 Welcome once again to NPTEL, the National Program on Technology Enhanced Learning, being brought to you by the Indian Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institute of Science. We are in the second module of a series of lectures in the course entitled English Language and Literature. This module for those of you who have been following these in a chronological manner, you are aware that this module is exclusively on the history of English language of the English language. We have already discussed the general features or the overview in the first lecture which was a title introduction to the history of the English language and we have been through old English and middle English. Today, the lecture is on early modern English, which is lecture 4 in the second module and before we move on to the topic proper. Let us as usual take a brief look on what we did in the last lecture, what we talked about in the last lecture by way of a recap. Now, I cannot read with this enough that these lectures in our course are may not be English over 101 in the sense that they are topics are quite vast, but these are lectures are I would say elementary in their level and by more like an introduction to each of these lectures is an introduction to the topic declared in each of these and for those of you who are not in engineering colleges or the students of which are the target audience for these lectures may want to view these lectures, learn from these or in simply by way of recapitulating what you had learnt in your say BA English major etcetera. These are by these lectures are by no means high level ones. So, I would like the audience to appreciate the level in which we are talking it may be an elementary level, but these are always at least to my experience as a student and teacher always relevant and things that we need to visit time and again. So, we found in our last lecture on middle English that the middle English period was one of great change and we had taken recourse to books like A. C. Bosch's History of the English language and several other texts which as I said have mentioned also in some other lectures. These lectures are these books are class are regarded classics they are books that one can go back always to know about the established at least the established features of English at any given time in the past. So, in one of these books we find that the middle English period was a period of great change and we know that the Norman conquest you must realize is that the lectures that we many of the lectures that we give here and it ideally it should be so are always related to political may be upheavals or general political changes or changes of power from one hand to the to another social factors, technological factors I said the industrial revolution about which we will be talking a lot in the next lecture on modern English. So, here too we find that the Norman conquest and the conditions that followed were responsible for a period of great change and yet we also find continuations of tendencies that began to manifest themselves in old English. See the division of periods or epochs not exactly epoch eras ages in history and as you will know does not imply you know water tied boundaries does not imply that one age moves into the next and that there are no remnants from the previous age or there or that there are no glimmerings of what is to come. In the same way though we had major changes following the coming of the Norman French the conquest by the Norman French about which we talked at great length in the last lecture there were also in the middle ages sorry in middle English the continuation of certain tendencies following the coming in of Anglo-Saxons and the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon language. Now, next we also found importantly that the last phase that is middle English marked the decay of inflectional endings. The grammar as mentioned here in one of the texts the grammar of the English language was reduced from a highly inflected language to an analytical one. Now, the endings of this nouns adjectives and to some extent verbs were altered in pronunciation in a way that loss almost lost their distinctive form. Now, we also found that borrowing from the vocabulary of the French the sheer importance given to French culture the need of the people to cultivate French culture not just its manners or mannerisms or fashions etcetera is also what was important also was in the middle ages sorry again I am so sorry in middle English was the borrowing of words from French. For instance we found that they were governmental and administrative words by government itself governor administrator then crowned princes things indicating class for instance servant like peasant slave noble etcetera also very important were ecclesiastical words ecclesiastical words like religion theology sermon mystery devotion miracle hermit these are some of the words we find which came in and became part and parcel of the English language following the Norman conquest in the time of what we call now called middle English. Then law and the army and navy these were also there were also the sort of inclusion of words from these domains for instance a decree from law decree proof bail then punishment prison right these are some of the words that have come in justice itself the word justice the word crime itself fine then the army and navy the word army navy peace lieutenant or lieutenant enemy that sergeant chieftain havoc etcetera these were the words that came an enriched the English language for also from fashion fashion and meals and social life cultural life in general these are some of the words which I have taken from various sources these include fashion dress habit gown coat and for food beef mutton sausage gravy biscuit cream sugar etcetera. So, these the words which we think you know which to us are English words it is to be remembered our words that have come from various languages and particularly when we talk about middle English the Norman conquest was as said a landmark right was a landmark event in or series of events in during that time which had enormous repercussions for further growth and change of the English language. Then not the least in art learning and medicine also we find words like chronicles the very word paper pen copy then melody right plague remedy from the from the domain of medicine and you know the medical sciences poison arsenic and these are some of the words that have come in. Then we also found very important point is the rise of standard English and let me quickly again read this is available in the last lecture, but let us just quickly go through it again by the end of the 14th century a language emerged in the written form that varied with the local dialects. This was recognized as the standard language both in English and writing and was called London English is very important the rise for the first time really even though there may have been you know sporadic you know emergence of a dialect that was going to become more or less a standardized or standard dialect it is in this time that we find the rise of standard English. So, by the end of the 14th century which was known as London English or it was the dialect of East Midland that was a clear indication of the emergence of a standard or standardized English which is London or East Midland dialect. And also this region was also a vastly populated one it was also a large one and in terms of trade etcetera or in terms of general prosperity this region was also sort of this was this region was the sort of hub and perhaps for that reason as many scholars would insist this East Midland dialect or the London English became the standardized English or standard English. Now, we also found that the found that you know that much has been said about the importance of London English. And let me then read again from Bob by far the most influential factor in the rise of standard English was the importance of London as the capital of England London English took as well as gave it began as a southern and ended as a Midland dialect and the London standard had been accepted in most parts of the country in writing in the latter part of the 15th century. So, this is finally how it came to be established by the 15th century. Now, we come to early modern English and we do not really speak of just a modern English. We usually divide the history of the English language at this time into two distinct categories these are early modern English and modern English or late modern English. Modern English late modern English is usually referred to as modern English which is the topic of our of discussion in our next lecture. So, again you may look at several texts, but for our purposes boss again a history of the English language and in Rani Ghosh history of the English language a critical companion these are some of the books that I have consulted for this lecture and also in a minor way some other books. So, in general let us say modern English what I said in the last just a couple of minutes seconds ago the in general if you say modern English you will start from say 15th from the 16th century that is 1500 and in particular the Renaissance which is 1500 to 1650 is a time that is enormously important for us as far as this early modern English is concerned. Now, scholars list the changing conditions in the modern period and let us look at this slowly and carefully. Now, again according to Bohr there are particular events in the development of languages which have often been have recognizable effects like the Norman conquest and the black death or the or the bubonic plague. Now, the new factors which are there in the development of modern English were four the general the macro ones were four there were several others, but for our purposes it is enough for us to know that there were four very important socio economic conditions under which modern English developed particularly the early modern English. So, these are the coming of the printing press the bring in of the printing press by William Caxton in England and also second the rapid spread as it were of popular education in England then also the increased means of social communication. Then finally, the growth of social consciousness with a the rapid growth of reading following the printing press and thereafter the rapid growth of social communication. Do you understand? So, what are the first four points that we have this is the coming in of the printing press number two is the rapid spread of so of popular education then increase communication and increase social communication and the growth of social consciousness. Now, let us take an example a very brief extract from AC Bos book and then we have an idea of where what things were conditions were at that time. Now, from AC Bos history of the English language the majority of these it is true were in Latin whereas, it is in the modern languages that the effect of the printing press was chiefly to be felt. But in England over 20,000 titles in English had appeared by 1640 the result was to bring books which had formally been look at this the expensive luxury of the few things no longer stopped at this books were no longer the things of luxury that were available only to the rich or only to the poor only in you know manuscript form in in abbeys or churches or you know in other libraries. As Bos says the result was to bring books which had formally been the expensive luxury of the few within the reach of all. We were talking about in the in the previous slide which relates to the rapid spread of popular education with the coming in of the printing press. Then it was possible to reproduce a book in a thousand copies or even a hundred thousand everyone exactly like the other and he says he comments here a powerful force does existed for promoting a standard uniform language. You see how when you talking about this we can talk about this over and over again how the impact how technology has an impact ultimately on social consciousness right. We had the coming in of the printing press in England we had the availability as he says here may be thousand or may be even a hundred thousand copies of books which were you know available or accessible to a very you know to a very small part of the population. Once you had a hundred thousand or more copies of one text what happened was many people it is not even now it is at this time it is not that everyone has a copy of the book. But may be through lending growth of lending libraries or even through personal contact you were able by this time to be able to read books which were not accessible to you. So, therefore, we had the growth of popular education also reading possessing books must have also become a matter of a matter of pride to be able to have you know a collection of books. So, as he says a powerful force he called Bob calls it a powerful force the printing press was a powerful force a powerful force does existed and along with this of course also was a standard uniform language. Now, why is it important because you had whatever the printing press was providing to you was English of a certain kind of a certain standard of a certain dialect. Now, when he had more people who are reading these books with the spread of popular education or even of you know the enlarging of the of the growing sorry the growth of the the growth of the reading public. What happened was it led to them also speaking a certain standard or a certain dialect if you will of a variety of English. So, this again led to what we found was a very important point in the first point in our lecture here was that the rise of a standard English that which was of the of the which was the the the middle and dialect east middle and dialect or what we call the the London what we call London English. So, there was then the rapid spread of popular education literacy was becoming common in Shakespeare's London almost more than half of the people could read in the 17th and 18th century there was an increase in the number of schools and the tradesmen class arose who for whom obtaining an education also was immensely important. So, what we have by now we have found that compared definitely compared to the middle ages. Not to talk about middle English not to talk about old English by the compared to old and middle English English is what happened was and during this time there was literacy was something that was common and to and was increasingly being expected of people. And many could many many people could read by the time of Shakespeare's England by the 16th 17th centuries and it says in the in the 17th and 18th centuries there was an increase also in the number of schools and you had the rise of the mercantile class the rise of the tradesmen class for whom being literate was very important for whom even an getting an education was very important. So, there are radical you know the radical forces in matters of vocabulary and in matters of and conservative forces in matters of grammar. So, at during this stage when we talk about when we talk about grammar and vocabulary there are two tendencies that we see with regard to vocabulary it appears now that the forces of change were radical while as far as grammar is concerned was concerned the the forces were conservative ones right. Though in the middle ages middle English period changes in grammar were considered revolutionary whereas changes in vocabulary were not it was seen that seemed as if it was quite the opposite when we come down to this age. Then we also had what we call was the what Bohr calls the problem of the vernaculars the three great problems faced by modern languages in the 16th century were these a recognition in the fields where Latin had for centuries being supreme the establishment of a more uniform orthography and the enrichment of the vocabulary so that it would be adequate to meet the demands that would be made upon it in its wider use. So, this was the time when compared to Latin there were other languages do you understand there the there were languages that generally speaking in Europe their languages that that were coming up for recognition otherwise in which the classical languages had held sway. As Bohr says in you know in in his book beside the classical languages which seemingly had attained perfection the vulgar term seemed immature unpolished and limited in resource right there was still there was this attraction towards towards ancient learning towards Latin and Greek and therefore we also find that vernaculars languages like English were in a struggle so to speak for recognition right you have all heard of the revival of learning which we call the renaissance it was a revival of interest great interest not only in the languages but also in the cultures also in the art also in on the philosophy great interest in the philosophy of ancient Greece and Rome. So, Greek and Latin were languages just just like in you know in in in the middle English period it was sort of it was considered to be to be a matter of pride you know to know French right to know French manners to be well versed in in the French language in French art cuisine etcetera right. So, also we will find by the renaissance a knowledge or at least an interest in things classical was was something that was considered desirable if one were to make one's mark among scholars among poets even among scientists the a knowledge of the classics was considered very very desirable. So, therefore there was the renewed interest in Latin and Greek and as boss says besides these you know so called polished ancient languages languages with great history behind them which languages that seemed to have attained almost you know a stage of perfection other languages the what we call the vulgar terms vulgar sorry vulgar tongues sorry tongues seemed rather immature and unpolished and and limited in their resources. This is what again again boss says how then do we account for English right and I am bringing in this passage here from war and let us see how he explains this. Please look at this slide boss says the real force behind the use of English let us underline this was a popular demand the demand of all. So, look at this is very important all sorts of men in practical life look at this words popular practical all sorts of men. Let us read this again the real force behind the use of English was a popular demand the demand of all sorts of men in practical life to share in the fruits of the renaissance. The revival of learning had revealed how rich was the store of knowledge and experience preserved from the civilizations of Greece and Rome. The ancients had not only lived but had thought about life and drawn practical conclusions from experience much was to be learned from their discussion of conduct and ethics their ideas of government and the state their political precepts their theories of education their knowledge of military science and the like. So, it was considered that if you knew if you knew the English language right you could have access to the great ideas of you know of the of the ancients through of of Latin and Greek especially through translations. So, the revival of learning as boss says had revealed how rich was the store of knowledge and experience preserved from the civilizations of Greek and Rome. So, you see they were Anglo-Saxon English and then you had the French the Norman French conquest right where there there was this historic tussle between the French language and the English language. Here we had a language that had begun to you know that had begun to sort of have its first almost official standardized version in London English. Thanks to the rise again of London as the centre of England and on the other hand you also had a sort of you say you know I would not use the word pressure but also there is also this great temptation to go into things that were classical and to learn classical the classical languages you understand. So, you would find the English language time in again sort of you know the the Anglo-Saxon English English sort of always facing you know these forces of other languages from other places. We then they the question arises of enrichment. Now, when when we allow this may this question may arise with arise anywhere with any language for instance is it a matter of enrichment when we allow I should not use the word allow really when when when we take words or we have foreign loan words we take words from other languages and they become part of us. So, we scholars call this a problem of enrichment and the problem is of one of enlarging the vocabulary. So, what might happen is if you borrow too much from Latin and Greek or from French or you know if you if your neologisms or new words are etymologically heavily leaning on these languages then the Anglo-Saxon or the the English that you are talking about may be viewed by people as by some as inadequate especially as compared to classical languages. You are coining new words based on antiquity you already have words from another another country which had come and and conquered you right and you have not only that you also had borrowing from say Italian and Spanish etcetera. So, is this a matter of enlarging is a simple simply enlarging the vocabulary or is it a problem of enrichment through others. Now, this is something that we leave to the linguists and the people of you know philology and the people in the history of languages to decide and debate just suffice it here to just bring it to your notice that whatever was seen as inclusion and enlargement of vocabulary and the growth of vocabulary may also be seen as a problem of sort of downplaying downplaying your the the sort of vernacular it may use a word here when you allow a lot of what is quote unquote foreign influence to come in to the existing language. Let us quickly look at this slide on this foreign against the borrowing of words like Bo again here he makes this observation. He says the wholesale borrowing of words look at these because language the wholesale borrowing of words from other languages did not did not meet with universal favor. So, it is not that everyone was happy that you know words have been brought or imported so to speak from other languages this you know the strangeness of the new words was an objection to some people. Now, it is not that the word is new if it comes from another language the intonation is new the pronunciation is new the cultural resonances that words carry these are felt to be alien by many people you know this is idea that this word is not exactly homegrown. So, it has several various even political resonances as it comes into one vernacular language. So, see this again the wholesale borrowing of words from other languages did not meet with universal favor the strangest of the new words was an objection to some people. Now, however they were more you know scholarly people who looked at this phenomenon of borrowing words from other languages in a more balanced manner and John Dryden for instance many of you may have heard of you know the great poet John Dryden. Dryden was of the opinion that as long as you know the importations was as boss is judicious as long as these were judicious importations one should not really have much to complain as far as borrowing words was concerned. So, it was a matter of balancing you know the coming in of a new words as against the existing tendency or existing pool of words that were there since the Anglo-Saxon times or even before these times. So, some you know there are few borrowed words here for instance that we may refer to and from Greek for instance the words that were borrowed were Encyclopedia, Acme, Anonymous, Criterion, ephemeral, lexicon, polemic, tantalize, tonic, thermometer. Then the let us look at again what boss has about the method of introducing these new words. Now, the Latin words usually were from the medium of writing the words borrowed from the romance languages of an enter through books and Bo here mentions look quickly read this quotation what writers like say Thomas Moore and Thomas Elliot were doing was being done by numerous others and it is necessary to recognize the importance of individuals as makers of English in the 16th and early 17th century. These are what we get through their works or through as it says the medium of writing. By 1721 we find this is 150 years later after Mulkaster had urged for the compilation of a dictionary in 1582 the first dictionary was published by Nathaniel Barley called universal etymological English dictionary. The earliest dictionaries explain the meanings of the words in Latin or other foreign languages and hard words in English. So, we had these early dictionaries would go to great lengths to explain the meanings of the words which came from Latin or other languages or even words that were in English, but were considered difficult. Now, let us look at some of the important dictionaries that are listed here in the 17th century mostly. These are Robert Cordray's the table alphabetical of hard words John Bullocker's English Expositor 1616 the first is 1604 Henry Cochrane's English Dictionary 1616 Edward Phillips's New World of Words 1658 Glossographia by Blount 1656 and Dr. Samuel Johnson's famous a dictionary of the English language in 1755. We also find the influence the great influence of a writer like Shakespeare as far as the vocabulary is concerned. Say Shakespeare sorry invented over 1700 words some of these are mentioned here for instance cold blooded, beast merge, bandit, luggage, majestic, moon beam, negotiate. So, many words and that you know we do not realize have come to us from Shakespeare. For instance the word like hobnub marketable the word marketable you may think is more of you know modern more you know or later word you know then then we would not expect that to come from Shakespeare's time probably, but these are some of the words that Shakespeare had given a zany worthless secure skim milk etcetera or they were further also many expressions that we get from Shakespeare very innovative ones that have become part of early modern English cold comfort cold comfort is such a phrase then clear out bag and baggage without rhyme or reason then goodness sake or by jove that truth will out vanished into thin air these are some of the expressions that phrases that we owe to Shakespeare. As far as grammatical features were concerned this is what Bo has to say I am quoting from Bo English grammar in the 16th and 17th century is marked more by the survival of certain forms and usages that have since disappeared than by any fundamental developments. The great changes which reduced the inflections of old English to their modern proportions had already taken place and we remember we in our last lecture on middle English this was these inflection the changes regarding inflections were highlighted there and Bo says that as far as grammar is concerned in the early modern beginning with the early modern phase of English what we find that it says here is marked more by survival of certain forms and usages that have disappeared then than any really great fundamental change that came in and already said the you could say the pruning of the language or the pruning of the inflections or inflectional endings had already happened before this. So, if we have to end with the general characteristics of this period there would be 4 points from Bo again that you know we need to learn right. We find that A there was a conscious interest of the people in the English language this is important a conscious interest of the people in the English language that is there was a new attitude towards the language and an attention to its problems with that could be seen during this time. So, we have a conscious interest of the people in the English language and new attitude towards the language and an attention to its problems all you would say in a bid to this new the emerging London English dialect as a standard the standard dialect or standard language during that time. Then importantly the second point in this period something in the nature of a standard and not just standard a recognizably modern form of the language was attained scholars say at this time. So, there was not only just a standard language you can have a standard language in any time any any dialect can be a standard dialect in any time in the history of any language the important thing was the fact that the language had a modern form to it thanks mostly to the final ending of a final ending of the inflectional endings which had begun in the middle English period English in the Renaissance was much more plastic plastic by here plastic we mean far more amenable to change far more for instance we use the word plasticity when we talk about neural plasticity. So, the I will say the quality of its quality of adaptability to adapt itself to change because of its flexibility. So, English in the Renaissance as bosses was much more plastic than today as men felt freer to mold it according to their wills it is interesting it is not that you may think instinctively or it may you know you may think it is sort of in a quote unquote commonsensical way that things become more plastic or more flexible with time it is not. So, in the next lecture when you look at American English you will find that there is some very interestingly some tendencies to freeze the language that they brought from England to the new world whereas, in England those were already changing. So, it does not mean that just because one has gone to into a new land or just with the passage of time that language freezing will go up it is not so simple a phenomenon. So, language English language of some more plastic form of flexible adaptable it was taking in had always and was still taking in new words from other languages to an extent of course, where it became problematic. It became a question of you know nationalistic interest where the one should allow so many languages to be added so many words sorry from so many languages to be added to the mother tongue. So, they many features were still unsettled though with regard to spelling and pronunciation as because of this sort of tendency where things were not things were already all things were quite fluid that there was the standard there was a standard at the same time there was a standard dialogue at the same time there are other probably other standards probably that were clamoring you know for inclusion into the rising London English and these features like pronunciation for instance were not what we find today in you know the official sort of queens English as we say. So, spelling and pronunciation was still fluid and people were still experimenting different you could say different parts of England were probably people in different parts of England were probably also showcasing their pronunciations and their spelling. So, the time by it was only by the modern age that you find that the establishment of a greater stability even though of course, in modern English we also have the important variations that we find in beginning with the new world with America and with places like India places like Australia etcetera. So, we have come to the end of this introductory glimpse into early modern English and instead of doing a recap of what we have learnt let me pose questions to you and give you an example of how you may want to attempt those questions. For instance one the first question may be something like what were the four most important changing conditions in modern English particularly early modern English which differentiate it in a radical way from the previous periods in the history of the English language. So, these are you would say that there are four factors which led to the growth of early modern and eventually modern English and we also say that we do not take modern English from as one homogenous age we break it from the Renaissance onwards and we break it into early modern English and late modern or modern English. So, the four factors were A very importantly the bringing in of the printing press by Caxton to England and following that what happened was the where the others the next tree that is A the rapid spread of popular education with the availability of books then there is increased communication and increased social communication play houses played very important you did not have the modern pubs that you did. The play houses were the most important probably avenues and arenas of social communication the people then finally, the growth of social consciousness the growth of social consciousness with the play houses and next the availability of texts the availability of what we today call heart takes because of the coming in of the printing press that was question number one. Now, if you can get a question like this according to the scholar A. C. Bohr a powerful force existed for promoting a standard uniform language explain I have to explain what this powerful force was. So, you would then say again that this powerful force was that of the printing press and you can also say that in the it resulted in this important cultural phenomenon that was the availability of text which were hitherto what hitherto items of luxury or items of access and privileges. Privilege with the availability of hundreds of thousands of copies of a single text they were bound to be enormous social changes which also led to the change or you know or to the growth and development of the language more people were using it. The second important point regarding this powerful force was that it had to lead to a standardised English why because people hitherto were different were very different may find people just within a few kilometers being different as far as the usage as far as the pronunciation was concerned as far as the spelling was concerned particularly with spelling with particularly with things like terms of phrase when they available to you in the forms of text and that is a text that is being read by everyone it eventually obviously would lead to a certain standardised form of the language. So, a sort of you know this marks the end of a sort of a certain if I may use the word a certain chaotic element as far as the English language was concerned. So, we have the rise of standardised English which was talk about it next the next that would be the next question another question would be what would the other changes in society for instance and you would say one very important change was the availability of the you know the establishment increase in the establishment of a number of schools a now again with schools what happens is you get standardised versions of a language everyone in that in a school and nearby schools were learning the same kind probably from the same text. So, there has to be a standardisation and also there was the rise again second point the rise of a certain class which was the tradesmen class or the mercantile class for whom education was very important next what was the you know what is the two phase or two sided aspect to the question of the vernaculars vis a vis the so called prestige languages like the languages of antiquity like Latin and Greek and language of prestige which was there in the last period middle ages I am sorry middle English which was French. So, they are two we may we may talk about two things one is of course that there is the there is a need with the revival of learning with the Renaissance to also know Latin and Greek just as in the previous age French was so important for many people to know and learn French more. So, because by you know as boss says when you placed the so called vernacular alongside the Greek and the Latin then the vernacular tongues would then seem what we call vulgar tongue of the you know the common man's language seem immature as boss says unlimited sorry limited and unpolished. So, this was one part of the problem then the other aspect to it was again all sorts of people all sorts of says all sorts of men which mean probably means people from all classes you get to put it in another way of all classes wanted access to the ideas of the ancients as far as practical life was concerned as far as philosophy was concerned right, but again the other side of the other side of the picture is this that people wanted the other side of the story was that people were worried with what they found as many are worried as you know with what they read as a random inclusion of words from other languages. There is a question also the rise of the nationalistic fervor which we see since the time of Jeffrey Chaucer. There was the rise of the nationalistic spirit and too much deviation from Anglo-Saxon right or too many borrowings that this is more correct too many borrowing from other languages were even to be seen as anti-nationalistic on the we also had scholars as I said like John Dryden who said that judicious importations as reported by AC Bob judicious importations from other languages was fine and one had to know when a word was to be considered how of course, one word was to be considered judicious. Then therefore, the next question would be what is the what do you refer what is referred to as a problem of enrichment this is the it is similar you know answer really is it was it considered a matter of enrichment or was it considered a matter of dependence so was it enriching the vocabulary were they enriching the vocabulary by allowing other words to come in or were they being dependent too much on other tongues. Then you could also get a question on the importance of dictionaries for instance why were dictionaries so important at this time. Dictionaries were important at this time for two reasons say that one reason one was of course, because of the you know the sheer growth of the lexicon they because of the printing press and the growth of publishing because of that there was a need to have dictionaries. So, that you know in words that were being now available see the kind the number and the kind of words that were now being available to people that this was a force that was not there before. How much can you how many new words can you know only through social conversation or only through hearsay here you had books which had so many words that many people could not understand. So, the rise or this is the time of the dictionary right the first dictionaries and second was important also to unpack the meaning of words that were even in English if I considered hard for instance as we saw here the earliest dictionaries explain the meanings of the words in Latin or other foreign languages and so called hard words in English. So, the growth of the dictionary was it was inevitable that during this time there would be numerous dictionaries that were coming out and finally, culminating in the one great dictionary of those times of the 18th century which was the dictionary of the English language by Dr. Samuel Johnson in 1755. So, we shall stop here now and the last question of course was could be you could get a question or describe or you know enumerate some of the words and phrases which are current even today which are attributed to the great writer and dramatist and poet William Shakespeare. So, you have a number of words here in these slides for instance Salute Days the word then it is Greek to me these are some of the phrases that we find in Shakespeare's works and also we have words like like dawn dwindle eyeball fixture moon beam luggage gossip Olympian pedant radiance these are words that come from Shakespeare. So, this again is just a glimpse into the kind of issues that we had in during the early modern period and we found the importance of Shakespeare and most in more you know most importantly really the printing press the coming in of the printing press and the question of the vernaculars versus borrowing because the problematic question of foreign loan words. These are some these are only some of the aspects and really if you have in one lecture you cannot begin to even touch upon there are so many other areas, but for a course like this is it is enough that you know some of the aspects and most importantly learn how to connect this is this has been my effort here learn how to connect the social political and the economic to changes in language this is very important. Learn also that languages are highly politically charged every change are also for instance there may be certain times where issues regarding even changes in language even vocabulary pronunciation spelling may also be largely political questions questions of nationalism questions of allowing not allowing questions of the rise of a standard form of English which today of course is the biggest you know contentious issues the queens English is only has today become perhaps it is quite safe to say only one variant of English because we have the saw in module one. So, many Englishes we no longer talk about world English we talk about world English itself is an oxymoron world English is as we saw in our lecture one of the lectures in the first module world English is the current term that we use, but you see what you know in this different glimpses into the four different periods that we have used for the English language how the languages change owing to socioeconomic factors owing to conquests you understand and finally, as you see in the next lecture on modern English owing to the growth of different industries particularly the information industry. Thank you so much.