 to tell you about the inventions that got Nobel Prize in Physics this year. There were two Nobel Prize in Physics awarded, both for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics. So one half went to Arthur Arschken for the creation of optical teasers, and another half to Gerard Moreau, and then a circling for invention of femtosecond lasers. Maybe for some of you later would sound like death rays as they usually appear in popular culture. Like, for example, in Star Wars, it is just lightsabers to fight their enemies. And for example, in other cult-series Star Trek, laser beams were used to retrieve personal objects in outer space and to manipulate without touching them. Even though it might sound like pure science fiction, it actually didn't go far from reality. And mostly thanks to the invention that got the Nobel Prize in Physics this year. But before going through the details of those inventions, I will start with the basic just to make sure that we are all on the same page. And if you ever moderate what laser stands for, lasers stand for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. So I will start with the light. So light is a wave. Every wave transports the energy. One of the characteristics of a wave if it's amplitude, so it's the head of the peak. And the amplitude defines how much energy the wave transports. So the higher the amplitude, the higher the energy. Another characteristic is its wavelengths. The wavelengths is the distance between the peaks and light with different wavelengths to perceive as light of different color. Also, the wavelengths defines the propagation speed in several substances. Like, for example, the red light would propagate faster in some substances than blue component. One of the simple example of a light device is a light bulb. So light bulb emits white light. So it's a mixture of different wavelengths that is covered in different directions. Even though this light transmits the energy, the impact of this energy is not high enough. And it's solely because the light is not synchronized. So just imagine your car got bolted on a muddy road. But there are some people who might help you. And they all would push the car in different time and in different directions. You wouldn't make it. But if you can organize them, they push the car in one direction. And at the same time, you would succeed. So the same applies to the light. If you can have waves of one wavelength going in one direction, you would have a much higher, much more powerful source of light. How did scientists come up? How did scientists create lasers? So first, they discovered that there are some materials that emit light of certain wavelengths. But these materials would create a laser body. And then to make this laser body, they would stimulate it with electric current and produce the light constantly. Then they would put two mirrors, two curved mirrors, to trap the light and align it in one direction. And in fact, one of the mirrors would be half transmitting mirror that would allow some light to escape, but only light of certain direction and of certain phase would be allowed to pass through. And this is the idea behind the continuous wave lasers. That's how scientists created continuous wave lasers. Lasers are a very high power source. But of course, they wanted to have more power. They came up with another idea. So they came up with pulse lasers. So imagine you can close one of these transmitting mirrors. And there would be energy accumulated inside of the laser body. So it wouldn't go out once it got directed in one direction. And then they would open this mirror. And all the accumulated light, all the accumulated energy would escape at one time and in a very short time. That's how scientists got pulse lasers. They would transfer more energy. But soon they faced one limitation. It was impossible to collect energy inside of the laser body above some sort of threshold energy because it would simply destroy the laser body. And the invention that got the prize in physics this year helped overcome this limitation. But before going to the details of this invention, let's have a closer look at the pulse. So even though laser is the source of one wavelength, pulse is in fact a superposition of several wavelengths. And it happens because the pulses have very short duration and at such short time scale, quantum mechanics, and the principle of uncertainty that was described by Heisenberg comes into play. Even though you wouldn't perceive the difference in the color of those wavelengths that comprise the pulse, just for better visual representation, I marked the wavelengths with higher, the longer wavelengths as a red component and the one with the shorter wavelengths is a blue component. And as I mentioned before, red component and blue component would differ in speed in several substances and several materials. And it means that certain conditions can be created, that this difference can be enhanced. And the pulse can be stretched in time. And the energy will be stretched in time as well and the peak power will be decreased. And the same is true for the reverse process. The stretched pulse, by minimizing the difference in the propagation speed, this pulse can be compressed back to short pulse. These two processes are the fundamental of the invention that got the Blue Cross this year. Dona Strykland and Jared Murrow, they came up with an idea to introduce an amplifier between these two processes. Let's see what happens. So a short pulse gets stretched, then the power peak gets decreased because the energy gets stretched in time as well. It means that this stretched pulse can be further amplified without damaging the amplifier because the energy is much lower. It means that you would get a stretched, amplified pulse that would contain more energy. And this stretched pulse can be compressed back to a short pulse. But this short pulse would contain more energy than the seed pulse than the initial pulse. So this is how Dona Strykland and Jared Murrow overcame the limitations. And it allowed creation of 10 to 2nd laters. So 10 to 2nd laters have a duration of 10 to 2nd. 10 to 2nd is 10 in the order of minus 15 second. And just I wanted to fill the time scale. So 10 in the order of minus 15 second refers to relays to 1 second as 1 second relates to 32 billion years. So it's a lot. And these 10 to 2nd laters made it possible to cut and drill holes in various materials, even in living matters. And the heating area and the shock waves are so negligibly small for 10 to 2nd laters that 10 to 2nd laters can be used on even very sensitive materials, such as human eye. Therefore, 10 to 2nd laters are now routinely used in corrective eye surgery, so to restore your vision, your sight. But beside that, 10 to 2nd laters are now a gateway to completely new research areas in physics, in chemistry, and biology. So it is a very great tool. So I explained the 10 to 2nd laters, the invention that brought double price this year to Gerard Moreau and Thomas Strickland, the other half went to Arthur Oshkin for creation of optical teasers. Conventional teasers are usually used in laboratories when there is a need to manipulate with very small objects. When it's very hard to manipulate them with just bare hand, what if you want to manipulate even smaller objects than that? So Oshkin realized that continuous faint lasers would make a perfect tool to move such small objects. Unfortunately, I don't have time to go into the details of physics of these trapping effects, but if you're really interested in this, you can catch me during the break and we can discuss it. But after Oshkin with his optical teasers actually opened a new world of applications in chemistry and physics and biology. And the main breakthrough was that scientists can now trap and move and pull and absorb the objects, small objects, without even touching them. Like for example, in this video, you can see two red blood cells, human red blood cells. And they were trapped with laser teasers. This one was fixed in space and this one was pulled. And the same can be performed on any other small objects, including even DNA. So optical teasers that was created by Arthur Oshkin and 10 seconds later they were created by Jared Murrow and Donna Strickland. These are the inventions that got double prize in physics this year. These are the inventions that revolutionized both basic research and practical applications. And I would encourage you to learn more about what even they made in physics and in chemistry and in biology. Thank you. Time for some questions. So someone would like to ask a question. Please. Can you use this intersequence laser for two photos microscopy? Totally. Totally. How fast is it? I mean, it's like two questions. So can you reach deeper tissue with this? So I have no idea. So is it possible to formulate it in a way everyone understands what the question was about? So do photo-nexitation microscopy actually is a fun fact. My boss is the one who created the photo-nexitation microscopy. But he doesn't do microscopy anymore. So photo-nexitation microscopy is the principle that you can get in contact with it after, because it seems to be very, very fast physics. So someone else has a question. Hello. So I'm interested in how both of the discoveries are related in the Nobel Prize. So they both used lasers. But so the first part, like Arthur Oshkin, optical tweezers, he used continuous-fade lasers, like the one that I explained at first. So we opened transmitting mirror all the time. And the second one, the major mural in Donald Stryklin, they got the Nobel Prize for Femme II lasers and its pulse laser. So it's lasers, but the applications are a bit different. It's all about lasers. Yeah, all about lasers. And so we have time for one question. I didn't quite understand. Could you please take the microphone? Oh, yeah. I didn't quite understand. So with this Femme II laser, they extend the wave, then they compress it, and it contains more energy. So they stretched the wave, put more energy. So the pulse was short. And the peak energy was high. When you stretch the pulse, you basically stretch it in time. And because of the conservation of the energy, the energy got stretched in time as well. And the peak power got decreased. So because the energy is much lower, you can amplify it further without damaging the amplifier. And so then you get this stretched pulse. But it got amplified. It contains more energy now. And when you stretch it back to the short pulse, the final short pulse will contain more energy than the first one that got amplified. Thank you. Sorry, we don't have more time. It's not damaging this material. I just didn't get why it's not damaging this material. Because the energy is less. So the point is? It emits more energy. I think you can get in contact later and discuss this question. We need to go on the question. Sorry. Thanks. So thank you very much. Let's do this.