 Talking about structural relations, we started talking about case as well and we are going to look at it that is what is case and how do we understand them configurationally that is in the whole scheme of x bar, how do we understand case and how does x bar scheme help us assignment of cases to different nps. See the point is any noun phrase in a sentence that you see whether it is a subject noun phrase or an object noun phrase or anything else a noun phrase within a pp which may be an adjunct. Each noun phrase must have a case if a noun phrase does not have a case then the sentence is not grammatical. Also if the noun phrase has a wrong case still the sentence is grammatical and I am going to show you some such examples remember this part dominance and precedence so far keeping these two things in mind we are going to move ahead with cases and we will introduce two more concept of governance that is government and then finally C command which I told you last time the term stands for constituent command how one constituent commands controls the other one. We come to agreement patterns little later let us look at first case first we want to see the distinction between morphological case and abstract case. If you try to if you understand what we mean by abstract case then you understand what is the meaning of morphological case and vice versa. These two terms simply mean in a in a in an np in a noun phrase which has abstract case on it we do not see the case see the point we do not see the case in a morphological case we realize that something has happened to that np and therefore it looks different. For example look at the first sentence John is from Germany what are the noun phrases that you see here John is one and Germany is the other one the first thing that I told you is both the np must have case we do not know which case so far but both the np's must have case and as a matter of I have I have marked just the first one for our purpose but both of them have abstract cases do you see any change in Germany the by change I mean any change in the word no it comes as it is anywhere else in whatever position it comes whether in a subject position or an object position the word comes exactly this way therefore you see no change do you see any change in the name of the any change in John no and again I will make it clearer to you what I mean by change now look at the second one we say his court is big can we say he court is big no why not why do we need to say his and what is possessive you are right that that's the possessive and possessive is a case so the np in a possessive case must be in a different form than nominative cases John is in nominative case okay his is a possessive case now look at the look at the say the next sentence Mary is his friend Mary is nominative case what's about the other np that's a possessive case so we cannot say Mary is he friend okay and finally the sentence the last sentence I am trying to use both pronouns in this sentence he likes her now the pronoun he and look at the pronoun her can we say he likes she no can we say his likes her none of these things are allowed in English the reason being he is a nominative case he is the form in the nominative case and her is the form in possessive case I am sorry yeah that's that's it okay so in in a set of four four five sentences what I want you to see is there are some nps which are in nominative cases some nps in other cases at the same time these are the examples of morphologically case marked nps as well as abstract as well as nps with abstract cases such as nps like John Mary and he these three nps have abstract cases on them that is we don't see any change on them however when you see his and her these are morphologically case marked nps is this distinction clear to to you in the distinction the distinction that I want you to be clear with is morphological case and abstract case see keep in mind that each np must have a case so that's out of a question that there will be an np in a sentence which may not have a case is out of question what's important is whether an np has a morphological case on it or it's it has an abstract case on it that's the only distinction we have to make I'm going to I'm going to talk more about that but yeah first I'm telling you that every np must have a case okay and second thing I'm telling you that some nps will have cases will have morphologically marked cases and some nps will have abstract cases what I mean by case is case is an abstract property of nouns of noun phrases okay these things are and it's also a property of a sentence okay cases are not properties of nouns in isolation they receive a case only when they are in a in a sentence therefore a noun phrase to begin with does not have any case okay it receives either a nominative case or an accusative case only when they appear in a different position in different positions in a sentence so case is an abstract property of sentence number one these these cases are realized only on noun phrases okay and these cases are how these cases are given to different np nps is what we are going to see further is this making sense to you now once again let us let's clarify this thing we are going to repeat this again we are going to see these things time and time and again but I'm glad you asked which gives me an opportunity to clarify this case is a property of sentence though they are realized on noun phrases noun phrases do not come loaded with cases okay they receive cases within the sentence now at this point I don't want to take you to advanced debates there are some debates available in principles and parameters and and they are highly abstract and theoretical in nature where people argue or people have argued that noun phrases come with cases and then they unpack themselves in the sentence now these are two abstract thing for us to to see at this stage okay what their argument is just like a noun a noun is either masculine or feminine right the gender is not real gender of a noun is not realized in a sentence a gender of a noun is available with a noun even without a sentence for example when I say chair what's the what the word for chair in Hindi Kursi and I'm giving you a Hindi example it's it's going to be true in many other languages except English Kursi you put it outside a sentence or you try to use in a sentence in both the cases it has a gender which is feminine gender so the argument is just like a noun phrase a noun has gender outside the sentence also and lot of times it gets realized only in a sentence similarly cases also come noun phrases come loaded with case and they are realized in the sentence see the see the argument now that argument is not relevant at this point how therefore I want you to take only one part of that argument which is case is an abstract property of a sentence not not of a noun phrase case is an abstract property of a sentence in a sentence when cases get cases get manifested they get manifested on noun phrases okay on noun phrases how they get manifested in noun phrase is what I'm going to show you little later but some examples of cases are nominative objective possessive and and I'm going to show you few few more examples okay these are some examples of cases the third point I want you to know some of them are going to show up in abstract form and some of them show up morphologically marked and this is what I am trying to show you here is this must clear so far any hesitation any problem let me know or when we move and still you see some something contradicting one another please remind me and if they are not going through if they are if they are not convincing let me know okay now look at the last sentence John killed the tiger see this thing what are the two MPs in this sentence John and the tiger if I ask you what kinds of cases given the two here do you see on these two noun phrases I'm not asking the names of the cases I'm asking given the two things what type of cases do you see here on on these two noun phrases abstract cases right once again to wind this wind up this discussion on abstract case and morphological case what we mean is knowing that case is the property of a sentence the two n-pays in this sentence have two cases namely one what's the position of John grammatical position subject position and the position of the tiger object position very nice so John gets a K gets a nominative case in the subject position and again how I am going to show you in a minute just let's take it for a moment John gets a nominative case in the subject position and the tiger gets objective case or because it's an object if the case is called objective case or there is another name for the same same thing which is accusative case objective or accusative case because it's in the object position okay however you see no change in the no physical change in these two words this is the meaning of abstract case that even though it has accusative case on it that is the n-p the tiger and even if the n-p John has nominative case on it we see no change as such in their physical form yeah where there's a physical change in the objective yeah the sentence before yeah so what exactly is a change that has happened I'm going hold on let's look at this this chart we see we see lot of changes in pronouns most of the time you are not going to see changes in nouns however you're going to see changes in in pronouns and look at the look at the changes if you have a if you have a lexical n-p that that's what I mean mean when I said the distinction between noun and pronoun nouns are lexical n-p's if you have n-p like John it's going to be the same in nominative case or accusative case okay however if you have pronouns that is pronominal n-p in a in a nominative case you have I in the accusative case it is going to become me okay in a if you have he in a nominative case it's going to be he in accusative case it's going to become him okay or if it is she in accusative case it is become it is going to become her okay now see the in the previous previous slide when we say he likes her right the fact that we cannot say he likes she okay the reason behind that is she has nominative case on it okay and when it appears in a object position where it receives accusative case or objective case it cannot retain its nominative form it must appear in the accusative form okay now this change in the form is visible on pronouns that is what we mean by morphological marking there are two forms okay we what we can say in an in an abstract way we have just one form she in nominative case the form is she in accusative case the form is her we have one form he in nominative case the form is he in accusative case the form is him okay this is the distinction between morphology abstract case and morphological case and the point that the further point that I am trying to make is he has abstract case because we don't see any change on it because even though it it has nominative case on it we don't see any change but the moment it takes accusative case we see a change in it it doesn't retain its form what big what happens is the form becomes him that's the meaning of morphological case however that is not true for lexical NPs like John or Mary right now take the same sentence if I want to say John likes Mary John has which case in the in the subject position nominative case and Mary has which case being in the object position objective case or accusative case right but do you see any change in the physical form of the word Mary no that doesn't mean it's nominative case it's in accusative case because of its position in his sentence now lexical NPs that here is the point lexical NPs do not change their form even when they have different cases on them that's called abstract case well generally in the genitive the situation will be different absolutely right but I'm trying to hold on to just to nominative and accusative to see the distinction however in nominative positions most of them are abstract cases in accusative case also some some pronouns also you can see the examples I am not not articulating them for example when you have you no change even in accusative case what else it no change in the accusative case yeah you and it at least in the in genitive case you see all of them changing so all the forms of genitive case are called NPs morphologically marked that is some by morphological case we simply mean some change okay nominative cases you are not going to see any change accusative case sometimes the form change forms change sometimes forms do not change that's all is the distinction between morphological and abstract cases are we okay so far okay all right now we want to see if we have a sentence okay fine he likes her we can at least see something he if I tell you he is a nominative case and her is accusative case you have some evidence to believe it right some evidence to believe that he has nominative case and her has accusative case even on the basis of this chart you have some evidence to believe it but when we have sentences like John likes Mary what's the evidence that other than what's the evidence that John has nominative case and Mary has accusative case other than the fact that someone is telling you show telling you so right other than the fact that we know that one is in the subject position in the other is in the object position how do we know and then the second question is how do they get is is there is the structure the X bar is scheme that we have seen does that have anything to do with case or we can put the same question in a better way as follows does X bar theory X bar scheme help us understand nominative and accusative case or we just have to we just have to believe that one has nominative case and the other has accusative case see the question the answer is X bar is scheme definitely helps us understand cases in a better way so we are going to see that look at the look at the examples here on this screen first I want you to understand what we mean by a finite clause okay for example things like John likes Mary or John likes her these are finite clauses finite clauses simply means that in a in a X bar scheme in an X bar scheme let's say we are talking about an IP this is where we are going to have objects and this is where we are going to have subjects in in X bar scheme if this IP has something in it like if it is plus tense you understand the meaning of plus tense no if the sentence has a tense this is the place where it is going to show up so as long as you have any tense coming up here present past future anything then we say the sentence is plus tense that is sentence has tense then the whole clause is finite clause if this has no tense that is minus tense then the sentence is non-finite then the sentence is non-finite very simple finiteness directly corresponds to tense the moment we say a finite clause or a finite sentence we mean a sentence with tense the moment we say non-finite clause we mean a sentence with sentence without tense that's all clear so if I say John likes Mary is this a finite clause or a non-finite clause John likes Mary finite clause John likes her finite clause I'm sure I I know what what's coming to your mind is what's an example of a non-finite clause I'm going to show you as you can see on the screen but hold on before we go there now look at the look at the sentence in red which is not grammatical with a star marks we mean ungrammatical sentence what's the meaning of that I'm sorry why is that why is that ungrammatical when we say John likes she what's the what's she is an object position and the pronominal NP is not displaying its objective form it's displaying its nominative form is the reason why this sentence is ungrammatical okay now we are going to use this finiteness the distinction between finite and infinite very soon to see why we need this discussion let's let's look at non-finite things you see the see the whole sentence for John for him to go to Delhi is not possible okay are you with me for him to go to Delhi is not possible it is a good sentence the whole sentence good or not good sentence perfectly good sentence now whole sentence is a finite sentence the whole sentence whole big sentence is a finite sentence because it has 10s in it and what is the 10s in the whole sentence present tense I hope I am not asking you too complicated a question for him to go to Delhi is not possible and what shows us present sentence in the sentence is clear now next question and I am asking you these questions to make sure that you understand these terms next question what's the subject of the sentence what is the subject of the sentence please don't think about x bar and other things right now very simply in simple terms the question is what is the subject of the sentence why sorry him is the sentence because goes now we are talking about a completely different thing now right we are saying what's the what's the what's the verb in the full sentence you see this is a pretty simple sentence very simple looking sentence and I'm not sure if I have told you this thing for sure I haven't discussed these things with you I'm only starting to discuss okay I mean there is there is one more type of sentence where I can show you non-finiteness but I have already discussed that sentence enough for example imperative sentences are known finite sentences when we say please go home please sit down these sentences are infinite sentences but I wanted to take one more sentence slightly bigger to show you in finiteness and the reason here and the answer to this finite and infinite sentences the following and listen to me carefully looking at the sentence the whole sentence for him to go to Delhi is not possible is a finite sentence the tense in this sentence is present therefore this sentence is non-finite is finite agreed everybody the the chunk that you see in red the whole thing for him to go to Delhi is the subject of this sentence for him to go to Delhi is the subject of this sentence whole sentence that is in the IP in the spec IP position in the spec IP position what comes is the whole thing in the red bracket you see that because the sentence is just like John is my friend right in the sentence John is my friend the subject is the subject is John whatever comes before is is the subject in this sentence whatever comes before is is the whole clause and the whole clause is the is the subject now in the whole clause the whole clause what's the verb we are we are calling it a clause right the whole clause is the subject what's the verb in this clause you were right somebody said to go right is the word now what's the NP in that clause him right I'm I'm I'm trying to complicate the questions for you to see these see the concepts in a better way and here is the complication the this clause seems to have a subject and seems to have a verb right then it this this clause should be a sentence but what is missing from this clause to be a sentence what is sorry agreement agreement is missing all the possible ingredients that make a subject that make a sentence is missing from this what's the tense in that clause no tense because the moment you have a tense we cannot say to go okay is is out of question we can say to go so there is no agreement and no tense therefore that clause is a non-finite clause you see that that therefore that clause is a non-finite clause do we see the distinction between a finite clause and non-finite clause now a finite clause is it is a clause or a sentence with tense and non-finite clause is a clause or a sentence without tense and when you have no tense then there is no agreement are you with me no tense no agreement can I can I take you for for less than 30 seconds to another question for you to see it right right now because I'm making a point which will help you understand something which we have already discussed remember when we had broken the IP the I there are there were three things in I which were tense agreement and aspect we had a question in mind at that time right that how do we order them how do we start do we start with tense do we start with agreement we decided that okay aspect is dependent on tense so let's put aspect and tense together do we start with tense or agreement we started with agreement and then we did not settle the question there that which one is logically first by first we mean logically more prominent more significant now you can have agreement you can have tense and you cannot have tense right but the moment you don't have tense you don't have agreement also so which one is more important tense or agreement you see the you see the point therefore starting the structure with TP is more logically convincing than starting the structure with agreement you see this thing that's all I wanted to show you at this point so in a sentence like this in a clause like this you have no agreement and no tense the moment we have no tense we don't even need to look at agreement we can simply say this is a non-finite clause end of the story so right now I'm only trying to show you finite clauses and non-finite clauses I promise you I'll come back to this again and we will discuss little bit more I'm not going to leave this thing just like that for example when I am saying for him to go to Delhi the whole thing is a is a clause right and the whole thing is the subject I'm going to show you more examples to make a point that subject position does not only need an NP we can have a clause or a bigger sentence or a much bigger sentence in subject positions remember from the very beginning I have been trying to tell you that the whole notion of subject is a very complicated notion it's not easy for anyone to define and say in one sentence this is what is subject we have tried to define a subject from the perspective of agreement from the perspective of semantics and still we see that it's not just an NP it could be a bigger bigger chunk also it could be a non-finite clause it could be a finite clause it could be a CP have we have we have discussed CP little bit right we will come back to that again so it could be CP it could be much bigger is bigger a clause or an NP same is the story for object position also so we are going to see some examples of those things I just want to give you a flavor right now and all I want you to take from here is finiteness and non-finiteness now two more things before we go to a structure I want you to know nominative case is reserved for subject positions whatever comes in the subject position gets nominative case how is is something that we can see structurally and I am going to show you that but the moment something comes in and in a subject position that gets nominative case and accusative case or objective cases are for objects object positions and by definition we know what are the types of verbs which can have objects transitive verbs or die transitive verbs in transitive verbs do not have objects so keep these things these things in mind what are the things other than verbs which can take an object like a post position can take an object when we say on the table on the table the post position on has the table as its object sorry I am sorry a preposition has you see the there is another term I want to give you at this stage I don't like throwing terms only so that you have to memorize them or you have to understand a lot of them you understand the distinction between preposition and post positions don't you you know to combine the two there is another term which is called ad position so we use the term ad position and depending on the language we take them as preposition or post position okay but that's all right you don't have to remember the term you're right in this case on the table we are talking about a prep prep position and preposition takes the object the NP we are going to see some of these things today now here is how it hit it works and I'll show you structurally also so we have a we have a sentence John plays football in the playground okay the the assumptions that we have made so far is John nominative case what's in the objective case or accusative case football abstract case marker or morphological case marker abstract case marker so I'm bringing this thing again the abstract or morphological just is for us to understand whether abstract or morphological it has a case okay so and then we have what what's the other NP that we have the playground and the PP is in the playground so the question is there are three NPs in this sentence one is John the other is football and the third is the playground each NP that is all three of them must have cases we need to explain how do they get cases who gives them case when the moment we say they must get case we also must explain what gives them cases and the moment we say we we determine what gives them cases X bar a scheme helps us understand how okay so quickly let's look at this so verbs and post positions assign accusative cases verbs and post positions assign accusative cases in other words what we what we really want to say is when we say verbs and post positions we really mean heads so in a VP what's the head of this VP and what's the head of a VP prepositions so when we say verbs and post positions assign cases assign accusative cases what we mean is heads assign accusative cases to their compliments heads assign accusative cases to their compliments that is what we mean when we say verbs and post positions assign accusative cases to the NPs they govern and C command now we are bringing in the two terms govern and C command right and I'm going to explain that to you we answer the last question what is science case to the subject little later okay let's first look at verbs and post position and prep positions and before that we need to look at the notion of C comma government and C comma we are trying to say look at all their structures that that are in front of you and try and understand the notion of government go notion of government first and then the notion of C command not very complicated these are the new terms probably you are listening to these terms for the first time am I am I right can I in the advantage in this classes I can make these assumptions very simply very simple I can't make any assumptions about physics chemistry and all kinds of engineering in terms of how much of those things you know or you may have heard before but about these things I can make simpler assumptions am I right and this is not to show you that you don't know these things all I am trying to assure you in fact I what I am trying to assure you that even if you are listening to these terms for the first time are not very complicated terms they are simpler notions look at this did you take a look at this it means it says a governs B if and only if a is a governor by governor we simply mean heads only heads are governors and a C commands B these two conditions must be fulfilled for a head to govern another another node okay the node a governs node B if and only if a is a governor which is a must be a head and a C commands B then a is a governor so when we said hold on before we come to C command again so when we said verbs and post positions are governors we are also saying verbs and post positions must be head heads which they are and they can assign cases only when they are in the head position again I want to underline the notion that I have told you that it says since it says it's a property of a sentence case is a syntactic property was outside a sentence cannot do anything a verb becomes a head only when it's part of VP okay so so keep these things in mind and the verbs assign accusative case only to the to the NP that they govern right so they must be a governor that is they must be a head and they must C command how do they C command a C commands B if and only if a does not dominate B okay and the first branching node dominating a also dominates B is that true the first branching node dominating a also dominates B and here if the term is not clear if the term first branching node is not clear what we mean is this what's the first branching node here this is the node which is branching okay however okay so let's let's first understand this thing first branching node dominating a does it dominate B yes someone can extend this thing and say look this node okay also dominates both of them that true but this dog this node dominates both of them but this node is not first branching node dominating the two this is at second or third or whatever branching node the first branching node dominating the two is this one this is why we are introducing the term first branching node dominating a also dominates B okay this definition runs little bit into difficulty and then there are control mechanism applied to these things which I don't want to show you right now I only want you to understand with clarity the two terms government and C command where case assignment simply means that when the verb assigns a case to the NP football okay it assigns accusative case with the notion of government and C command which means verb governs its complement verb C commands its complement you may be wondering why do we need to say govern and C command why can't we simply say verb assigns accusative case okay the answer to this question I'll show you little little later but by little later I don't think we are going to do it today we're running out of time but I'll show you that that thing but hold on let me let me conclude this thing does this apply here to in the the post position is in and what was the other NP the playground the complement of this P is the NP the playground and I'm assuming here that you understand that we are not talking about playground we are talking about the entire NP okay so this P is a governor it governs this NP and it C commands this NP therefore we say prepositions and prepositions and verbs are governors they are heads and they assign accusative cases with the notion of government and C command this is what I mean when I said X bar scheme helps us understand certain of these things I am not skipping I'm leaving it behind I had it on schedule we thought we'll be able to look at nominative case also but we will look at nominative case tomorrow it's important for us to understand but before we go let me just show you one more thing where we started do you see again this finite clause for him to go to Delhi you see this thing sorry non-finite clause what is for doing here can we not say him to go to Delhi he to go to we are not saying he to go to Delhi do you see this thing we use these kinds of sentences but I am asking you to draw your attention to these sentences and probably it will make more sense to you what is him doing here how did it get him and where did it get accusative case from him is a accusative case mark accusative case NP him right and who gave it accusative case even though it is non-finite sentence him is the subject of that non-finite sentence I will I'll show you these clauses threadbare to see these notions and I don't want to leave you guessing for the time being I can tell you the preposition for is giving accusative case to him okay in the subject position it's getting an accusative case we cannot have just he he there and therefore for a sentence like these we must say for him to go to Delhi we need to begin the sentences with prep with prepositions because if we don't have the preposition there this NP remains uncased marked and therefore not a good good sentence we can't say he to go to Delhi is impossible or not possible we have to say for him to go to Delhi is not possible more later I do want you to understand this sentence and sentences like these when we have looked at more okay thank you