metal points, and the conical hat, with turned-up rim, was ornamented with gold chains and various jewels. The ladies, during the reign of Charles VI, still wore long chains to their dresses, which they carried tucked up under their arms, unless they had pages or waiting-mades. See chapter on ceremonials. The tendency, however, was to shorten these inconvenient chains, as well as the long-hanging and embroidered or fringed sleeves. On the other hand, ladies' dresses on becoming shorter were trimmed in the most costly manner. Their headdresses consisted of very large rolls, surmounted by a high conical bonnet, called a enne. The introduction of which into France was attributed to Queen Isabel of Pervéria, wife of Charles VI. It was at this period that they began to uncover the neck and to wear necklaces. Under Louis XI, this costume, already followed and adopted by the greatest slaves of fashion, became more general. In this year, 1487, says the chronicler, Maastrelle. Quote, ladies ceased to wear chains, substituting for them trimmings of griebe, of martins fur, of velvet, and of other materials, of about eighteen inches in width. Some wore on the top of their heads rolls nearly two feet high, shaped like a round cap, which closed in above. Others wore them lower, with veils hanging from the top and reaching down to the feet. Others wore unusually wide silk bands, with very elegant buckles equally wide, and magnificent gold necklaces of various patterns. About this time, too, men took to wearing shorter clothes than ever, having them made to fit tightly to the body after the manner of dressing monkeys, which was very shameful and immodest, and the sleeves of their coats and doublets were slit open so as to show their fine white shirts. They wore their hair so long that it concealed their face and even their eyes, and on their heads they wore cloth caps nearly a foot or more high. They also carried, according to fancy, very splendid gold chains. Knights and squires, and even the violets, wore silk or velvet doublets, and almost everyone, especially at court, wore poulin nine inches or more in length. They also wore, under their doublets, large pads, marat, in order to appear as if they had broad shoulders. End quote. Under Charles VIII the mantle, trimmed with fur, was open in front, its false sleeves being slit up above in order to allow the arms of the undercoat to pass through. The cap was turned up. The breeches or long hose were made tight-fitting. The shoes with poulin were superseded by a kind of large padded shoe of black leather round or square at the toes, and gored over the foot with coloured material, a fashion imported from Italy, and which was as much exaggerated in France as the poulin had formerly been. The women continued to wear conical caps, enne, of great height, covered with immense veils. Their gowns were made with tight-fitting bodies, which thus displayed the outlines of the figure. Under Louis XII Queen Anne invented a low head dress, or rather it was invented for her, consisting of strips of velvet or of black or violet silk over other bands of white linen, which encircled the face and fell down over the back and shoulders. The large sleeves of the dresses had a kind of turned over borders, with trimmings of enormous width. Men adopted short tunics, plaited and tight at the waist. The upper part of the garments of both men and women was cut in the form of a square over the chest and shoulders, as most figures are represented in the pictures of Raphael and contemporary painters. The introduction of Italian fashions, which in reality did not much differ from those which had been already adopted, but which exhibited better taste and a greater amount of elegance, dates from the famous expedition of Charles VIII into Italy. Full and gathered or puffed sleeves, which gave considerable gracefulness to the upper part of the body, succeeded to the Maroate, which had been discarded since the time of Louis XI. A short and ornamental mantle, a broad brimmed hat covered with feathers and trunk-hose, the ample dimensions of which earned for them the name of Trousse, formed the male attire at the end of the fifteenth century. Women wore the bodies of their dresses closely fitting to the figure, embroidered, trimmed with lace, and covered with gilt ornaments. The sleeves were very large and open, and for the most part they still adhered to the heavy and ungraceful headdress of Queen Anne of Brittany. The principal characteristic of female dress at the time was its fullness. Men's, on the contrary, with the exception of the mantle or the upper garment, was usually tight and very scanty. We find that a distinct separation between ancient and modern dress took place as early as the sixteenth century. In fact, our present fashions may be said to have taken their origin from about that time. It was during this century that men adopted clothes closely fitting to the body, overcoats with tight sleeves, felt hats with more or less wide brims, and closed shoes and boots. The women also wore their dresses closely fitting to the figure, with tight sleeves, low-ground hats, and richly trimmed petticoats. These garments, which differ altogether from those of antiquity, constitute, as it were, the common type from which have since arisen the endless varieties of male and female dress. And there is no doubt that fashion will thus be continually changing backwards and forwards from time to time, sometimes returning to its original model, and sometimes departing from it. During the sixteenth century, ladies wore the skirts of their dresses, which were tight at the waist and open in front, very wide, displaying the lower part of a very rich under-petticoat, which reached to the ground, completely concealing the feet. This, like the sleeves with puffs, which fell in circles to the wrists, was altogether in Italian fashion. Frequently the hair was turned over in rolls and adorned with precious stones, and was surmounted by a small cap, coquettishly placed either on one side or on the top of the head, and ornamented with gold chains, jewels, and feathers. The body of the dress was always long and pointed in front. Men wore their coats cut somewhat after the same shape, their trunk-hose were tight, but round the waist they were puffed out. They wore a cloak, which only reached as far as the hips, and was always much ornamented. They carried a smooth or ribbed cap on one side of the head, and a small upright collar adorned the coat. This collar was replaced after the first half of the sixteenth century by the high-started ruff, which was kept out by wires. Ladies wore it still larger, when it had somewhat the appearance of an open fan at the back of the neck. If we take a retrospective glance at the numerous changes of costume, which we have endeavoured to describe in this hurried sketch, we shall find that amongst European nations during the Middle Ages there was but one common standard of fashion, which varied from time to time according to the particular custom of each country, and according to the peculiarities of each race. In Italy, for instance, dress always maintained a certain character of grandeur, ever recalling the fact that the influence of antiquity was not quite lost. In Germany and Switzerland garments had generally a heavy and massive appearance. In Holland still more so. England uniformly studied a kind of instinctive elegance and propriety. It is a curious fact that Spain invariably partook of the heaviness peculiar to Germany, either because the Gothic elements still prevailed there, or that the wooloon fashions had a special attraction to her owing to associations and general usage. France was then, as it is now, fickle and capricious, fantastical and wavering, but not from indifference, but because she was always ready to borrow from every quarter anything which pleased her. She, however, never failed to put her own stamp on whatever she adopted, thus making any fashion essentially French, even though she had only just borrowed it from Spain, England, Germany or Italy. In all these countries we have seen and still see entire provinces adhering to some ancient costume, causing them to differ altogether in character from the rest of the nation. This is simply owing to the fact that the fashions have become obsolete in the neighbouring places, for every local costume faithfully and rigorously preserved by any community at a distance from the centre of political action or government must have been originally brought there by the nobles of the country. Thus the headdress of Anne of Brittany is still that of the peasant women of Penoe and of Labrovac, and the ennui of Isabel of Bavaria is still the headdress of Normandy. Although the subject has reached the limits we have by the very nature of this work assigned to it, we think it well to overstep them somewhat, in order briefly to indicate the last connecting link between modern fashions and those of former periods. Under France's the first, the costumes adopted from Italy remained almost stationary. Under Henri II, and especially after the death of that prince, the taste for frivolities made immense progress, and the style of dress in ordinary use seemed day by day to lose the few traces of dignity which it had previously possessed. Catherine de Medici had introduced into France the fashion of ruffs, and at the beginning of the 14th century, Merida Medici that of small collars. Dresses tight at the waist began to be made very full round the hips by means of large padded rolls, and these were still more enlarged under the name of Vertugardin, corrupted from Vertugardin, by a monstrous arrangement of padded whalebone and steel which subsequently became the ridiculous panier which were worn almost down to the commencement of the present century, and the fashion seems likely to come into vogue again. Under the last of the valoir, men's dress was short, the jacket was pointed and trimmed round with small peaks, the velvet cap was trimmed with écret, the beard was pointed, a pearl hung from the left ear, and a small cloak or mantle was carried on the shoulder which only reached to the waist. The use of gloves made of scented leather became universal. Ladies wore their dresses long, very full, and very costly, little or no change being made in these respects during the reign of Henry IV. At this period the men's high hoes were made longer and fuller, especially in Spain and the Low Countries, and the fashion of large soft boots made of doskin or of black Morocco became universal on account of their being so comfortable. We may remark that the costume of the bourgeois was for a long time almost unchanged even in the towns. Never having adopted either the tight-fitting hoes or the balloon trousers, they wore an easy jerkin, a large cloak and a felt hat, which the English made conical and with a broad brim. Towards the beginning of the seventeenth century the high hoes which were worn by the northern nations, profusely trimmed, was transformed into the culotte which was full and open at the knees. A division was thus suddenly made between the lower and the upper part of the hoes as if the garment which covered the lower limbs had been cut in two, and garters were then necessarily invented. The felt hat became over almost the whole of Europe a cap, taking the exact form of the head and having a wide flat brim turned up on one side. High heels were added to boots and shoes which up to that time had been flat and with single soles. Two centuries later a terrible social agitation took place all over Europe, after which male attire became mean, ungraceful, plain and more poultry than ever, whereas female dress, the fashions of which were perpetually changing from day to day, became graceful and elegant, though too often approaching to the extravagant and absurd. End of Section 35 and End of Manners, Customs and Dress During the Middle Ages and During the Renaissance Period by Paul Lacroix