 Well, thank you very much, Diane Evans. Thank you to the society for inviting me to come here and speak. I hope you can all hear me. If that ceases to be the case, please let me know and I'll try harder. And it's lovely to see so many of you here despite the viral pandemic that we're undergoing. This is a subject I've been talking about and thinking about for some years now. those who have been working on this stuff before The motivation for doing so again, as our President has just stated, is that there is a book published just last year That is a discount available to those of you who moved to purchase one as a result of the ZP Mae'r ffordd yw'r ffordd yn eich ei fod yn ganddo i'r blynedd o'r cyhoeddfeydd i'ch gael y cwmddir ystafell. Yn ymdweud yma, cyfrifio'n cyfrifio'r ysgolwyd yma, ac i'r ffordd yma i'r ffordd rai yn cyfrifio'n cyfrifio ar ystafell yng Nghyrch yn argyrchu. Mae pwysig a'r arddangos piwys yr adeiladau-...! Maen nhw'n rhi ddarparu gaelethu fynd o fe wneud hyn i fynd i gweithio'r rhannig. Maen nhw'n rhi'n rhan o fawr yna, rhai ar� inni mwy o'r rhannig o'r hefyd. Mae'r rhannig o'r lefiydenau chyrgydd, rhawer, a'r chyrgydd cyllid yn unol. Rhaid o'r rhan o'i chyrgydd Cymru, rhaid o'r rhannig o'r rhannig o'r rhannig o'r chyrgydd cyllid. Ysgwyd, mae'r gweld ffordd y gweld ar y ddoedd un'n gweithio ar gyfer y rhagor yn y cyfrifloedd ychydig yn ei tu hefyd, ywheilion codi'r hynny yellow fel oed. Yn y dyfodol, mae'r cyfrifloid yn y manfysgateis, mae'r cyfrifloid yn wych yn gweithio ar gyfer y ddweud. Yn y 12 y ddweud, mae'n mynd i los o gwbl, mae'r finale, yn y lefodd ar gyfer y cyfrifloid, o'r sefydlu cymdeithasolau gwirioneddol. A'r gwasanaethau i ddodolol. Ond ydym yn ychydig yn gweithio'r ddiddordebeth o'r ddiddordebeth, ac yn ymwysig yr ystod, fydd eich bod yn ei ddiddordebeth yn y dyfodol.yn ydym yn ychydig yn gweithio'r ddiddordebeth yw'r ddiddordebeth, dyna'r drafod o'r cymdeithasol mae'r cymdeithasol yn y mhwyno'r ddiddordebeth i'r ddiddordebeth a'r ddiddordebeth o'r ddiddordebeth, gan fyddech chi'n mynd i hyn o'i rhaglion o'r unid. Felly o'r 25 yma, i ymddyl ichi'n llaw'r parlau, i'r hyn i'r bwysig hefyd ymddyl o'r anhygoel i'r ddweud o'r hyn yn fwyaf, ac mae'r bwysig o'r gwaith o'r cyfnwysa, mae'r bwysig o'r cyfnwysau. Felly o'r cyfnwysau i'r bwysig oherwydd o'r cyfnwysau I was as I possibly could, and fully explored this idea that they're buildings of the elite. So, I got to about 40 examples of which about 15 are a bit earlier. They're generally found at monasteries built by kings and bishops. And they're doing something slightly different so I won't talk about them here. There's also a few known in Scotland, again something slightly different happening there. Felly, rydyn ni'n gweithio i'r parysau gennallydd 10th ac 11th yma, byddai pryd ychydig ar 11 yma o'r parysau gyda'r parysau. Felly, mae'r bwlyniadau yma o'r meccalifau. Yn 11 yma o'r parysau gennallydd 10th ac 11th yma o'r parysau. Rydyn ni'n gweithio i'r parysau gennallydd acrossi England. Felly, mae'n mawr i ddweud y gwirionedd ym mwyaf o ddweud ymlaen o'r sacks i argyffredinol. Mae'n rhai o'r perysau i'r Angliau. Mae'r Angliau a'r sacks i'r parysau i'r sefyllfa'r gynghraeg yn cyd-ygir. Mae'n rhai o ddweud yma o'r Lóc Llywodraeth yma. Mae hynny'n gweithio i'r Lóc Llywodraeth, mae hynny i'r Lóc Llywodraeth. Felly, yma, y clywed o'r ddweud o ffynol o'r ddweud o'r Llywodraeth. Mlynedd i wneud o ddyn nhw'n dechrau rhagor gan yw'r cyfnod commerce, yna, nid yw eich bod yn cyd Pakistaniie'r cyfnod. Mae'r cyfnod yn cyfnod, felly mae'r argylwyddeimlo i'r adr. Mae'r adr yn ymgylchedd a'r adr yn dda, a fath yw'r adr. o'r ddych yn ymddangos. Ond, rydyn ni'n gwrs, mae'n gwrs y taw o hanes o'r ddau oedau o'r ffordd yn ei ddweud o'r cyfnodol o'r bwysig. Yna'r cyffredin ar hyffrwyd o'r bydd yr ysgol yn ymddangos. Llywodraethau oherwydd ei ddweud o'r ddau o'r ffordd yn gwirionedd Llywodraeth, ac Station and Early Woman Indian.ame tool as it would bring to talk about all 24 examples of the course of this afternoon. I'll choose just two fairly representative examples which show the sort of material that we're dealing with and then I'll set about placing within some kind of wider context. Yn Ymgyrch, mae'n 1. Mae'n Llyncynshire, yw Caster a mae'n ddysgwyr rydych chi'n gwybod yw'r ddyn nhw'n ddigon i'w prysganddo, mae'n ffieithfydig o'r dal wedi'i gweld y maen i'r gael i'r ddau, mae'n ddysgwyr oherwydd mae'r ddysgwyr yw ddweud, yw'r ddau erbyn dyma. Mae'n gorfodol a'r rhain yn y 11 o'r 12 oed, mae'r rhain yn y 11 oed, mae'n gweithio os ynt. Mae hwn yn ddweud â'r lill oed, dweud o gweithio o'u bydd yr ateb ystod y bydd yn hwnnw, mae'r rhain yn tir o'r barw am rhan o'r ddweud, mae'r rhain yn y ganes oed o'r bobl, mae'r rhain yn meddwl, Foundation. Menai'r meddwl i'ch gael, ond mae'r meddwl yn gweithio i'r rôl ymddangos iawn i'ch gael y gafodd arall. Yn y partysg ystod, mae'r cyrraedd gweithio i'r meddwl i'r meddwl a'r meddwl i'r meddwl, mae'r hollau a'r hynny'n gyffredigiaeth, eu bod ni'n ffalu'r hynny'n gweithio i'ch gael i'ch gwell sy'n ffordd. Mae'r meddwl i'r meddwl i'r wedi'u gwneud o Hsioil ymddangos i'r sydd wedi'u rhoi oesaf o anghylau cerddau. mae'n cael ei dweud o'r llwyddon cyffredig ar gael y tansgai, ac mae'r llwyddo yn y gallu'r llwyddon cyffredig ar gael y llwyddon, ond mae'r llwyddon yn y 1960-e ddebyg o Philip Brart. A mae'n gweithio ddebyg bod y tawr yn ychydig yn y cyfrifol yn eu Llywodraeth Llywodraeth. Yn yn cyllideb yn ddiogel, mae'n ddiddordeb yn rhan o'r llwyddon cyffredig. Mae ymddai'n ymddai'n llwyddon, y roeddeni, mae'n cyfrifol yn ddiddordeb yn y Llywodraeth. Mae Statidol yn ddull i'rchwil iawn, mae e bwysig yn ddulliannid i'n ddull iawn i'w ddull i'r iawn i'r gwstraed i'w llyffyr rôl, drwy'n ddweud i'w ddweud i'w ddweud i'w ddweud i'w ddweud a'u ddweud i'w ddweud i'u ddweud i'w ddweud o'r tan, i beth o'r pryd yn dderloed. Fe naddw i'n fus Tyr iawn i ddweud i'w pion i'w ddweud i'w pond, yn y Pion yn y舒ch yn llygfaen yr ENTAT Rhywr panaceddol. ac mae'n gwneud y dyma o gyflawni Cymru. Mae yna gweld yn gweld y maenig ap yr ysgrifennu a'r ystyried i'r gwrthodol ac mae'r gwrthodol yn ymddig yn ymddugaf, yr ysgrifennu a'r ddweud o'r gwrthodol yn gwybod ymddugaf ar y gwrthodol. Felly mae'r gwrthodol yn gwybod yn gwybod yn ymddugaf, yma hynny yn ymddug, yn ymddug â'r gwrthodol, o'r 12 ysgol, oedden nhw'n ddiddorol o'r rolygu yn cael y bêl, a dyma'n ddiddorol o'r taw, o'r llwyfod yma, o'r llwyfod yma, o'r chyfl. Yn ddiddorol, mae'n ddiddorol, mae'n ddiddorol o'r llwyfod, mae'r llwyfod o'r llwyfod, maen nhw'n ddiddorol o'r llwyfod, ac mae'r llwyfod yn teimlo, a ei ddiddorol i'r Taill, ac mae'n eu hunau, ond mae'n ddiddorol o'r llwyfod yw bod hyn yn enwedig yw hefyd. Efallai'r elsu teimlo a'r oedden nhw'n ddiddorol o'r llwyfod o'r llwyfod, dyma gw'n rwy'n ddiddorol o'r llwyfod o'r llwyfod. A mae'r cyrchawd oedden nhw ddiddorol o'r llwyfod o'r llwyfod yma i ysgol. That's one. Here's another... This is a building that many of you may know at Potton in Wiltshire. This was excavated... ...by in the 1960s, and it's this very, very strange building... ...which has been previously... ...it's a bachyswyd, because a font was found here... ...and it stands fairly near an older minster, a monastic church. Rhoddwell yn ymweld yna y byddai'r ysgwrdd yn y bwysig yn mynd i'r ddweud y ddweud o'r oed yn gweithio'r cynhyrch, a'r gweithio'r turopohol gyda'n gyntaf o'r bwysig oherwydd i'n gweithio yw'r arweithio i'r unrhyw o'r rhaglion gan yw'r gyfan ymddangos. I'd butt like that as a dictation but the providers are very good. I'm again doing their work here is quite helpful. It says this is a valuable space to the Bishop of Salisbury. But within that much larger estate there is a smaller space of six hides. A hide being enough land is thought to maintain a farming community called BPs Ac i mi wedi ei bwysig sydd yn ymweld chi'n gwybod i'r burgell gan y cwmpwlet. Maen nhw'n trefion yma ei fod yn ei dda. Roedd hynny'r chacol i'nogi. Ina o'r chacol i'r Chacol, r owners o'r bwysig, y dweud yn ei gwmblad yn ychwanegol yn y dylag. Y ddiwedd i gell, yn rhoi eich cwmpwlet, was half of the building interpretive as a stable which sort of method won't surface from the middle of it that aligns with the approachbarow to this site, I think perhaps it may have been a gate house. This sits outside of what appears to be the boundary of the minister's church, so I think we have a sort of smaller aristocratic state centre stuck next door to a much larger piscic rule of the state centre. a dyma'r plwysau, ac mae'r wrthwyf yn gwrth yma yn gyffreadol. A y pethau'r math yw ei bod yn ddeifyddol. Rhywbeth fynd i'r ffrots yn ymddul i'r ffrots, ac mae'r ffrots yn ymddul i'n gwrth. Ond mae ymddigol wedi ddod yn ei ddiogel daith o phan yma, bod yma'n ddeud gan ysgrifennu Cynllewyr. onwyd. So, what do these manor houses look like? Now, over the last few decades, we've had the opportunity to excavate quite a number of these sites. And broadly speaking, they comprise a hall, the essential compartment, other aristocratic buildings, set within an enclosure, those are the basic ingredients. To which we can add often the close association with a church or a chapel, this is the origin of the close church manor house relationship in the later medieval manuscript. A gate house, perhaps slightly on the bottom, a tower. Now, when I was first looking at this stuff, these towers were sort of known, but only one or two examples. I don't think it's quite yet been appreciated that these towers were as widespread as they may have been. So, I'll briefly rehearse the evidence for these towers, which are not themselves churches. But it brings forward the idea that these towering of churches combined the tower, the chapel, perhaps the gate house into one single aristocratic structure. This was David Parsons idea originally. So, Lorde Timber Towers. I'll just rattle through these examples quickly. This was excavated back in the early 2000s by Gareth Thomas for enormous posts set within a cellar at the residence of a bishop. The bishop had a chapel just nearby and his hall was closely aligned with his tower. This tower contained a structured deposition of material culture, which was interpreted as being a symbolic representation of the estate as a hop. So, this building was important not just because of its physical scale and prominence, but because of the symbolism that it may have had. Another one, this is a Northampton example. When this residence was built, again within an enclosure, there was a hall and there was a fairly substantial tower set within a small stockade, which was later replaced by a building interpreted as a barn by the excavator, which had itself a tower. So, who knows what form that building may have taken. Another example from a bishop's residence, this time in Hampshire, a tower closely aligned with a hall set within an enclosure. These are all of Timber. A non-published example at Ketham in Rotland, a tower, a hall axially aligned as a church associated with this law's residence set within a band of enclosure. Three, if nothing else comes of this, if someone could tell me more about three, I'd be eternally grateful. This is a fascinating site dug in the early 80s, which has never been published. It's a prehistoric enclosure set high on a hill in Yorkshire at 100 meeting place, and of all the things that go on with this enclosure in the late Saxon period, a church is established. The enclosure gains a northern appendage, that appendage contains what appears to be an inaugural residence, and that residence has a celled tower of some potential, while it accounts. I've contacted the excavator, I've not yet managed to get a plan for that building, but if anyone knows more, I will read it. The Bear Tapestry, late 11th century, perhaps made in England, depicts a tower. Now this is the scene where Harold is returning from France, if he's off to visit the King, and he lands on the Channel of the Coast. The name of this place is not identified on the tapestry, but we know that Boson, where Sussex was Harold's main residence and chief of Channel of the Port in this area, so we can assume this was his tower at Boson. Again, it's of some potential, it's of four stories in height. It's got an enormous opening on the ground floor, this was interpreted by the Lector of the Ring, and has perhaps been a Gates House tower. The men inside are looking out for Harold's rival, so we can assume that he was known to this place. So it had a function as a watch tower, which is something I'll return to later. And it's carved with a library of piece heads and all sorts, so these buildings may have been quite nice. Again, the final example, this is another out of the Saxon, Lord Hussabhite, the Congress had at his residence in various regiments a truly enormous tower. Perhaps we shouldn't take this literally, but at least it bears out the fact that these towers were potentially quite large and impressive. This is a written source from about the year 1000, which has been fairly well debated, and it says that to be taken seriously as a lord in this period you needed a certain amount of land and you needed some buildings. You needed a chapel, you needed a bell house, it doesn't say bell tower, I wish it did, but perhaps it was not similar. You needed what's been interpreted as some sort of fortified enclosure with a gatehouse and various other things. Now this is sort of, this is quite an important source because it not only says that you have to have buildings to be taken seriously as a lord, but it sheds a bit of light on what's going on in this period generally because it's only in this 10th and 11th century period that you get power fragmenting down to this local level. These much older, larger estates, their power for the first time is being held by local lords who can for the first time hold land and pass their lands to their king and establish themselves in willed power at a local level. So in the later medieval period the authority of your local lord may be based upon such things as lineage. This was not the case then because local lords are only newly becoming a thing, they're having to establish themselves. And so their lords, because they convince other people of their lords, not because of any lineage that they may have. If you have the right land and you have the right buildings, then you're a lord. And so these buildings, these towers, these tower-nive churches, these halls, these enclosures, they're not just projecting status in the kind of willy way, in a vain way, they are quite literally, you know, justifying the position of that lord to wield the power and authority that he does. They are key to his expression of lordship. So these towers in this tower, if churches I think are doing that, they are embodying lordship. The buildings of status, they are embodying lordship at a more fundamental level than that. But what else may they be doing? So this is, again, a fairly hokey, early 12th century Norman Cromford Gluck, who is relating the passage of the Viking army between Cambridge and Thetford. And as the army goes along, a lord-worn man, who we know from other sources to be Oswee, climbs a set of his church tower strengthened by that place, there's the church, later rebuilt, you don't know what form it may have been, may have been one of these free-standing tower churches, who knows. And it sits within what the topography has for some kind of enclosure, an enclosure that contains a man axe. This would be a one of the side of the church today. So strengthened by that place and by that tower, this lord manages to fight off the entire Viking army. Again, perhaps not to be taken neutrally, but when I looked at the landscape context for what's going on in this place in Belgium, it seems to bear something of what Henry O'Cuntyndon is saying now. So the tower is there. What's in the orange is an analysis of what a theoretical tower of 10 metres in height can see of the landscape. It's got a reasonable view over bits of Meirci of Way and a Roman road between Thetford and Cambridge, but not great. Next to the tower is a place in the Netherlands for a beacon site. Now, these beacons have now fairly well established as being a feature of the late South's landscape, these war beacons, and that beacon site has a really good view over this route between Cambridge and Thetford. Next to the war beacon was a must-appoint 100-metre place on one of two linear earthworks which bounded or guarded or demarcated this important regional route. So may be the lord at his tower would have been responsible for the local defence and military system for this area. Oswe had a watchman at his beacon when trouble came. The beacon was lit. The forces gathered at the meeting point on this earthwork. If things were looking dicey, they returned to the lord's bounded fortified residence with its strong tower as a refuge. So this seems to bear out the evidence of what this Norman Cromwell was saying 100 years later. And some, not all, but a number of these towers that I was looking at did seem to function as watchtowers potentially, or they may well have done. Here's quite a nice example. This is in Berkshire. And it sits within what was probably a Roman enclosure originally adjacent to a Roman road, which contains a mannahouse of unknown date. It's present for this early basement evil. And this tower with the orange again has a really excellent view over the landscape. It could have acted as a watchtower in its own right, though the lord would have had a responsibility for defence and military matters. It contains this landscape, a considerable beacon shape running all the way from the south coast, and then turns west into Wiltshire. And when this tower was in the birth communism sword back in the 19th century, the architect noted it had a flat roof originally, which is heavily suited. And he said this tower looked to him like a beacon tower. And if you look at the placement of evidence for these beacons, this tower completes the chain of beacons running through the landscape. We don't know, but perhaps this was again a watchtower or even a beacon tower. And what else may these towers have been doing? This is probably an exception, but at Berkshire Edmonds at the monastery there, one of the Reeves, one of the Earves who looked after the Abbey's huge estates in this region, one of the Earves had to give a tower which he built, this is another tower made, this is the one that was invented, and this tower doubled as his son's residence. So we have a tower made church built by a secular lord acting as a residential tower. This lord, because he was the lord of the Abbey, had his residence apparently at the Abbey lot, not within a mannagos in the town. So, and this is also another point that's probably worth making as to what these town-made churches are. In this early medieval period, throughout the entire annual Saxon period, there was precious little evidence, almost no evidence for building in stone, for secular buildings, almost the only evidence we have after we use our own structures is churches. There seems to have been a cultural decision made that the only acceptable use for stone was building churches, and yet we'd expect all the hundreds of seven in the sites we've ever been dug stone to be over-represented in the archaeological record because it survived so well. This is not the case. Now, the reason for this separation, you can make your own minds up perhaps, but minds interpretation office was something to do with the meanings that these two materials may have, because clearly the Anglo-Saxons had a rich building tradition in stone, and clearly even the king who could have afforded it to build this all whatever he liked chose to do it out of timber. So I think in this period timber was a material of life, of transience. The lifespan of an earth-fast building is probably about the same as its occupant, whereas stone is not a material of transience. It's a material of permanence and eternity. And I think perhaps the Anglo-Saxons believed to build something, to build a structure of eternity on earth between deeply impertinent because the only appropriate place for a building eternity was in heaven or in God's house on earth. And yet in this period, as I've said, local gods are just establishing themselves. One of the best ways of getting authority is to imply permanence. This is Richard Bowden's idea of the creation of continuity. And you want to state your permanence that you've always been there and that you'll always be there, and you're king here after you. You want a better way to do it, the way you see it in stone. It's highly expressive building material. In your Lordly Tower, we know there's a pre-existing tradition of timber Lordly Towers at residences in this period. If you stuck a chapel in one, you can make it out of stone. And I think that's making what's going on here with these towering churches. And the architecture of a number of these churches, this is very distinctive, Anglo-Saxon stuff. This is Pelastatricwer, which is agreed to be a sumo of timber-framed building techniques, sort of transformed into a stone building. So I think perhaps the origin of a number of these towering churches has Lordly Towers as this existing tradition of building timber towers in the residence. This is bearing the origins of these buildings out. So, what's going on here? Now, back in the 1970s, David Wilson said, wouldn't it be fun if these towering churches, he only knew of a handful when he was writing this, wouldn't it be fun if these were the origin of Lordly Castle heaps? So, these towering churches manifest Lordly status. They have a potential role in warfare, potentially in a residential. So, when we think of Norman Keeps, the ones that's being mined, are these these palatial Keeps, which are essentially very elaborate halls turned into towers. This is research done by Philip Dixon. But these are the exception. These are built by kings. These are the very high-end of society. The ones built by local lords are probably a lot more modest. They seem to have comprised small, tall, square, timber, or stone towers like this, often found at dead houses. So, this is more what you'd expect to find. And these towers, these Norman castles, they seem to have more or less comprised, perhaps in the majority of instances, ringworks of earth and the timber with a hall, with a tower, perhaps acting as a gatehouse. And these, where studies have been made, occur at Lordly residences from the late Saxon period. So, there's enormous continuity between late Saxon Lordly residences and early Norman castles, as you might expect, because the Norman conquest was the musical chairs at the top of society. It's been argued not to have been such a massive cultural and societal change at all. And again, the observation of the left has been made before, but these towers combine aspects of Anglo-Saxon architectural detail. So, this one in Exeter has triangle windows, long and short corners bones. It's found that some existing Anglo-Saxon lords residence, the sort of person who's been around Exeter. The example on the right was pointed out to me by Philip Davies, it was. And he pointed out that this, which would have been a tower when built it, I think it's been shortened, has the last strip work in the manner of these Lordly towers from the Saxon period. So, we have spatial continuity and potential architectural continuity between Norman castles and the towers built at the more normal everyday Norman castles between Norman and the Irish at the period. And again, the Bay of Tapestry, this is the construction of the Mott at Hastings and Castle, but there's a tower already there and we think we know from what remains above ground and from documented evidence that this was a tower-nove church dedicated to St Mary, which already existed and which stood or marked or guarded against to that place. And there's a few other incidents of Norman castles incorporating tower-nove churches or indeed building tower-nove churches of their own. Oxford is now called the example, which is truly enormous. Earl's Barton has been theorised to be an un-documented modern-day castle at Earl's Barton at Hastings. As I say, the evidence is there. I spoke about earlier, Portchester. A tower-nove was there within the Lord's residence inside this room in 11th century. Castle has established that tower-nove was kept as the castle chapel for some decades after it. There's other examples. I excluded from the study the towers I couldn't satisfactorily demonstrate were free-sangu when built, but there are longings to nearly make on the list of a new castle on time within the castle there at Hereford Castle and Burwell in the Kencher. And here's a slightly strange one. This is Richmond Castle, where the castle chapel here was built at the base of a tower, a tower which guards the entrance to the castle enclosure. This used to be the slightly later Norman version of this existing tradition of lordly tower-nove churches at castles and lordly residences stretching back potentially for centuries. So, what do we make of this? Just to set this stuff in some kind of context, it seems to be that across Europe, Western Europe as a whole, not just England during this 10th and 11th century period, power was being fragmented down to a much more local level, which being exercised by a new class of local lords. It's sort of rise to gentry because it's not as an English thing, this is a pan-Western European thing. And these lords also built residences, and that were residences they built, again modest, squarish towers to manifest their status. So, I'll just wrap them through some fairly random examples of many that I could have chosen. So, this is the original home of the Habsburg dynasty in Switzerland, much more modest a fair when it was built. In Germany, you get the soap of Bergfried, which seemed to be perhaps late 9th century in origin. These, again, very tall, squarish towers built for the residences of the lords. Diolch i'r Llywodraeth i'r Llywodraeth has the profusion of them, of which in many anodd place may have been. Often crowning hilltops and acting as watch towers. Italy, at northern Italian towns in particular, you get the local aristocracy, competitively, tower building. These towers have a new status. These vintumes have been church towers, or they are often used as bell ffils. And in an article, Doric Rhyn said that if you look at pre-fire panoramas of London, you can start to see towers which look potentially anglo-saxon too, because they have this distinctive placerish group of condom. I should say that a number of my sites occur in towns, a place like Oxford, had more than one town in church. So, perhaps in the situation, perhaps not like that, but in legsaxons in towns, lords who have their residences in these towns were competitively tower building against each other to manifest their wealth and status and authority. France, obviously, the immediate inspiration, as is thought to be the case for Norman Castles, how much time do I have anyway? More or less. So again, a modest, in this example, timber tower built, that's a sort of proton castle in 10th century France. And I could go on. But I think essentially what you have is all across western Europe during the 10th and 11th centuries, you have local lords building towers at their residences, this new class of local astroxy to manifest status and project authority, as well as potentially these towers having a use in war. And I think in England, in the 10th and 11th centuries, you have lords building towers at their residences to project and manifest status, as well as potentially having a use in war. So I think we can now start to break down this division between western Europe as a whole having what we think of as castles before 1066 and then only in 1066 does England become part of this wider tradition. Because I think we have this, in John Goodall's phrase, a shared culture of aristocratic tower building across western Europe during this period and I think we can include England within this. It's just in England for peculiar reasons, the towers they built, the residences were all of timber unless they happened to contain a church and then it was acceptable for them to be built out of stone. So this is the existing model, simplistically presented. Now I think we can add to it, I think there's now something else going on. And I leave you with the words of the late 11th century Archbishop of Canterbury. Many thanks indeed for listening. I should say if anyone has any further examples of either these potentially free-standing towers that exist in the landscape or excavation examples, then I'll be delighted to hear about them. Thank you very much.