 Dear students, in this topic we shall discuss insulin and glucagon hormones produced by the pancreas. Pancreas is a dual gland having exocrine as well as endocrine functions. It is composed of two types of tissues. One tissue is known as the asinus which is exocrine. The other tissues include the eyelets of Langerhans which are endocrine in function. We shall discuss eyelets of Langerhans as endocrine tissue in detail. The eyelets of Langerhans have four types of secretory cells. First, beta cells which constitute about 60% of the eyelets and they produce the hormone in soline. The second type of endocrine cells in the eyelets of Langerhans are alpha cells which constitute about 25% of the eyelets and produce the hormone glucagon. The third type of cells are the delta cells which constitute about 10% of the eyelets and produce a hormone which is called somatostatin. This hormone inhibits the release of both in soline and glucagon. The fourth type of cells are the PP cells. These are very small in number and they produce a hormone which is called pancreatic polypeptide. Dear students, we shall discuss insuline and glucagon hormones in detail in this topic and now we shall discuss, first we shall discuss the stimuli for the release of insuline hormone from the pancreas. The major stimulus for the beta cells to secrete insuline is high blood glucose level. Release of insuline is also stimulated by some other factors which include glucagon, growth hormone, gastric inhibitory peptide or GIP, epinephrine and elevated levels of amino acids. These all stimulate the release of insuline from beta cells. Dear students, we shall now see the effects of insuline. Insulin has major effects on carbohydrate, fats and proteins metabolism. Its major effect is that it reduces the glucose level in the blood. For this purpose, it increases the uptake of glucose by the cells of liver, muscles and adipose tissue. It also stimulates glycogenesis in the liver and muscles. This means conversion of glucose into glycogen which occurs in the liver and muscles. Insulin also stimulates lipogenesis in liver and adipose tissue, the synthesis of complex lipids from fatty acids. This process is also stimulated by insulin. Insulin also stimulates the uptake of amino acids into the liver and muscles. Dear students, the deficiency of insulin causes a disease which is called diabetes mellitus which is of two types, diabetes mellitus type 1 and diabetes mellitus type 2. The absolute deficiency of insulin that is reduced release of insulin by the beta cells causes the diabetes mellitus type 1. Insulin that is the relative deficiency of insulin that is because of the defective insulin receptors in the target tissues. This causes diabetes mellitus type 2. Dear students, diabetes leads to hyperglycemia that is high blood glucose level, glycosuria that is urine may, glucose kaana, reduced ability to utilize glucose by the cell, also reduced ability to synthesize lipids and proteins, moreover accumulation of non metabolized fat particles in the blood which appear as ketone bodies, these all happen because of disturbances of carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism which are actually affected and controlled by insulin. When these three major components affect metabolism, the result will be in the form of defective functions of many organs. In this, the diseases produced by diabetes are cataract in the eye, cardiovascular diseases and renal, that is, good day diseases. Dear students, now we shall discuss the other hormone produced by pancreas that is glucagon. Glucagon is secreted in response to hyperglycemia, when blood glucose level, sorry, it is produced in response to hypoglycemia, when blood glucose concentration decreases, then glucagon is produced. It increases glucose level in the blood by lipolysis and glycogenolysis and by stimulating gluconeogenesis. In this way, all its effects are just opposite to that of insulin, these antagonistic effects are important in maintaining the appropriate level of glucose in the blood.