 The main threats is the allocation of land outside of the National Parks, which is basically annexing large areas of land which has been traditionally used by local people for their livelihoods. And these areas often, whether they're for oil palm plantations or for logging concessions, the companies that control these these concessions often apply quite strict access rights and controls over that land and access by local people is often curtailed. And so they're forced to move into other areas for farming and hunting and gathering of non timber forest products to national parks. So you see people being edged out of their traditional harvesting areas and farming areas into more marginal lands, many of which are occupied by protected areas. So the impact of this encroachment on these these last areas of forest in Indonesia are that areas of forest get transformed into farms and other land uses. Which brings also people into direct contact with the residual wildlife in those particular areas. Elephants in particular, but also big cats and other large carnivores, particularly the sun bear. And so the major problem with that is as humans encroach on to the wildlife environments, there's a lot more interaction, often negative. And for an elephant, which is usually foraging through the forest to come across a farm in a national park, it's a bit of a windfall in terms of the amount of food in a small area. And so crop raiding is a particular problem. And the same for big cats, as their prey becomes more and more hunted by local people who are also encroaching, it leaves a paucity, if you like, of prey available to them. And so they're forced to look for alternative sources of protein. This often includes livestock kept by small holders within the national park. So you have this sort of cycle, if you like, of conflict, which often results in a sort of a lose-lose for the animal and the wildlife concern, because retaliatory attacks on wildlife is often a problem. Human wildlife conflict is often used as an excuse to hunt particularly valuable or protected species, which are then sold on the international illegal market or black market to consumers, particularly in Asia. And we're seeing huge amounts of trade from Africa and elsewhere, of rhinos, rhino horn, elephant tusks and the pelts of large cats. And that's also encroaching into Asia itself as well, particularly the lower Mekong region and Indonesia. In order to mitigate sort of human wildlife conflict on the ground, one of the things national park authorities need to be doing primarily is monitoring. A lot of people claim that their crops are being destroyed or left taken with very little evidence to suggest that it's actually tigers or elephants or leopards. That's actually the perpetrator of that particular crime, if you like. And particularly in places where there are compensation schemes, some farmers have been known to tremble their own crops and suggest that there are elephants in order to claim compensation. And so it's very important that the national park staff are cognizant and they're fully aware of the types of encroachment and the conflict that are in place firstly, but also to make sure that they're aware of the ranging patterns of the species that can cause human wildlife conflict. So using camera traps or using direct observations, particularly radio collars on elephants, for example, you can track exactly where they're going. And each of these animals tends to have a really defined territory. And so once you've determined that territory, you can pretty much manage your national park to avoid those conflict situations. A very good example of an alternative management system for national parks can be seen in Guinea, for example, in West Africa. And CIFAR have been involved in establishing co-management of some of these classified forests in Guinea, where local communities are essentially responsible for the management of the classified forest, the formal classified forest, and the buffer zone around, but with support of the local government. And the law was changed in 2009, I believe, to actually recognize these groups officially. So they have a legal basis for managing these forests. And there are management plans in place, which are checked upon by government agents and officers. And so it's a classic example of the way that local knowledge can be integrated into a formal management system. And it's proved to be very successful. And it's something we're replicating elsewhere throughout the region, particularly in Mali, Burkina Faso, and Sierra Leone.