 10 Great Fires and How They Were Fought, Part 1a Great conflagrations are plentifully recorded during Roman times, and as has been shown, all that the science of the period, coupled with the most commendable forethought could accomplish, was done to stave off the peril. Nonetheless, however, the magnificent Basilica Julia, a building devoted to law courts completed by Augustus in B.C. 44, after plans designed by Julius Caesar, was entirely gutted, and remains to this day a relic of architectural antiquity and a perpetual reminder that fire risks ever were, and probably ever will be, amongst the perils of existence. Again, in 64 A.D., Rome was devastated by an outbreak which lasted three days and burned out most of the residential portion of the city. It has been popularly attributed to that peculiarly eccentric emperor Nero, but in justice to that despot it must be added that the evidence of his being a firebog on a gigantic scale is slight. Then occurred a lapse of centuries during which no doubt bad fires took place, but they were not of a sufficiently startling character to leave any permanent mark upon history, till the partial destruction of London in 1666. The details of this conflagration are so well known that it seems almost unnecessary to dwell upon it, but the following description drawn from a diary of that gossipy old chronicler Samuel Peeps appears worthy of quotation, since he was an eyewitness, and the style in which he writes is so quaint. September 2, Lord's Day. Some of our maids sitting up late last night to get things ready against our feast today, Jane called us up about three in the morning to tell us of a great fire they saw in the city. So I rose and slipped on my nightgown and went to the window, but being unused to such fires as followed I thought it far enough off and so to bed again and to sleep. By and by Jane comes and tells me that she hears that above three hundred houses have been burned down to-night by the fire we saw, and that it is now burning down all Fish Street by London Bridge. So I made myself ready presently and walked to the tower, and there got up upon one of the high places, Sir J. Robinson's little son going up with me, and there I did see the houses at that end of the bridge all on fire, and an infinite great fire on this and the other side, the end of the bridge, among which other people did trouble me for poor little Mitchell and our Sarah on the bridge, so down with my heart full of trouble to the lieutenant of the tower, who tells me that it begun this morning in the King's Baker's house in Pudding Lane, and that it had burnt down St. Magnus's church and the most part of Fish Street already. So I go down to the water side, and there got a boat, and through bridge and there saw a lamentable fire. Poor Mitchell's house, as far as the old swan, already burned that way, and the fire running further, that in a very little time it got as far as the steel yard, while I was there. Everybody endeavouring to remove their goods, and flinging into the river, or bringing them into lighters that lay off. Poor people staying in their houses as long as till the very fire touched them, and then running into boats, or clambering from one pair of stairs by the water side to another. And among other things the poor pigeons, I perceived, were loath to leave their houses, but hovered about the windows and balconies till they burned their wings and fell down. Having stayed, and in hours time seen the fire rage every way, and nobody to my sight endeavouring to quench it, but to remove their goods and leave all to the fire, and having seen it get as far as the steel yard, and the wind mighty high and driving it into the city, and everything after so long a drought proving combustible, even the very stones of the churches, and among other things the poor steeple by which pretty Mrs. Blank lives, and whereof my old school-fellow Elboro is a person, taken fire in the very top, and there burned till it fell down. I go to Whitehall with a gentleman with me who desired to go off from the tower to see the fire in my boat, and there up to the king's closet in the chapel where people come about me, and I did give them an account, dismayed them all, and word was carried into the king. So I was called for, and did tell the king and the Duke of York what I saw, and that unless his majesty did command houses to be pulled down nothing could stop the fire. They seemed much troubled, and the king commanded me to go to my lord-mayor for him, and command him to spare no houses, but to pull them down before the fire every way. The Duke of York bid me tell him that if he would have any more soldiers he shall, and so did my lord Arlington after as a great secret. Here, meeting with Captain Cook, I in his coach which he lent me, and creed with me to St. Paul's, and there walked along Watling Street as well as I could. Every creature coming away loaded with goods to save, and here and there sick people carried away in beds. Extraordinary good goods carried in carts and on backs. At last met my lord-mayor in Canning Street like a man spent with a handker-chair about his neck. To the king's message he cried like a fainting woman, Lord what can I do? I am spent, people will not obey me. I have been pulling down houses, but the fire overtakes us faster than we can do it. That he needed no more soldiers, and that for himself he must go and refresh himself having been up all night. So he left me, and I him, and walked home, seeing people all almost distracted, and no manner of means used to quench the fire. The houses, too, so very thick thereabouts, and full of matter for burning as pitch and tar in Thames Street, and warehouses of oil and wines and brandy and other things. Here I saw Mr. Isaac Hoblin, the handsome man, prettily dressed and dirty at his door at Dowgate, receiving some of his brother's things whose houses were on fire, and, as he says, have been removed twice already, and he doubts, as it was soon proved, that they must be removed from his house also in a little time, which was a sad consideration, and to see the churches all filling with goods by people who themselves should have been quietly there at that time. By this time it was about twelve o'clock, and so home, and there find my guests. So near the fire as we could for the smoke, and all over the Thames, with one's faces in the wind, you were almost burned with a shower of fire-drops. This is very true, so as houses were burned by these drops and flakes of fire, three or four, nay, five or six houses, one after another. When we could endure no more upon the water, we took a little ale-house on the bank side, over against the three cranes, and there stayed till it was dark almost, and saw the fire grow, and, as it grew darker, appeared more and more, and in corners and upon steeples, and between churches and houses, as far as we could see, up the hill of the city, in a most horrid malicious bloody flame, not like the fine flame of an ordinary fire. The chronicler, at this point, was forced to leave his own home, and find shelter with one Sir W. Ryder. This occupied him during the third of September. He continues on the fourth. Sir W. Penn and I, to the Tower Street, and there met the fire-burning three or four doors beyond Mr. Howells, whose goods, poor man, his trays and dishes, shovels, etc., were flung all along Tower Street in the kennels, and people working therewith from one end to the other, the fire coming on in that narrow street with incredible fury. And in the evening Sir W. Penn and I did dig another pit and put our wine in it, and I my Parmesan cheese, as well as my wine and some other things. I, after supper, walked in the dark down to Tower Street, and there saw it all on fire, at the Trinity House on that side and the Dolphin Tavern on this side, which was very near us, and the whole heaven on fire. Now begins the practice of blowing up of houses in Tower Street, those next the Tower, which at first did frighten people more than anything, but it stopped the fire where it was done, it bringing down the houses to the ground in the same places they stood, and then it was easy to quench what little fire was in it, though it kindled nothing almost. Fifth. About two in the morning my wife calls me up and tells me of new cries of fire, it being come to Barking Church, which is the bottom of our lane. I up, and finding it is so, resolved presently to take her away, and did, and took my gold which was about two thousand three hundred fifty pounds, W. Hewer and Jane down by Proudy's boat to Woolwich, but Lord what a sad sight it was by moonlight to see the whole city almost on fire, that you might see it as plain at Woolwich as if you were by it. But to the fire and there find greater hopes than I expected, for my confidence of finding our office on fire was such that I durst not ask anybody how it was with us till I come and saw that it was not burned. But going to the fire I find by the blowing up of houses and the great help given by the workmen out of the king's yards sent up by Sir W. Penn there is a good stop given to it, as well at Mark Lane End as at ours, it having only burned the dial of Barking Church and part of the porch and was there quenched. I up to the top of Barking Steeple, and there saw the saddest sight of desolation that I ever saw, everywhere great fires, oil cellars and brimstone and other things burning. I became afraid to stay there long, and therefore down again as fast as I could. The fire being spread as far as I could see it, and to Sir W. Penn's and there eat a piece of cold meat, having eaten nothing since Sunday but the remains of Sunday's dinner. Here I met with Mr. Young and Whistler, and having removed all my things and received good hopes that the fire at our end is stopped, then I walk into the town and find Fenchurch Street, Gracious Street and Lombard Street all in dust. The exchange a sad sight, nothing standing there, of all the statues or pillars but Sir Thomas Gresham's picture in the corner. Into more fields are feet ready to burn walking through the town among the hot coals, and find that full of people and poor wretches carrying their goods there and everybody keeping his goods together by themselves, and a great blessing it is to them that it is fair weather for them to keep a broad night and day. Drunk there and paid tuppence for a penny loaf. Thence Homeward, having passed through Cheepside and Newgate Market all burned, and seen Anthony Joyce's house in fire, and took up which I keep by me a piece of glass of the Mercer's Chapel in the street where much more was so melted and buckled with the heat of the fire-like parchment. I did also see a poor cat taken out of a hole in a chimney joining to the wall of the exchange with the hair all burned off the body and yet alive. Sixth, up about five o'clock, and met Mr. Goudon at the gate of the office, I intending to go out, as I used every now and then, to see how the fire is, to call our men to Bishop's Gate, where no fire had yet been near, and there is now one broke out, which did give great grounds to people, and to me too, to think that there is some kind of plot in this, on which many by this time have been taken, and it hath been dangerous for any stranger to walk in the streets. But I went with the men, and we did put it out in a little time, so that that was well again. It was pretty to see how hard the women did work in the canals, sweeping of water, but then they would scold for drink and be drunk as devils. I saw good butts of sugar broke open in the street, and people give and take hand-falls out, and put into beer and drink it. And now all being pretty well, I took boat, and over to Sotherick, and took boat on the other side of the bridge, and so to Westminster, thinking to shift myself being all in dirt from top to bottom, but could not there find any place to buy a shirt or a pair of gloves, Westminster Hall being full of people's goods, those in Westminster having removed all their goods, and the ex-checker money put into vessels to carry to none such. But to the swan and there was trimmed, and then to Whitehall, but saw nobody, and so home. A sad sight to see how the river looks, no houses nor church near it, to the temple where it stopped. At home did go with Sir W. Batten and our neighbour Knightley, who with one more was the only man of any fashion left in the neighbourhood thereabouts, they all removing their goods and leaving their houses to the mercy of the fire. Thence down to Depford, and there with great satisfaction landed all my goods at Sir G. Cartourette's safe, and nothing missed I could see or hear. But strange it is to see cloth workers haul on fire these three days and nights in one body of flame, like being the cellar full of oil. Seventh. Up by five o'clock, and blessed be God, find all well, and by water to Payne's Wharf. Walked hence, and saw all the town burned, and a miserable sight of Paul's church, with all the roofs fallen, and the body of the choir fallen into St. Faith's. Paul's school also, Ludgate and Fleet Street, my father's house, and the church, and a good part of the temple alike. This day our merchants first met at Gresham College, which by proclamation is to be their exchange. Strange to hear what is bid for houses all up and down here. A friend of Sir W. Riders having a hundred and fifty pounds for what he used to let for forty pounds per annum. Much dispute where the custom house shall be, thereby the growth of the city again to be foreseen. People all over the world do cry out of the simplicity of my Lord Mayor in general, and more particularly in this business of the fire, laying it all upon him. Much good discourse, among others of the low spirits of some rich men of the city, in sparing any encouragement to the poor people that wrought for the saving of their houses. Among others Alderman Starling, a very rich man without children, the fire at next door to him in Arlene, after our men had saved his house, did give two shillings and six pence, among thirty of them, and did quarrel with some that would remove the rubbish out of the way of the fire, saying that they had come to steal. Fifteenth. Captain Cook says he hath computed that the rents of the houses lost in this fire in the city comes to six hundred thousand pounds per annum. Seventeenth. By water, seeing the city all the way, a sad sight indeed, much fire being still in. So much for the story of the fire of London as told by so inquisitive and garrelous and eyewitness as Samuel Peeps. He could have had no idea that two-and-a-half centuries later all that he remarked as passing strange would be repeated in another continent and amongst buildings higher than the then summit of Paul's Church. And yet it is curious to note how identical in many respects are the great conflagrations of today. The general rush for safety with never a moment's consideration as to whether, after all, there may not be some advantage in the defence of the home by the individual, the starting of subsidiary fires by burning embers, the use of explosives as a means of stopping a conflagration, often only to increase the damage, the frantic appeal to the mayor to do something and the failure of that individual often to rise to the occasion, and, finally, of course, the finding of a suitable scapegoat upon whom to heap blame. It also proves the lamentable condition to which the science of fire prevention has sunk when the most important and the most wealthy city of the period not only possessed no organised plan of fire resistance but was content to let it burn for ought its inhabitants cared so long as their individual property was saved. The lesson, however, was not forgotten, and undoubtedly the modern fire department owes its renaissance from Roman times to this disaster which once and for all taught the good burgesses of London and elsewhere that fire was an enemy as crafty and as dangerous as any on land or sea. Amongst great conflagrations that of the city of Baltimore, which occurred on Sunday, February 7, 1904, and continued over the greater part of the following day, attained special prominence from the fact that in spite of the stupendous damage done to property no lives were lost. The burnt area covered one hundred forty acres and comprised eighty city blocks in the business section while no less than twenty-seven great buildings of fire-resistive construction were completely gutted and in some cases co-abs'd. It may here be stated that at no time was there any shortage of water which, of course, is one of the most general causes for the spread of a fire. At ten-forty-eight on that Sunday morning the automatic alarm registered a call from the basement of the Hearst Building, a wholesale dry-goods house with a varied stock, including a large supply of celluloid novelties. Its location was the southeast corner of Liberty and German Streets, and within forty-eight seconds of the alarm an engine company and a hook and ladder company under command of the district chief were upon the scene. At that time no fire was visible on the first floor, and neither smoke nor heat was apparent. Presumably this led to an underestimation of the seriousness of the outbreak, as the firemen promptly proceeded to attack only with a single line of chemical hose passed from the German Street side of the building into the basement. The small blaze discovered there, and probably caused by a smoldering pile of rubbish, suddenly burst into flame which with incredible rapidity ran up the elevator shaft, driving the firemen from their positions. About seven minutes later a violent explosion occurred, blowing out the windows in the building and shattering all the glass in the immediate neighborhood. It was then seen that the entire house was alight, from top to bottom, and the flames shooting out through the windows greedily licked the walls of the building's opposite, which in their turn took fire. Being Sunday a large proportion of the population were at church when the muffled boom of the explosion was heard above the solemn strains of sacred music. What it portended none could tell, but in the twinkling of an eye ministers and their congregations had left their devotions and hurried into the street. As though in answer to their worst fears another dull rumble of threatening significance was born across the morning breeze. Later this was ascertained to have been caused by the explosion of a large quantity of blasting powder, which by blowing out more windows expedited the onrush of the flames. Residents in the hilly portions of the city, gazing fearfully in the direction of the sound, could see huge volumes of fleecy smoke rising sullenly from the business quarter, and then at last the realization was brought home upon them that they were face to face with a great conflagration. Amongst the first to reach the outbreak were scores of businessmen intent upon saving their books and records, and who eagerly enlisted the services of boys, loafers, longshoremen, in fact any person willing to aid in the all-important task. The express companies likewise responded with all speed to the sudden demands made upon them, and sent emergency calls for all their employees to requisition hand carts and wagons. Meantime the outbreak had increased alarmingly, and had obviously grown beyond the control of the fire department. A district alarm had almost at once been sent in, and the departmental chief, hurrying to the scene of operations, had quickly realized that the flames, fanned by an increasing wind and spreading in two directions, would need a greater force to deal with them than he had at his disposal. Also bad luck seemed to dog their most desperate efforts. An attempt to save a valuable piece of apparatus cost precious time and was unsuccessful, while Chief Horton himself was unfortunate enough soon after his arrival to be incapacitated for duty by a severe electric shock from a fallen cable. It is impossible to estimate the moral effect of such an occurrence, for even as on a battlefield soldiers look for encouragement and stimulus to their commander, even more so do the rank and file of a firefighting force depend upon the example and propinquity of their chief. As soon as it became clear that the conflagration was assuming colossal proportions, urgent messages were sent to surrounding towns, such as Washington, Chester, York and Philadelphia, for their assistance, and ultimately even to New York, which responded to the call with promptitude. Owing to the congestion of apparatus, however, the crowds of spectators and the general confusion, many of the out-of-town engines could not be utilized to the best of advantage, while differences in hose couplings obliged numbers to obtain their own water supply direct from the harbor, thus preventing their presence where most urgent. The fire generally took a westerly direction, and the buildings in the path of the flames failed to offer any resistance, owing to their firewalls being parallel to the onset. In the town itself the conditions were lamentable. At the city hospital the sisters of mercy with smiling faces and sinking hearts endeavored to keep all news of the fire from their charges, while the staff physicians stationed themselves on the roof in order to extinguish the burning embers which rained down upon them. Finally it was deemed necessary to transport the sufferers to a place of safety in the upper town, a task carried out with the greatest tenderness and skill. Needless to add all the medical men in the town had offered their services, and though happily these were required in only a few instances the knowledge of the fact went a long way toward reassuring the timid. From five o'clock in the afternoon till midnight the fire made its greatest headway, the wind during this period having increased from fourteen miles an hour in a westerly direction to twenty-five miles, after which it veered to the northwest and remained in that quarter with decreasing velocity till the finish. The spread of the conflagration in the direct path of the wind was practically unchecked by the operations of the firefighters, by the doubtful expedient of dynamiting both burning and unburned buildings, by the streets or by the so-called fireproof buildings. Minor explosions, however, did much to hamper the efficiency of the department. One hundred fifty-two whiskey barrels, for instance, caught fire and burst, flooding the street with burning spirits and causing indirectly the destruction of three pieces of apparatus. It may be here mentioned that valuable assistance was rendered by volunteers, numbering some two hundred, who extinguished a large number of subsidiary fires started by burning brands. In quarters not in the direct path of the wind some successes were registered and served to cheer the drooping spirits of the fighters. On the west side of Liberty Street and even in the vicinity of the Hearst Building a strong force concentrated to windward succeeded in saving a large shirt factory, keeping the temperature down to a point where the automatic sprinklers were not called into play. Subsequently that system certainly proved its value. The dry goods store of O'Neill and Company, the entire interior of which was provided with that apparatus, was threatened with destruction, the roofboards being ignited owing to their tin sheathing becoming red-hot. Fifteen sprinkler heads opened and prevented that fire from spreading. Another notable instance of successful defense was that made by a third wholesale dry goods house, the Lloyd Jackson Company, situated at the southeast corner of Liberty and Lombard Streets. Owners and employees put up a stiff fight, kept the roof's wet by hose streams from their private fire-pump, and hung blankets soaked with water over the cornices. At the same time water was pumped into the sprinkler supply tank above the roof until it overflowed, when by plugging up the roof drain pipes the water was forced to run over the cornice, and thus formed a water curtain down the north front of the building. A large amount of glass was broken, but there was practically no damage to the interior. Perhaps the most dramatic scenes were enacted in the neighbourhood of the docks, where, as already stated, the out-of-town departments were able to find full scope for their services. No one lacked for employment. In the river, tugs of all sizes dashed in and out amongst the shipping, towing away to safety great vessels and their valuable cargos, whose charterers or agents had visions of their entire destruction. Rescue had come none too soon, for the docks of many had grown so hot that it was agony for the sailors to tread their scorched surfaces, while the paint on funnels and sides blistered and peeled off in flakes. A north German Lloyd cargo steamer, making its way slowly up the bay, was confronted with the spectacle of what would have awaited it had it docked a few hours earlier, and anchored hurriedly at a safe distance. One busy tug was the means of rescuing the president of the C. A. Gambrough Company, whose offices were behind the fruit-warves. Absorbed in saving his books he had not observed that his way to the street was cut off by the advancing flames until he reached the door. His only hope now lay in the docks, which were already in a precarious state, and clutching his treasures under his arms he ran at full speed along the wharf's edge, searching with anxious eyes for a boat, and even meditating the final arbitrement of the water below him. Fortunately his plight was noticed, and he was dragged on to the tug, none the worse for his adventure. And now occurred the first notable victory of men against fire in this portion of the city. Had the flames succeeded in involving Den Mead's Malt House, not all the fire departments in America could have stemmed the tidal wave of destruction which would have ensued, and it is to the credit of the fire-boat cataract that this catastrophe was averted. Aided by companies on land she fought the oncoming conflagration with grim determination until the safety of the Malt House was assured. By this time thirty-six companies, a police boat, and two tugs had concentrated all their force in the vicinity of Jones Falls, a little dirty bad-smelling stream which had never served a useful purpose, and which the municipality had proposed filling in owing to its unsanitary condition. There city stood by city, Wilmington by Chester, York by Washington, Baltimore by Philadelphia and New York, which had arrived late upon the scene but was doing yeoman service. Five firemen on the roof of one building had a narrow escape. Working like demons to save the adjoining houses they heard shouts of warning from their comrades in the street, and to their dismay saw the flames beneath them. A tall telegraph pole which fortunately rose to the height of the roof on which they stood was the only means of escape from the furnace which they could hear roaring below them. Reaching a tin gutter which afforded them some hold, they one by one clutch the pole and slid to the ground, the roof on which they had stood falling in before the last man once again had feet on solid earth. Around the lumber-yards on either side of Jones Falls steam and smoke rose in such clouds that day was turned into night, and firemen struggled along in practical darkness. At length the united efforts of all the fire departments were beginning to tell, and the final struggle for supremacy was short and decisive. A minor fire had been started by sparks in a woodyard across the falls, and for a moment it seemed as though past efforts were to be obliterated in this new development. But Baltimore and Chester faced it undismayed and human skill triumphed over its deadly enemy. From that time on it was a comparatively easy matter to confine the fire to the limits which it had already reached, and the last flames were extinguished towards the evening of that exhausting day. New York long cherished a souvenir of the event in the shape of a stray dog which adopted Engine 16 as its foster father and followed it faithfully through the streets all day. It accompanied the crew on their return and made itself perfectly at home in its new surroundings, responding to its name of Baltimore as though it had never known any other. It is estimated that the temperature of the fire was rarely much in excess of 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit, although in some spots it seems to have been approximately 2,800 degrees or more. According to various estimates the most intense heat in the fire-resistive buildings lasted from thirty to sixty minutes, varying with the amount of combustible contents exposure and other features. Cast iron radiators and typewriter frames were found in some places almost completely destroyed by oxidation but had melted in a few cases only. Wired glass melted in a number of instances. In contradistinction to ordinary fires in individual buildings, which usually spread vertically from floor to floor, this conflagration was essentially a horizontal fire as regards its attack and progress in each building. As a rule every story was ignited simultaneously through the exterior windows and the fire swept across the building and out at the opposite side. Under such conditions the protection of floor openings will avail but little if the windows are unprotected. Vaults made of brick walls built up from the ground, especially those having double walls with an airspace between, made a remarkably good showing when provided with double iron doors, the outer ones being filled with about four inches of cement for insulation against heat. Vaults made of ordinary terracotta tiles about five inches thick and carried on the floors and structural frame, failed in a number of cases owing to the fact that the tile was fragile and was cracked or broken by the heat. About twenty-five percent of the contents of the tile vaults was destroyed. Some of these tiled vaults also had double doors, each made of a single thickness of sheet steel with no insulation against heat. In a number of cases the inner door was left open and the heat which radiated through the outer one destroyed the contents. Portable safes fared badly, approximately sixty-five percent of their contents having been destroyed. This was true of all makes of such safes, whether insulated with cushions of concrete or not. It is a curious fact that the low bank buildings on account apparently of their small height, and in some cases sheltered position, usually escaped the maximum heat of the general conflagration and did not receive an extreme fire test. As a rule they were partially wrecked by the falling walls of higher buildings. A group of high office buildings of steel and terracotta tile construction were typical of what may be expected from structures of this type. And it is interesting to note that the damage was generally greatest in the stories above the first. Notwithstanding the fact that practically no water was used by the fire department in any of these buildings, the basements, and in some cases the first stories, were to all intents and purposes untouched, although the floors above were completely burnt out. Even the wooden nailing strips which were embedded in cinder concrete below the top flooring were entirely destroyed. It was also specially noticeable that although the conflagration attacked the fire-resistive buildings with great severity, the largest damage to the interiors was due to the fires in the buildings themselves. The damage was appreciably greatest where there had been a considerable amount of combustible material in storage. Even the severest injury to the exterior finish of the walls occurred over the windows on the leeward side when the fire came from within. Such was the great fire of Baltimore, the effects of which staggered the insurance companies of two continents, and sent not a few into liquidation. But as is often the case in such events, it brought in its train fresh channels of thought about fire control, while the energy and enterprise of its citizens has quickly obliterated all signs of the lamentable occurrence. Without going too deeply into problems which are dealt with in general elsewhere, there is one point which must make appeal to even the various Tyro on fires and their fighting—namely, that Ovid, when he penned the lines, beginning's check, too late his physics sought, was giving the world in epitomized form the very key to the mastery of success against flames. End of Section 10, Recording by Maria Casper. Section 11 of Fires and Firefighters by John Kenlon. This LibriVox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 10, Great Fires and How They Were Fought, Part 1b The writer must plead the indulgence of his readers if, in describing the great fire which destroyed the equitable building in New York, the narrative is related in the first person, owing to the fact that he was so intimately associated with the events of that memorable occasion, to deal with it otherwise would be impossible having due regard for the interests involved. At 5.55 on the morning of January 9, 1912, the gong in my quarters struck 2-2-24, which indicated a second alarm from Station 24 at the corner of Nassau and Pine Streets. Two minutes sufficed for me to cover the distance of about one-and-a-half miles between my quarters and the scene of the outbreak, which proved to be in the equitable life-assurance building. This was an oldish structure, eight stories in height and occupying the whole block, bounded on the north by Cedar Street, on the south by Pine Street, on the east by Nassau Street, and on the west by Broadway. The three first-mentioned thoroughfares were extremely narrow and contained buildings of considerable height, though some of them were of antique construction and doubtful fire-resistance. On entering from Pine Street I ascended the main stairway to the fourth floor, whence looking up I could see that a considerable area of the stories above was involved. I immediately directed my first aid, Lieutenant Rankin, to send out a third alarm, and then proceeded to the fifth floor, where I met Acting Deputy Chief Devaney, the officer in command previous to my arrival. Subordinate to him and directing the companies were Battalion Chiefs W. J. Walsh and George Cuss. One glance at the situation sufficed to impress me with the great battle ahead, and at once I ordered a fourth alarm with a special call for Water Tower Number Two. Water Tower Number One, which had responded on the first alarm, was already raised on the Pine Street side of the building. I returned to the street with a full grasp of the conditions to be met. A sixty-mile gale was blowing with the thermometer near zero. The direction of the wind was west-south-west, and I foresaw that it would drive the fire towards Nassau Street, where several old buildings such as the Mutual Life and the Fourth National Bank laid directly in its path. At this point Nassau Street is only forty-seven feet wide, and should the flames have swept the buildings to the east under existing weather conditions, an uncontrollable conflagration would have resulted. To protect this point, therefore, was the first maneuver and the reason for acquiring an additional Water Tower. The second alarm assignment reported to me on my return to Pine Street and Broadway, and Acting Chief Kelly of the Third Battalion was immediately ordered to take command in Nassau Street. Engine companies were assigned to him and ordered to take their lines to the roof of the Fourth National Bank, to drive the fire back when it broke through the eastern wall of the building, as was plainly evident would soon occur. Captain Henry, supervising engineer, was directed to meet Water Tower Number Two on its arrival, and have it placed in Nassau Street directly in line with the centre of the Equitable, connecting it with the high-pressure hydrants in Maiden Lane, and to order the high-pressure pumps started at a pressure of two hundred pounds. This was done to reinforce the lines on the roof of the Fourth National Bank. It may seem to the layman that the transmitting of the alarms, the assignment of companies, and the hundreds of orders consequent thereon, would take an appreciable length of time. Yet from the moment the gong struck in my room until all the arrangements had been perfected, exactly six minutes had elapsed. The actual plan of battle was evolved in less than 30 seconds after my arrival, and from that plan I never deviated. Knowing the construction of the building, with its four entrances and corridors leading therefrom to a great central staircase, it seemed doubtful from the first whether the blaze could be conquered, but the motto of the department under my command has ever been fight to a finish, and hence we endeavored to outflank the fire by working from the staircase to Windward, that is toward Broadway on the Cedar Street side of the building. Similar tactics were employed towards Nassau Street to confine the fire to the Pine Street side, between the streams directed by the twelve companies in the interior, and the heavy volume of water from the lines placed on the upper floors of the buildings on the south of Pine Street. Such was the first line of attack, and a second line was at once provided by the companies in Nassau Street and the tower stationed there. It is my deliberate opinion that the interior dispositions of the forces at my disposal would certainly have been sufficient and have succeeded in quelling the fire, while the regrettable loss of life which followed would have been avoided. Had it not been for the criminal weakness of the iron columns supporting so heavy a roof as that which surmounted the equitable building, the report of the New York Board of Underwriters on the subject is as follows. The columns appear to have been very defective, due to the shifting of the core during casting, making one side of the column very much thinner than the other. Their condition indicates beyond much doubt that the initial collapse in each case was due to the failure of one or more cast iron columns. Thoroughly mindful of this circumstance, I ordered every person but the fireman from the premises. At the moment there were hundreds of cleaners and other people within its walls, absolutely ignorant of any danger, as indeed to the ordinary observer there were no untoward signs, and only trained experts could detect the presence of peril. It is a matter of considerable difficulty to persuade persons who fancy they have business to leave their occupations and vacate their offices under such circumstances, and some time elapsed before the police reported to me that all but the firemen had been ejected. Alas, there were several who never obeyed the summons, as consequent events were only too clearly to show. The fight now continued with increased persistence. I inspected Nassau and Cedar streets, which being to leeward gave me some anxiety. Returning to the Pine Street corner of Broadway, I watched for a few moments the battle which was being brilliantly fought. Never did men struggle harder or with greater intelligence. Every order was promptly executed, but notwithstanding the stubborn attack from both within and without, I could see that the fire was slowly gaining. Until now my reports from inside had been favourable, but judging from external conditions I had grave doubts as to whether the officer in charge of those forces had correctly gauged the situation. It was this which determined me to make another inspection in order to satisfy myself. Accompanied by Lieutenant Rankin and firemen Henry and Blessing, I proceeded to the fourth, fifth, and sixth floors. Chief Walsh was in command on the fourth floor, and Chiefs Cuss and Devaney on those above. Chief Walsh was confident that he could drive the fire back and confine it to the Pine Street side. It must be emphasised that the conditions were good, very little smoke to weaken the men being observable, as it was driven eastward by the fierceness of the gale. Followed by my aides, I returned to Pine Street, where I found that the granite trimmings on the dormer windows of the upper floors were beginning to fly. This told me at once of the intense heat which must be surrounding the unprotected iron columns of which mention has been made, and in consequence I ordered all companies to back down and out of the building. A most critical stage of the fire had now been reached. I knew well that within a few minutes of the companies inside the building shutting off their streams the fire would gain complete mastery. Hence the problem was to get the men out and into position with the second line of attack which had now become defensive. It is an axiom of warfare that an advance is easier to conduct than a retreat. With such a furious and destructive enemy as fire the task is even more hazardous. Thus it was obvious that the companies on the upper floors should go first, while their comrades on the lower floors in less exposed positions held the flames in check and covered them with their streams. As soon as the latter were shut off the fire burst through with increased fury, but was met and checked by the lines in the surrounding buildings reinforced by the Nassau Street water tower. As a further precaution the Pine Street tower was removed to the corner of the former street, ready to unfilade the fire and throw a complete water curtain across Nassau Street in front of the Fourth National Bank, should such a maneuver become necessary. The time was now six twenty-eight a.m., and I turned in a fifth alarm and ordered an additional twenty-five pounds on the high pressure system. I had now twenty-three engine companies, six hook and ladder companies, two water towers, and a force of two hundred seventy-five officers and men. Lieutenant Rankin was dispatched with the second order that the men in the equitable should back down and get out with all speed, bringing their lines to the Nassau and Cedar Street side, which was the quarter by far the most dangerously exposed. All companies had now reached the main entrance except Engine Company Four and a few men from Hook and Ladder One, who under the direction of battalion chief Walsh were fighting obstinately and receding inch by inch. For the third time I sent an order, adding that it was imperative that he and his men should abandon their position which had become untenable and leave their line. Walsh received the message, but his sense of security, coupled with a desire to have one last bout with his foe, caused the delay which brought him death. A portion of the roof on the south side collapsed, forcing out part of the wall of the inner court and burying the steps down which the last men were hurrying. Before this catastrophe had occurred, the companies who had responded on the fifth alarm had been assigned positions in the buildings on the east and north, where they connected to the standpipes and threw powerful streams into the upper floors of the burning structure. Their efforts were successful and at this point the flames were held in check. Captain Farley of Hook and Ladder Eight now reported to me that he and his men had removed Captain Bass and some members of Engine Company Four and Hook and Ladder One from the collapsed part of the building. I then ordered a roll call and discovered that battalion chief Walsh was missing. A search party was instituted to rescue him but failed in the attempt. I learned that as chief Walsh was about to descend the stairs to the third floor, the unmistakable rumble of falling walls warned him of his danger. Had he remained where he was he would have been unscathed, but he sprang over the rail and dashed towards a door on the left leading to Nassau Street. Could he have reached it he would have cheated fate, as did two of his comrades, but he was buried in the wreckage within two feet of safety. Never have I known a man more enthusiastically devoted to his calling. It was the breath of his existence. Brave as a lion and loving a fight for its own sake, he constantly studied to increase his technical skill. It was my knowledge of the man, of his bulldog grit and determination to conquer or die, that had caused me to be so insistent in my commands to him to leave his post of danger. His heroic spirit was shown in his last action. Aware of the peril he called to Captain Bass of Engine Company 4, go at once, save yourself and your men, and he remained to add one more name to the role of those who have died nobly in harness. It was now that the full force of the millions of gallons of water began to tell. The water tower in Nassau Street was sending forth a heavy stream through the two-inch mast nozzle at a pressure of 120 pounds to the square inch, supplied by the high pressure main in Maiden Lane. This was directed against the flames roaring through the Lawyer's Club on the fourth floor, while from the roof of the bank across Nassau Street, acting Battalion Chief Kelly was performing admirable service. On the south Battalion Chief Rush had availed himself of the standpipes in the buildings, and was using our steamers in conjunction with the house pumps, thus being able to obtain a considerable pressure. The same plan was carried into effect in Cedar Street, and every exposed point was covered on all sides. I was congratulating myself that we were masters of the situation when the fury of the gale increased. Gusts of wind attaining a velocity of seventy miles an hour swept across the open space formed by Trinity Graveyard at the southwest side of Broadway, and the mercury fell steadily and remorselessly. So intense became the cold that dripping walls turned to ice, and the streets were frozen lakes, while enormous volumes of water were turned to spray by the wind a few feet from the nozzle. Men were repeatedly thrown down in their efforts to cross the path of this hurricane, and I myself was taken from my feet, not once but twenty times, and dashed against the wall of the building where I stood. The equitable now resembled a volcano in eruption. Great masses of granite from its walls were being tossed high in the air like thistle down, and exploding a hundred feet above our heads from the intense heat, their fragments falling in meteoric showers about us. A great section of the outer wall burst near the corner of Pine Street in Broadway, and a piece of stone weighing several tons fell near Mr. Robert Maneser, with whom I had been speaking, missing him by only a few inches. I then closed that side of Pine Street, even forbidding firemen to pass along it. The intense cold seemed to give the flames a peculiar glow, while the high wind spread them fan-wise, flickering and beckoning over the ice-bound streets. There comes a time in a fire of this description which marks the beginning of the end. If outside exposures are properly protected, there can be no possibility of any increase in the conflagration, and it will be confined to the smallest possible space. Then one of two things will occur. Either the contents of the building will burn out, leaving no food for the flames, or it will fall. Should this latter contingency seem imminent, men must be kept at a safe distance from the walls, and judgment must be used to determine what is the limit of danger. Sometimes a wall will fall outwards at full length as though on hinges, covering the width of a street. Then again it will collapse, break in the middle, and fall in a heap, like a house of cards. Needless to say, the first of these two conditions is the most dangerous in all respects, and must be guarded against at any hazard. In the event of a simple collapse, the fire has then passed the crisis, and as soon as this occurs men can immediately be advanced to close range without special danger. The roof and floors of the equitable building were heavy, and the intensity of the heat was so great that I feared it would expand and force the outer walls. Under such weather conditions as existed, and in the narrow streets, this would have been a serious matter, and every nerve was strained to the utmost to drive the fire back and to hold it in, in the center of the building. This attempt was crowned with success, due not only to the powerful apparatus at my disposal, but to the intelligent, and in many cases brilliant, operations of both officers and men. A fire chief can never tell what may happen from one minute to the next, and fires bring many surprises in their train, which call for quick action of mind and body on the part of the officer in command. This day was to prove no exception to the rule. Just as I felt that the fight was won, and was expecting an inward collapse of the floors on the Broadway side of the building, word was brought that three men were on the roof overlooking that street and calling piteously for help. After all my efforts to clear the building, it seemed impossible that anyone could have remained within its precincts, and yet these poor cleaners and porters had defied a command and had pitted their judgment against scientific knowledge with the result that they had been driven up to the roof, where we could see them standing. To reach them on that spot over one hundred feet from the ground, when the possibility of a collapse had become imminent, was a task to test the nerves of the strongest and the bravest of men. That any attempt at rescue was fraught with great danger to all concerned, I had not the slightest doubt, but it is the duty of men on such occasions to brave death and even to defy it. All chances were against them. Momentarily I was expecting an avalanche of bricks, stone, and burning embers. The fierce gale swept strong men from their feet, and the spray from the nozzles froze on their faces till they could scarcely see. In spite of these conditions the men responded to my call without hesitation. A hook and ladder-truck was swung in on the northwest corner of Cedar Street, and in less than one minute the extension ladder had been raised. As I stood at its foot I did not have a chance to ask for volunteers or to order any men to this terrible duty. On the instant Lieutenant Rankin, Fireman, Malloy, and Blessing sprang on to the rungs, taking scaling ladders with them. In the meantime I could see that it would be a most difficult undertaking to scale the equitable building on account of the projecting cornice, and I therefore ordered Acting Chief Kelly and the officers and men of Hook and Ladder One to proceed to the ninth floor of the building on the north side of Cedar Street with the gun, roof-rope, and lifeline. If the line could be shot true against such a gale it might serve two purposes, for it would be ready for use by the men ascending the ladder, or if this attempt failed the captives could make the line fast to some projection and slide down to possible safety. The shot was aimed and the line fell true. We could see the men in the act of hauling it across the space. When the expected happened the great collapse came. With a cry of agony and despair the unfortunate sprang out into the air, and as they plunged downward there came with them the roof and the upper floors. From my position I at first thought the bodies were those of the brave fellows who had so nobly gone to the rescue, and though they struck the street a few feet from where I stood, and though fire, smoke, and debris were on all sides, for an instant I felt indifferent to my own fate. Then I realized that other lives and vast treasures were at stake, and that at this moment my life was of value to the city. Turning around I walked slowly to the center of Broadway, and from this point I could see that the men who had ascended the ladder were alive, blessing was on the ladder, Rankin had one foot on the ledge, and Malloy was standing on the highest ledge of the broken and badly bulging wall. Their efforts had been in vain, but heroism could have been put to no greater test. My relief was great when I saw them descend unhurt, and now horror succeeded horror with incredible rapidity. Scarcely had the unfortunate creatures who had jumped from the roof been removed from the street when Fire Commissioner Johnson told me that he had been informed that there were men imprisoned in the vaults on the Broadway side. The windows of these vaults were protected by bars of iron, two inches in thickness, and were inset at such close intervals that no human body could possibly pass between them. I soon found that this information was correct. For there caught in a fiery prison were three men, two living pinned down by broken floor joists, and one dead killed by a falling beam. With a raging fire behind them, a raging fire over them, heavy iron bars in front, and broken and tottering walls on every side, their predicament was a terrible one. Save them, save them, was the cry from men who stood at a distance. But this seemed to be impossible. I directed two companies with sledges and other heavy tools to try and wrench out the bars. In addition, though scarcely to be mentioned in comparison with these precious lives, there were a billion dollars' worth of security in the vaults, and the fire threatened both with speedy destruction. Fully realizing the gravity of the conditions and wishing to obtain a better view of the situation, I took the elevator to the eighteenth floor of the Trinity Building, directly across Broadway. When I reached the front window overlooking the equitable, an awe-inspiring scene met my gaze. Beneath me lay a seething, boiling cauldron. The very earth seemed to vomit forth flames and send up from its depths mammoth tongues of fire. Parts of chairs, desks, and boards were being hurled like pebbles five hundred feet into the air. Only the pen of Dante or the brush of Verrith Shogun could do it justice. But the question for me to decide was whether the Broadway front would hold, or whether it would collapse, burying the entombed men and the companies trying to affect their rescue. After a careful survey I determined that the walls would stand, but to ensure this I ordered that a strong stream of water from the Trinity Building be employed to reduce the expansion by forcing the fire back at this point. About this time I resolved to transmit the burrow call, feeling that additional aid was necessary properly to protect the vaults and the men imprisoned therein. It was also advisable to have a greater number of powerful streams on the leeward side of the fire, although up to this time I had been able to hold it in check. Now the time seemed to have arrived for an advance, and this my lines were unable to accomplish. All these conditions made the burrow call a necessity, and the alarm 7-7-24-3339 was transmitted. Translated into plain English this meant that the companies assigned to respond on the third alarm to Box 39, Burrow of Brooklyn, would proceed to Box 24, Burrow of Manhattan. The Brooklyn companies arrived promptly, in charge of Deputy Chief Lally, and were assigned to positions with the exception of the water tower which was not needed and was sent back to quarters. Two engines were connected to the Siamese inlet on the front of the Trinity Building, and two-and-a-half inch lines of hose attached to the standpipe outlets on the seventh, ninth, ninth, and tenth floors. These were all stretched to the eighth floor and connected in pairs by means of two-and-a-half to three-inch Siamese, then a length of three-inch hose was connected to each of these, and in turn to a three-inch Siamese. Leading from this was a length of three-inch hose having a one-and-three-eighths inch nozzle. This provided a pressure of a hundred and thirty pounds at the nozzle, with two hundred and sixty pounds on each engine, and had less friction than if any other method had been employed. Now began the battle for life and treasure. Hacksaws were procured, and for almost an hour, Engineer Lark, assisted by Rankin, Henry, and others, sawed at the bars, while great masses of stone fell from the upper stories around the workers. One great fragment rebounded and struck Lark in the back, almost paralyzing him. Rankin now took the hacksaw and cut through the remaining bars, so that ropes could be attached, and the opening sufficiently enlarged to admit the passage of a body. One of the men was taken out, suffering from smoke, exposure, and shock. But the other cried, For God's sake, don't leave me, my arm is fast. Upon examination it was found that his arm was pinned across the back of the dead man by two iron beams, and for fifteen minutes Henry and his comrades, using crowbars, pried and polled, assisted by the man himself, before his release was affected. When free he collapsed, and was taken across Broadway, where he joined his companion under the care of Dr. H. M. Archer, who gave them every attention that humanity and science could suggest. By this time the fire was well under control on the north and east, and all danger of its crossing cedar and Nassau streets had passed. I now called a boat tender, and stretched three and a half inch hose from the high pressure hydrants to the Broadway front of the building. Three inch lines were also taken from the water tower into the cedar street buildings opposite the vaults, and company lines were siamized in order that heavier streams could be forced against the gale which still increased. This method was in operation on the roof of the clearing-house, where it was most effective. A peculiar phenomenon of this fire was that it worked steadily to windward against the furious gale. It seemed as though determined to destroy the enormous wealth contained in the vaults. All our forces were now concentrated to prevent such a catastrophe, and also to prevent the cremation of the lifeless companion of the two men we had rescued. Owing to the magnitude of our attack the securities were untouched and unharmed. The walls which were badly cracked and out of plum remained standing, and the corpse was not incinerated. Cautiously we now closed in, and the fight was over. There is one incident which I must mention, as it serves to show the hold sport maintains upon its votaries, even in moments of the greatest strain. Mr. August Belmont came to me and asked permission to go through his offices, which, facing the east, had to a large extent escaped the great damage experienced elsewhere. I personally went with him through the ruins of his once beautiful suite of business premises, now sadly spoiled by water and fire. He then explained to me that his chief fear was less harm should have come to the records and pedigrees of his horses, which of course are famous not only in America but wherever racing is popular. I am happy to say that he found them intact, and with a smile he tucked them under his arm and bade me a cheery good day. Another fact which I take pride in recalling was that of the gallantry shown by Father Joseph P. Dineen, who at the risk of his life conveyed the sacrament to one of the men afterwards rescued from the vault, this at a moment when all the onlookers feared the worst and no man would have been considered a coward for hesitating. Some idea of the magnitude of the operations can be gleaned from the following statistics. Eighty-five officers and about five hundred men operated thirty-one steam engines, ten hook and ladder trucks, two water towers, and superintended the high pressure service, while the water used in the attack amounted approximately to twelve million gallons. During the progress of the fire, all business in Wall Street was suspended, and anxiety reigned in two continents as to the fate of the billion dollars worth of securities in the strong rooms. It speaks volumes for the skill of the firefighters that not one dollar's worth of damage was done in that direction, and that when recovered the papers were not even discolored. The outstanding features of this remarkable fire were the tremendous value of the property at stake, the extraordinary climatic conditions, and the possibility of the spread of the flames which would have caused a disaster unparalleled in the annals of history so stupendous would have been the financial loss. In addition to this, the construction of the building concerned was something of a revelation to all thinking persons, for the weakness of the columns supporting the roof was so glaringly apparent, even to the lay mind, that those responsible for its erection must have been either hopelessly incompetent or criminally careless. Further, owing to the age of the structure and the idiosyncrasies of some of its tenants, it was a literal rabbit-warren of private staircases ending in cul-de-sacs and narrow passages leading nowhere in particular. The only marvel, in fact, appears to have been that the loss of life was not greater, for it was only too easy for the firemen operating to lose their way in the intricacy of its mazes. I must not fail to complement the police department on its excellent work in the keeping of the fire-lines, this work being exceedingly difficult owing to the extreme exposure and extraordinary weather conditions prevailing. It is pleasant to record that financiers and others of wealth and prominence with offices adjacent sufficiently recognized the self-sacrificing devotion of the department in subscribing the sum of one hundred eighty-five thousand dollars, the interest of which was to be used in perpetuity for the benefit of widows and orphans of firemen and policemen killed in the discharge of their duty.