 of chimpanzees in some in East Africa and many in West Africa, which occur outside protected areas. For example, in Guinea, 19% approximately of chimpanzee population occurs outside protected areas. So this creates a huge challenge for creating conservation, balancing with people livelihoods, and also one thing we should bear in mind is local national development plans. So consequences for people in general. We have economic costs. There have been a few studies, only a few really, that have evaluated impact on crops as a result of damage from crop rating. I put in here livestock loss. There has been discussion over anecdotes of chimpanzees degrading goats and chicken, but these are still quite uninformable and wouldn't be surprising if these occur. And property, such as fences, or beehives for cases of chimpanzees who have a particular liking for honey. Social costs are often related to loss of life or injury. This is particularly relevant to chimpanzees, more so than the other bonoboes or burritos, and new cases in burritos. Cases of aggression on humans have particularly been reported in chimpanzees. Social costs are also fear of safety of people. Women and children going to fields might have fear for walking along trails where they might encounter great apes. Social costs are also extra labor, for example, regarding the crop fields and energy, in terms of maybe being in place, mitigation strategies, possibly such as building fences. And travel restriction is also social costs. Without social bear, my cultural costs, there are many areas. And some areas look very unbonoboes or chimpanzees, for example, where these great apes are culturally traditionally conserved. But with increased conflict, this is compromising this traditional concept of conservation of the great apes in these areas. So consequences for great apes, I think are important to highlight, there is increased risk of being killed intentionally in retaliation for conflict. We know of many examples in burritos. And unfortunately, sadly enough, this is a very recent example in Guinea of a female chimpanzee who actually got plummeted to death by humans in an area beside a mining company. I haven't got the full details yet. So, or to prevent future conflict, we don't really have many reports about in great apes in Africa yet, but I would expect that we might see some in the future. And accidentally, of course, through scenario, this is particularly relevant to burritos and also chimpanzees, particularly in East Africa. Somehow, West Africa communities have learned to sludge snails and have circumvented the problem. There is, of course, the risk of being captured. So the more people on Yemen's encabar great apes, maybe there is also an incentive to deal with the problem by capturing or killing the animals and therefore fueling the pet trade. And indeed, problem problems of conflict seem to be one of the main causes now for incoming orphans, for example, West African Sancturists. So Sierra Leone and Guinea, I cannot speak for any East Africa, sorry, but I think this is in the situation. So we are seeing a shift in reasons why orphans are coming into Sancturism and the consequences of conflict. Obviously, consequences of great apes are stress and disease, close proximity to humans and great apes, increased risk of disease transmission, and obviously also the stress in the animals, which might lead to high mortality rates and possibly lower reproductive success. We haven't got strong evidence yet on this, but there are some suggestions. So causes, oh, sorry, I sort of listed some causes. I know in particular order, but I just want to highlight some of the main causes that we observe at least in Africa. I'll just highlight those individually. One of the main causes is hand use transformation and habitat loss. So we have, evidently, in many areas, particularly outside protected areas, where radiative courage changes lead to development, have increased demand for land, food production, and also larger scale development, which is very much compromising the situation and exacerbating conflict is timber, energy, and raw material extraction. And that has a direct impact on life because so you have a large scale development, but this is having an impact because it's changing the agradiates' habitat and behavior and therefore increasing conflict in those areas. So this demarginized, fragmented, gradient habitat, leading them to rely more on cooperating to survive because a lot of the natural resources have been diminished and to act more aggressively towards humans. So if they feel provoked and stressed, we see behavioral changes, particularly in chimpanzees, where chimpanzees will react more aggressively, and there are cases in the mighty strip, Uganda, concerning more reciprocity towards humans. So one other point is human population growth or population movement influx in the countins. This often results in increased land cultivation or plantation. You therefore get increased rate of frequency in the count between humans and radiates, so you have path encounters, surprise encounters, which may result in aggression. Properating, obviously, around national parks, you've got real estate proprating outside along the forest edge, but also outside protected areas, you've got intense proprating in many areas, particularly for chimpanzees. And it's a recent review that compiled 36 cultivars consumed by chimpanzees from 10-range countries, including 51 plant parts. So you can see that in chimpanzees in particular, it's very widespread. Also, the results of growth influx in development, some ways is the transport construction, road development, traffic on roads, and this is problematic in these forest and total matrix, where you have indeed chimps using different areas for some roads. The road that you see here at the top here, with motorbike in the back, is made up to be tarmac. And this is one of the main roads that chimpanzees cross in our community and in our work. So this raises big problems and might increase conflict issues. So obviously, with increased proximity, more humans, human encounters, you have, as we talked about before, the risk of disease transmission. So I will not blow on this too much. I will explain, however, this is a female chimpanzee carrying a dead infant, and you can see, I mean, in the area of that area, you have a young female who lost her first infant through disease, respiratory disease, and she's probably combined next to a village. So one of the other issues which was referred to yesterday is wildlife perpetuation to humans through different mechanisms for provisioning. As we talked about today and yesterday in research, obviously the consequences of these activities is directly that chimpanzees and gorillas become less fearful. So for example, in Buendiemi, apparently gorillas were raiding crops before, but this became more exacerbated as gorillas were getting habituated. So they become less fearful, more confident to cooperate, they approach human habitation, restrict more on travel routes, and even potentially attack humans if provoked. I say if provoked, we compound a review of chimpanzee attacks in the area where we work, and the consequence of this, and the analysis of this was the risk that in all cases the provocation was a result of the progression. So increased competition for wild resources, and this is particularly relevant, for example, where the oil farm, feral oil farms have been harvested by local humans, I know this is one of the major concerns in northern Sierra Leone, for example, and the chimpanzees are basically feeding on the oil farm fruit that's been harvested by the humans. But I would like to highlight a study that I've conducted that actually suggests that despite the heavy use of the oil farm but also chimpanzees, the oil countries do not necessarily die as a consequence of the activities. So abundance and distribution of wild foods is affected by the change in habitat. Chimpanzees, gorillas, gorillas, gorillas are very smart. They burn new things, and they innovate, and they will socially learn from other members of their group. And this is a case where you will have integration of new dietary habits, so new crops being integrated in their regime. Dietary regime, this is an example. Bossu chimpanzees recently started to feed on rice bands in rice pantheos. So climatic factors and stochastic events, after I mentioned it, we don't quite understand what the impacts of climate change and the change in the natural resources and fruiting patterns will have potential on the site and the range to procreate. Preventive mitigation strategies, so I'll briefly go over them. Guarding is one of the main approaches, a traditional approach. I mean, particularly with children or families guarding the crops. The problem with that is often there's energy and time constant. And if children are sending feeders to guard crops, they don't go to school. And so this has a very huge impact on children. Obviously guarding can be more infrastructure-based and more controlled and managed with guard controls and intervention teams. And it's a good example of this around Wendy and the Hugo Project where they have intervention teams who never can let us enter procreating fields. So the risk of injury is also to bear in mind in these cases. Artificial natural barriers, physical, biological, these are labor and time intensive, generally require maintenance. So they're not always necessarily a best strategy, but they can potentially be affected. The problem with this is that there's been a very limited testing or results, published results yet on all these measures. Office zones could be set up with inedible crops or non-invasive plants. And it's been some testing out around Wendy for a million of such office zones. You could also have direct protection of chemicals, such as chili, and that's been also tested out. Success, if someone knows more about this, you can fill in. Visual and acoustic components have not been really applied to gray eggs, I mean applied to other non-human primates. But the problem is that gray eggs are readily habituated and this is a major issue. And then these changes in habitat restoration is something to bear in mind. Spatial distribution of crops in office zones is very important. Where to plant crops, to select which crops in edible versus edible crops around the areas of high sensitivity around forest edges, we can consider also high and low-risk crops. So there are some crops that are more favored than others by gray eggs. And so this is something to analyze. Selective clearing as well. This is quite important, especially of Sachin Berners, who are ongoing. They've been encouraging to preserve some gradient keystone resources as to not minimize too much natural resource availability. There's been some arguments that distance of fields to forest edge can be an effective mitigation strategy. They have been suggestions in Uganda for over 500 meter distance. But from experience, at least in West Africa, this might not be effective. Gray eggs are very flexible in their travel patterns. And we know that chimpanzees can actually venture out quite far in in agricultural forest majors. But this might be effective maybe for gorillas, depending on how they can reach the fields. This is just relevant to chimpanzees, but if it does prove the case that we are getting really deep predation on goats and chickens, we might want to think about improving livestock management and keeping of those animals or villages are concerned. One important point is habitat restoration. So if there's fishing natural foods around for gray eggs, potentially minimizing the risk of them going out for a gray day, especially in periods of food scarcity. It doesn't mean that you can just stop it, but you might minimize it. And preserving key areas. And these are like riverine areas which are generally high in productivity. And also important for preservation of water for villages. So this is something to think about. I put this in here. It's not relevant to gray eggs in Africa. There is no currently program of capturing, transportation or problem conflict animals. But I know it's very relevant to Asia but I quickly wanted to address this. It basically involves capturing moving animals from problematic zones to a new ideally protected site where conflict is not initially now and in the future. But this is complicated logistically. It's risky and it's financially demanding and the huge ethical concerns behind this and requires a lot of expertise. And not only ethical but cultural implications. Imagine, for example, around also, we started discussing transportation of chimpanzees because it was corroborating. This would have a huge effect on the cultural life, social life of people who hold chimpanzees as a totem. So these are the things I need to consider and I think it's definitely not a notion. It's not a solution to the problem. And even I will say, it's not even the last resort but I need to say. Direct compensation schemes have been produced on us and there's a current review on going. Evelyn Bowman-Jones is combining informational compensation schemes. And there are huge problems with evaluating the extent of damage and compensation levels. The financial compensation schemes are not always usually effective. In essence, you have to remember this is not a solution to the problem. We need to actually deal with the baseline problem not actually just act on compensating. So if compensation is considered, we also need to tackle the problems. So one thing that often must arise is creating value of great apes in order to increase tolerance towards conflict. And also, so one approach is schemes benefiting local people. This could be direct benefit through local people and then again through a climber. I mean, it could also be tourism and research and development. And direct benefits schemes are very important, I think, and I'll probably want to stress for it. With the development of sustainable local development projects and improving as we've heard before, human health, sanitation and hygiene is a very nice example of a project on gender conservation through public health. Which has been very successful. And this benefits local people as well as great apes because they're susceptible to disease transmission. Access to water, protein alternatives, agricultural yields, schools, hospitals, we can think of many different options. But I think also one important approach from the local environment schemes which are relevant to tourism and development as well. Whether people are given more responsibility for managing habitat and resource use. And managing conflict. For example, for encounter rate problems, we explained that a lot of the encounters were surprise attacks. And the Village of Kassafs took the initiative to maintain trails and paths that lead to fields so that it would minimize risk of surprise encounter. This is a small initiative that the village took on their own. We actually explained the problem and we analyzed it with the village and named themselves to this initiative. So this is where understanding of the problem comes in and education and training is very key. It's essential to help develop skills and dealing with gradient of conflict and target areas. Expertise is very essential in that domain. But it's also very key to promote public understanding of the roots of the problems of the conflict. And also to help people understand why the great apes are behaving the way they do, they need to get a bit of understanding of the great apes behavior and ecology. You know why they're making sense of the cooperating in this particular area. We'll study this one year, they're cooperating more, et cetera. And one very important thing, which should be relevant to chimpanzees, but brothers as well, and probably bonobos in the future, for now they don't have many instances with bonobos as how to behave when encountering chimpanzees. These aggressions often are the result of mistakes and errors in the behavior of humans. And we can circumvent that if we put a lot of them in education. And hopefully with in parallel different schemes working together we can increase human tolerance towards great apes in some areas at least. So and help and engage with the communities to find certain solutions to problems through informal discussions. This is another strategy I put in here that it can go in parallel of obviously the positive regulation of natural land use and resource exploitation. I just mentioned this situation with chimpanzees which we covered in the village inside the mining company. I mean obviously these mining activities in large expanse of land loss actually exacerbates conflict and we need therefore more input policy regulation on that to minimize conflict issues. The role of researching and understanding of the problem is very important and it's probably one of the baselines initially. But this is just a suggestion about different approaches to research, social economic studies, the value of social impact and opportunity costs, quantifying the economic impact. There have been very few studies that have done this in particular for relays. Also analyzing human influx of demographic trends as well as development of patterns and modeling that in the future as well that are also very beneficial. Understanding people's perceptions and attitudes and we have to bear in mind these change so these have to be refuted studies across generations. We've seen generation gaps in tolerance as well and in the people of the time. Ecological behavioral studies where possible obviously can be quite helpful in understanding the roots of the problems. The sites where the conflicts to arise if it's several individuals or more than one individual trying to better understand the problem in order to try and resolve it. And lastly but most importantly this is where there still remains a huge gap is really starting to put in place in concert with all stakeholders and particularly with the communities. Develop schemes and test them and evaluate effectiveness. Of course one scheme may not work in one place and may work in another but we need more information on this and develop novel strategies as well. So all in all resolving, well, great conflict is really challenging affair but it's a very serious concern. I think this is going to be one of the major problems affecting Green Apes more and more and we've seen this already in West Africa but we have to bear in mind a different ecological, social and cultural and economic realities so different solutions might not work in one place and in some areas it might be completely ineffective as well, we just never know. But there are also different responses by the different Green Apes pieces so we have to bear in mind different behaviors and different responses. But one thing I do wanna highlight with these issues is that we should be very careful in approaching conflict. We do not wanna create conflict where there is none. They might be cooperating in one area but people don't perceive it as conflict so we don't wanna create a situation where people become sort of looking for some kind of compensation because they hear that in another area they are being compensated or whatever so we need to be very sensitive to that. And most importantly it is essential to engage in certain communities, affect people, identify those affected people and develop together short and long-term strategies in concert and also refine the approach. Then you start up with one particular approach for us but it does not work but then you have to reassess and re-analyze and partnerships between local people, conservation of them and you know effectively work together in solving conflict issues and might be a very future avenue for this so creating a set of invaluable to preserve our needs in different areas.