 Chapter 1 of Book 3 of Rhetoric This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Jeffrey Edwards. Rhetoric by Aristotle, translated by Thomas Taylor. Chapter 1 of Book 3 There are three things which it is requisite to discuss concerning a narration. One, indeed, from what particulars credibility is derived. The second, about diction. And the third, in what manner it is requisite to arrange the parts of narration. Concerning credibility, therefore, we have already spoken and have shown from how many things it consists and that it consists from three things. We have likewise shown what the nature is of these three and why credibility consists from these alone. For all men are persuaded to believe what they hear either because those who judge are themselves affected in a certain way or because they conceive the speakers to be worthy of belief or because the thing is proved. We have also spoken concerning enthememes and have shown whence they ought to be derived for some things indeed are the species but others the places of enthememes. It now, however, remains to speak concerning diction for it is not only sufficient to know what ought to be said but it is likewise necessary to speak in a proper manner. And diction contributes greatly to the quality of the oration. The parts of rhetoric, therefore, were investigated by the ancients in that order in which they are naturally arranged. But, from the nature of a thing, we ought in the first place to discover those things which are adapted to persuade. In the second place, these are to be disposed, i.e. expressed by an appropriate diction. And that which is to be considered in the third place and possesses the greatest power, though it has not yet been discussed by anyone, is what pertains to pronunciation or action. For this was but lately introduced into tragic poetry and rhapsody. For at first, the poets themselves acted the tragedies which they composed. It is evident, therefore, that with respect to rhetoric, there is a thing of this kind in the same manner as with respect to poetry, which has been discussed by certain other persons and by Glauco and Tyane. Pronunciation, however, or action, consists in the voice and the principal artifice of action consists in knowing how it is requisite to use it to each of the passions. Thus, for instance, it is necessary to know when the voice should be loud, when soft, and when between both, how the tones of voice should be employed, such as the acute, the grave, and the middle, and what rhythms are adapted to each of the passions. For there are three things which the writers on pronunciation consider, and these are magnitude, harmony, and rhythm. And, as in poetical contests, those who excel in action for the most part obtain the prize and the players now excel in it more than the poets themselves. Thus also in forensic contests, through the depravity of politics, those orators gain their cause, who excel in action. The art, however, concerning rhetorical action has not yet been disclosed, since, likewise, the art concerning diction was discovered late. And it appears to be but a slight thing, if it is well examined. But, since the business concerning rhetoric pertains to opinion, we must pay attention to it, not as a thing possessing rectitude, but as necessary, since it is just not to require more in-emoration than that it may neither give pain nor delight. For it is just to contend strenuously for things themselves, so that other things, besides demonstration, are superfluous. At the same time, however, diction is capable of producing great effects, as we have said, through the depravity of the hearer. Diction, therefore, possesses a certain small necessity in every discipline, for it is of some consequence with respect to the declaration of a thing to speak in this or in that manner. Yet it is not very important. But all these things, i.e., whatever pertains to rhetoric, depend on the imagination and are referred to the hearer. Hence, no one teaches geometry in this way. Viz, so as to be solicitous about diction. The art, therefore, concerning pronunciation, when it is employed, produces the same effect as acting on the stage. But some persons have endeavored to speak a little concerning it, as, for instance, Thrasymachus in his treaties on compassion. And to be disposed to act is natural and more inartificial. But diction is artificial. Hence again, rewards are given to those who excel in it in the same manner as to those rhetoricians who excel in pronunciation. For written orations possess greater strength from diction than from the sentiments they contain. The poets, therefore, gave rise to diction as it is natural they should. For names are imitations, and of all our parts voice is the most imitative. Hence the poets invented the poetical arts, viz, rhapsody, or epic poetry, and the art of acting, or dramatic poetry, and the other arts. Because, however, the poets, though they sing of frivolous things, appear to have acquired their renown from diction. On this account, poetic diction, such as that of Gorgias, was introduced by orators. And even now, many of the unlearned fancy that those persons speak most beautifully when they speak poetically. This, however, is not the case. But the diction of an oration is different from that of poetry. And this is evident from the event. For the present writers of tragedies do not any longer employ the ancient poetic diction. But, as from tetrameters, they betook themselves to iambic verse, because this measure is of all others most similar to discourse. Thus also, they rejected such names as are foreign from familiar conversation. Those likewise who at present compose hexameter verses have rejected the names with which the first dramatic poets adorned their verses. Hence it is ridiculous for those to imitate these poets who no longer employ that mode of diction. Hence, too, it is evident that we are not accurately to discuss everything which may be said concerning diction, but only such things as pertain to rhetorical diction. For, of poetical diction, we have spoken in the treatise on poetry. Let, therefore, what we have written in the poetic be surveyed, and let the virtue of diction be perspicuity, of which this is an indication that speech does not affect its proper work unless it renders manifest the mind of the speaker. Another virtue of diction is that it be neither low nor above its dignity, but appropriate. For poetic diction perhaps is not low and yet is not adapted to an oration, but of nouns and verbs such as are proper render the diction perspicuous. Such other names, however, as are mentioned in the poetic, cause the diction not to be low but ornamented. For, the introduction of unusual words makes the diction appear more venerable since men are affected in the same manner towards diction as they are towards strangers and their fellow citizens. Hence, it is necessary to render the dialect foreign. For, we admire the language of foreigners and that which is admirable is pleasant. In meter, therefore, the poet does this frequently and there it is appropriate. For both the verse and the subjects of the verse are very remote from common occurrences, but in prose much fewer foreign words are to be used. For there, if either a slave or a very young man or one who speaks a very trifling things uses elegant language, it is more in decorous. But in the language of these persons, the becoming consists in an appropriate contraction and dilation. Unusual words, however, should be introduced by the orator latently and he should not seem to speak fictitiously, but naturally. For natural diction is adapted to persuade, but the fictitious has a contrary effect. For we avoid those who speak fictitiously as insidious persons in the same manner as we avoid mixed wines. Thus, the voice of Theodorus was preferred to the voice of other actors, for his seemed to be the voice of the speaker, but the voice of the others appeared to be foreign. Unusual words should be well introduced latently. If he who frames a speech makes a selection from the accustomed dialect, which he rippides does, and was the first that showed the way to others. But since an oration consists from nouns and verbs, and nouns have as many species as are enumerated in the treaties on poetry, of these species, nouns taken from various tongues and fictitious are seldom, and but in few places to be used. Where, however, they are to be used, and why but seldom we shall afterwards show, for they produce a greater change in the language than is becoming. But the proper, the appropriate, and metaphorical are alone useful to prosaic diction, of which this is an indication that all men in common conversation use these alone, speak in metaphors, and in appropriate and proper terms. Hence it is evident that if anyone does this well, his diction will be foreign, and it may be latent, that it is so, and he will speak with perspicuity. But this was defined by us to be the virtue of a rhetorical discourse. Of names or nouns, however, the homonymous are useful to the sophist, for through and deceive, but the synonymous are useful to the poet. I call, however, proper and synonymous terms, such as to go and to walk, for both these are proper and synonymous to each other. What therefore each of these is, how many species there are of metaphor, and that metaphors can do much both in poetry and pros, we have shown, as we have before observed, the treaties on poetry. But it is so much more necessary to labour about these in pros because it has fewer aids than verse. A metaphor also especially possesses the clear, the pleasant, and the foreign, and it is not to be taken from another person. It is necessary, however, to use epithets and metaphors that are appropriate, and this adaptation will be obtained from the analogous. But without there will be an apparent indecorum, because contraries are especially conspicuous when placed by each other, as a purple garment therefore becomes a young man, but not an old man, for the same garment is not adapted to both. Thus also certain metaphors and epithets are adapted to some things, but are not adapted to others. If likewise you are willing to praise, the metaphor must be derived from better, in the same genus. But if to blame, it must be derived from things which in the same genus are inferior. I say, for instance, since contraries are in the same genus, to say, quote, that a beggar prays, close quote, and, quote, that he who prays begs, close quote, because both are petitions, it is expedient to do as we have said. Thus Iphicrates called Calius Metragertes, or collector to the mother of the gods, and not Dadaucos, or torchbearer. But Calius replied, quote, that Iphicrates was not initiated, otherwise he would not have called him Metragertes, but Dadaucos, close quote, for both these offices pertain to the goddess, but that of torchbearer was honorable, and that of collector ignoble. The flatterers of Dionysius also employed the same artifice, for they called themselves Artists. Both these words, however, are metaphors, the one indeed of things sorted, but the other the contrary, and robbers at present call themselves Exacters. Hence we may be allowed to say, quote, that he who acts unjustly airs, and that he who airs acts unjustly, but also that he who steals both takes and robs, close quote. There is, however, an indecorum in what telephis in Euripides says of certain rowers, quote, that they reigned over ores and descended into Misha, close quote. For the word to reign is greater than the dignity of the matter, i.e., of an ore. He does not therefore conceal his artifice. There is also an error in syllables, for they cause the words to have a pleasing sound. In this air was committed by Dionysius, surnamed Chalcus, in his elegies. For he calls poetry, quote, the clanger of Calliope, close quote, because both are vocal sounds. But the metaphor is bad, which is made from sounds that are not significant. Father still, nouns are not to be far-fetched, but things that are anonymous are to be denominated by words derived from things that are allied, and of the same species, and which show, as soon as they are uttered, that they are allied, as in the celebrated enigma, quote, I saw a man agglutinating brass to a man with fire, close quote. For the passion is anonymous, but both are a certain addition. The enigma, is an addition of the cupping glass and agglutination. And in short, from enigmas that are well composed, good metaphors may be assumed. For metaphors have an obscure meaning, so that it is evident that an enigma, if it is approved, consists of metaphors that are well made. Metaphors also must be assumed from beautiful things. But the beauty by simnias says, in sounds, or in the thing signified, and in a similar manner the deformity of a name. Father still, there is a third thing which solves a sophisticated argument, for that which Bryson says is not true, quote, that no one speaks obscurely, since the same thing is signified by using this name instead of that, close quote. For this is false, since one name is more proper and more assimilated than another and is more adapted to place the thing before our eyes. Again, this name and that signify a thing not similarly subsisting, so that thus also one name must be admitted to be more beautiful or more deformed than another. For both names indeed signify the beautiful and the deformed, but not so far as beautiful, or so far as deformed. Or both signify the same thing, but in a greater or less degree. Metaphors, however, are hence to be derived from things which are beautiful, either in the voice or in the power of signification or to the sight, or some other sense. But it makes a difference to say, for instance, quote, the rosy fingered mourn, close quote, rather than, quote, the purple fingered, close quote, or, which is still worse, quote, the red fingered, close quote. In epithets also, oppositions may be made from what is vile or base, as for instance, the matricide. But the opposition may be made from that which is better, as the avenger of his father. And Simonides, when he who conquered with mules offered him a small reward, was unwilling to compose verses on the occasion, as disdaining to celebrate inverse semi-asses. But when he had given him a sufficient reward, then he sung, quote, hail daughters of the steeds that fly, with feet like whirlwind swift, close quote. Though they were also the daughters of asses. Further still, a thing may be praised or blamed by employing diminutives. But diminution is that which renders both evil and good-less. Thus, Aristophanes in his Babylonics calls Indirision Crucian, bracket, a golden thing, close bracket, crusaderian, and Ematian, bracket, a garment, close bracket, a mataderian. He also calls Leudoria, bracket, slander, close bracket, loidorimation, and Nosema, bracket, disease, close bracket, no summation. In both oppositions, however, and diminutives, it is requisite to be cautious, and to observe a mediocrity. Chapter 3. Fragidity may be produced in diction in four ways. In the first place, in double nouns, i.e. in compound words. As in Lycophran, when he says, quote, the many-faced heaven, the mighty topped earth, and the narrow-mouthed shore, close quote. And as Gorgias calls someone a beggarly mused flatterer, and those who take an oath improperly or properly in your caseintas, and cator caseintas. And as Alcidimus, when describing someone who was in a rage, quote, his soul was full of arger, but his face was of a fiery color, close quote. And speaking of the promptitude of a certain person to fight to the last, he calls him Telisforos, or Enduring to the End. He likewise calls for persuading Telisforos, in the bottom of the sea Quanacruun, or Azure colored. For all these expressions appear to be poetical from duplication. This, therefore, is one cause of frigidiction. Another cause arises from the use of ancient words. Thus Lycophran calls Xerxes Pelorion Andra, or an immense man. In Siren he calls Sinus anir, or a pernicious man. Alcidimus, also speaking of poetry, says no such atherma, or purile sport is useful to poetry. And speaking of nature, he uses the expression Aestalia, or Improbity. And of a certain person, he says, quote that he was exasperated with the untamed of his mind. Close quote. In the third place, diction may become frigid from using epithets which are either long or unreasonable, or frequent. For in poetry, it is becoming to say white milk. But in prose, epithets are partly more unbecoming. And partly, if they are too frequent, they cause prose to appear to be verse. Epithets, however, are sometimes to be used in prose. For they render the diction more unusual, and cause it to be foreign. But mediocrity must be regarded in the use of them, since otherwise a greater evil is produced than by speaking casually. For casual diction is not good, but the other is bad. Hence, the writings of Alcidimus appear to be frigid. For he uses epithets, not as seasonings, but as food. Since they are so frequent in his writings, so great, and so apparent. Thus, for instance, he does not merely say sweat, but moist sweat. And he does not say that someone went to the Isthmia, or saw them games in honor of Neptune, but to the general assembly of the Isthmian games. Thus, too, he does not say the laws, but legal institutes, the queen of cities. Nor does he say in running, but with the rapid impulse of the soul. Nor museum, but receiving the museum of nature. And the sad care of the soul, instead of merely saying care. Nor does he say favor, but the artificer of popular favor. And again he calls an orator the dispensator of the pleasure of his hearers. And he did not hide himself in the branches, but in the branches of the wood. And he did not cover his body, but the shame of his body, and desire the anti-rival of the soul. But this is at the same time a double word, and an epithet, so that it becomes poetical. Thus, too, speaking of improbity, he says, the immense excess of improbity. Hence, those who speak poetically produce the ridiculous and the frigid, by their endochorus diction, and also occasion obscurity by their garrulity. For garrulity dissolves perspicuity when it is introduced to him who knows the subject by the obscurity which it occasions. Men, however, use double or compound words when a thing is anonymous, and the words may be easily used, such as time wasting. But if this is done frequently, the diction becomes entirely poetical. Hence, a double diction, i.e. compound words, are most useful to dithirambic poets. For the language of these is sonorous. But ancient names and dialects are more adapted to epic poets. For epic poetry is venerable and superb. And metaphors are most adapted to iambics. For these, as we have before observed, iambic poets now use. Again, in the fourth place, rigidity is produced in metaphors. For, there are endochorus metaphors, some indeed on account of the ridiculous. For comic poets also use metaphors. But others are endochorus from being too venerable and tragical. Metaphors likewise are obscure if they are far-fetched, as those of Gorgias who call certain things green and sanguinius. And you indeed have shamefully sown and badly reaped these things. For this is too poetically said. Thus, too, Alcidimus calls philosophy the bulwark of the laws, and the Odyssey a beautiful mirror of human life. And again he says quote, nothing of this kind introduces this sort in poetry. Close quote. For all these metaphors from the causes already mentioned are unadapted to procure persuasion. But what Gorgias said on a swallow, which dropped its excrement as it flew towards him, is the best of tragical metaphors. For he said, quote, this is shameful, Ophillomel. Close quote. For, if he said this to the bird, the bird was shameful. But to a virgin it was shameful. His defamation therefore was proper, because he alluded to what the bird had been, and not to what it then was. Chapter 4. An image also is a metaphor. For it differs very little from it. For when Homer says of Achilles, quote, he like a lion rushed. Close quote. It is an image. But when he says, the lion rushed, it is a metaphor. For because both are brave he calls Achilles metaphorically a lion. An image also is useful in prose, though but rarely. For it is poetical. Images however are to be introduced in the same manner as metaphors. For they are metaphors, differing in the way we have already mentioned. But images for instance, such as what Androsian said on Idris, quote, that he resembled welps, freed from their chains, close quote. For they bite anyone that falls in their way, and Idris, when freed from his bonds, was morose. And as the Adamus, assimilated Archdemus to Eusinus, who was ignorant of geometry, and this from the analogous. For Eusinus is the geometrical Archdemus. Another instance of similitude is from the fifth book of the Republic of Plato, quote, that those who in battle plunder the bodies of the dead are similar to welps who bite stones, but do not touch those who throw them, close quote. And in the sixth book, it is said of the people, quote, that they resemble a strong, but deaf pilot, close quote. And in the tenth book, speaking of poetical measures, it is said, quote, that they resemble those who are in the prime of life, but without beauty. For these in the decline of life, and verses when they are dissolved, no longer appear the same, close quote. Another instance is that of Pericles on the Samians, quote, that they resemble children who close quote. And on the Biotians, quote, that they resemble flints, for flints are struck against each other, and the Biotians fight with each other, close quote. Another instance is that of Demosthenes on the Athenian people, quote, that they resemble those who are seasick, close quote. And that of democracies, who assimilated, quote, returations to nurses, who swallow the food themselves, and anoint the children with the spittle, close quote. And again, that of Antisthenes, who assimilated Cephisitidus, who was a thin man to frankincense, quote, which delights while it consumes, close quote. For all these similitudes may be used both as images and as metaphors, so that it is evident that such words as are approved and are used as metaphors will also be images, and likewise that images are metaphors, which are in want of argument. It is always, however, necessary that a metaphor should be converted from the analogous, and be referred to the other part, and to things homogenous. Thus if a cup may from analogy be called the shield of Bacchus, a shield also may appropriately be said to be the cup of Mars. From these things, therefore, an oration is composed. Chapter 5 The principle, however, of diction is to speak with propriety, and this consists in five things. And the first indeed is in conjunctives, if these are disposed in such a way as their nature requires. Phys, so as to be placed in an order prior and posterior to each other. Thus for instance the conjunction indeed, and I indeed, require but and but he. It must be remembered, however, that conjunctions which correspond to each other should neither be disjoined by a great interval, nor should have so many things interposed between them, that when a conjunction corresponding to a former one is given, the prior conjunction is forgotten. For this is appropriate, but in few places. Thus, quote, but I, after the thing was related to me, for Cleon came begging and entreating, went taking them along with me, close quote. For here many conjunctions are inserted prior to the conjunction which was to have been assigned. But if there is a great interval between but I and I went, the sentence becomes obscure. One thing, therefore, requisite to correct diction is a proper disposition in the conjunctions. A second is to call things by their proper names, and not to circumscribe them by generic and common names. A third is not to use ambiguous words, but these precepts are to be observed unless the contrary to them are preferred, which those do, who when they have nothing to say, pretend to say something. For men of this kind, in poetry, thus speak, as for instance Empedocles. For, circumlocution deceives. If it be much, and the auditors are affected in the same manner as the multitude are by those who predict future events, since when they speak ambiguously, the vulgar is sent to what they say. Quote, if Cresus passes over the river Hollies, he will destroy the mighty empire. Close quote. But the reason why, when we have nothing to say, we should use generic terms is, because in short, the error will be less. And on this account, definers speak through the genera of a thing. For, in the game of even and odd, he will be less likely to err, who says that a number is even or odd in general, then if he determines what number is so. And he who predicts an event will be, is less likely to err, if he only says that it will be, then if he assigns the time when it will be. Hence, those who deliver oracles do not define the time when a thing will happen. All these generic and ambiguous names, therefore, are to be avoided, unless they are adopted for the sake of some such purpose as we have mentioned. A fourth thing requisite to correct diction is, as Protagoras divided the genera of nouns into masculine, feminine, and instruments, or neuter, to employ these rightly as, quote, she coming and discoursing departed, close quote. A fifth requisite is to denominate rightly in many and few things, and in one thing as, quote, but they coming struck me, close quote. In short, it is requisite that what is written should be so written as to be read and pronounced with facility. But this is not the case when there are many conjunctions, and when what is written cannot be easily pointed, and such are the writings of Heraclitus. For it is laborious to point the writings of Heraclitus, because it is immanifest what should be conjoined with the prior or posterior part, as in the beginning of his book. For he there says, quote, of reason existing always men are ignorant, close quote. Since it is immanifest, whether the word always pertains to the prior or to the posterior part. Farther still, Asolicism is produced in composition when, to two words, another appropriate word is not conjoined. Thus to noise and color, seeing is not a common, i.e., is not an appropriate word, but sensible perception is common. The composition also is rendered obscure, from the insertion of much which is intermediate, unless the part which corresponds to the first part of a sentence is immediately subjoined, and the rest added, as, quote, my intention was, after I had mentioned such and such things to him, to go, close quote. But this obscurity would be avoided by saying, quote, my intention was, after I had spoken to him, to go, close quote, and then to add, quote, having mentioned to him such and such things, close quote. Chapter 6 The following particulars contribute to the amplitude of diction. To use definition or description instead of a name, as instead of saying a circle to say, a plain figure in which all lines drawn from the middle to the end of the conference are equal. But the contrary contributes to conciseness, viz, to the use of the name instead of the definition. Amplitude of diction is also affected, if when anything disgraceful, or in decorus, is to be expressed, the name is used when the disgraceful thing is in the definition, but the definition, if it is in the name. It is likewise affected by rendering a text by metaphors and epithets, avoiding at the same time what is poetical, and by causing one thing to be many, i.e. by using the plural instead of the singular number, which the poets do, for when there is but one part, they nevertheless say, quote, into the Achaean parts, close quote, and instead of saying, quote, the complication of an epistle, close quote, they say, the complication of epistles, close quote. Amplitude is also affected by separating what we can conjoin, as, quote, this woman, this our wife, close quote, but if we wish to speak concisely, we must say on the contrary, quote, this woman, our wife, close quote, and it is affected by using a conjunction, but if we wish to speak concisely, we must not employ a conjunction, yet the sentence must not be unconnected, as in the first case, quote, going and speaking to him, close quote, and in the second, quote, going, I spoke to him, close quote. The method of Antimachus likewise is useful for this purpose, viz to enumerate particulars, which a thing does not possess, which he does, speaking for he says, quote, a little hill there is exposed to wind, close quote. For thus we may amplify to infinity, and this may take place both in what is good and what is bad, by enumerating what is not inherent, in whatever way it may be useful to the oration. Hence also, poets derive the words cordless and lyreless melody, for these words are derived from privations, but what we have just said is adopted in metaphors, taken from the analogous, such for instance as to say, quote, that the sound of a trumpet is a lyreless melody, close quote. Chapter 7, Diction also will possess what is decorous, if it is pathetic and ethical and analogous to the subject matter, but the analogous is affected by neither speaking of things grand and magnificent slightly, nor of abject things venerably and magnificently, nor giving ornament to a vile appellation, for if this is not adopted, the composition will appear to be a comedy, which is the case with that of Cleon, for some things which he writes are just as if a man would say, quote, a venerable fig, close quote. Diction becomes pathetic by reciting insolent behavior in the language of an angry person, but when conduct has been impious and shameful, then the diction becomes pathetic by speaking indignantly and cautiously, and when conduct has been laudable this is affected by speaking with admiration, but in things of lamentable nature, the pathetic is produced by a humble diction, and the like method must be adopted in other things. Appropriate diction also persuades to the truth of a thing, for the soul of the auditor is deceived by a false reasoning, in consequence of conceiving that the orator speaks the truth, because the auditors are thus affected in such like orations. Hence they fancy that things are as the orator says, though they are not so. The auditor likewise becomes similarly affected with him who speaks pathetically, though he should say nothing to the purpose. Hence many astonish the hearers by the tumultuous manner in which they deliver their orations. Moreover, ethical diction is a demonstration from signs, because this, when appropriate, is consequent to every genus and habit, but I mean by genus, indeed age, such as a child, or a man, or an old man, sex, as man or woman, and nation, as Alacidemonian or Athessalian. And by habits, I mean those things which produce the variety of conditions in life, for the lives of men are not such as they are according to every habit. If, therefore, the diction has appellations adapted to the habit, it will become ethical. For a rustic and a well educated man will not say the same things, nor speak after the same manner, but the auditors are somewhat affected by that figure which the writers of orations abundantly use as, quote, who does not know this? All men know it, close quote. For the auditor from shame confesses that he participates of that knowledge of which everyone else partakes. Opportun, however, or not opportune use is common to all the species, but the remedy in every hyperbole is that celebrated advice, self-correction, for it is necessary that the orator should correct himself, for the thing then appears to be true, though it may seem to be incredible, because the incredibility of it is not concealed from the orator. Further still, everything analogous is not to be used at once. For thus the artifice will be concealed from the hearer. I mean, for instance, that if the names are harsh, yet must not the voice, or countenance, or other appropriate things be such as to express that harshness. Otherwise it will become manifest what each of these is. But if the names are harsh, and the voice or countenance is not adapted to such names, the artifice will be latent. If, therefore, soft things be spoken harshly, and harsh things gently, they will lose the power of persuading. But epithets, and compound words, if they are numerous, and especially such as are foreign, are adapted to him who speaks pathetically. For we pardon the orator, who, when enraged, call some evil heaven-reaching, or false. These epithets, also, and compound words may be used by the orator when he has already moved the auditors and inspired them with a divine fury, either by praising or dispraising, or by exciting them to anger or love, which Isocrates does in his Panagyric, towards the end, where he has the words quote, fame and memory, close quote, and quote, those who endured, close quote. For those who are agitated with a divine fury speak things of this kind, so that auditors admit what is said in consequence of being similarly affected. Hence, this form of diction is also adapted to poetry, for poetry partakes of divine inspiration. Either, therefore, this form of diction must be adopted, in the cases already mentioned, or irony must be employed, as it was by Gorgias and Socrates in the fadress of Plato. Chapter 8 With respect, however, to the figure of diction, it is necessary that it should neither be metrical, nor without rhythm. For metrical diction is not calculated to persuade. For it appears to be feigned, and calls the attention of the auditor from the subject of the oration, since he is led to expect order to the former. As therefore, when the criers proclaim to the people, when a slave is manumitted by his master, quote, what patron will he who is manumitted choose, close quote. The boys antecedently to the crier exclaim, quote, Cleon, close quote. Thus, if the oration were metrical, the auditors would preoccupy the orator, and would foresee what he ought to say. But the diction which is without rhythm is indefinite. It is necessary, however, that it should be bounded, though not by meter. For the infinite is unpleasant and unknown, and all things are bounded by number. But the number of the figure of diction is rhythm, of which meters are the segments. Hence, it is necessary that an oration should have rhythm, but not meter or measure. For, if it has, it will be a poem. It should not, however, possess rhythm accurately, but only to a certain extent. Of rhythms, however, the heroic indeed is venerable and sonorous, and requires harmony. But the iambic is the diction of the multitude. Hence in speaking, iambics are uttered the most of all measures, but it is necessary that the prose of an oration should be venerable and very exciting. The trochaic measure, however, is more analogous to swift-dancing, but this is evident from tetrameters which are a valuable rhythm. The peon, therefore, remains, which was employed by orators and originated from Thrasymachus. Yet, they were unable to say what it was. But the peon is the third in order, and follows the above-mentioned measures, for it is in the ratio of three to two, but of the others the one, i.e. the heroic, is in the ratio of one to one, but the other, i.e. the iambic and the trochaic, in the ratio of two to one. The sesquilter, however, is consequent to these two ratios, and the peon consists of this ratio. The other rhythms, therefore, are to be rejected from the above-mentioned reasons, and because they are metrical. But the peon is to be assumed, for from this alone, of all the rhythms we have mentioned, meter is not produced, so that it is especially latent. At present, therefore, orators use only one peon, and that at the beginning of the oration. It is necessary, however, that the end should differ from the beginning. But there are two species of peons, opposite to each other, of which one is adapted to the beginning of the oration, in which way also it is used by orators. But this is that peon in which the first syllable is long, and the other three are short. As, quote, Delaus Begotten or Lycian, close quote, speaking of Apollo. And, quote, O golden-haired Hecate, daughter of Jove, close quote. But in the other peon, on the contrary, the first three syllables are short and the last is long, as, quote, night concealed after the land, the water and the ocean, close quote. This peon, however, terminates the course of the oration for a short syllable because it is imperfect, causes the oration to be mutilated. But it is necessary that it should be amputated by a long syllable, and that the end of it should be manifest. Yet, not from the writer, nor from a paragraph, but from the rhythm. And thus we have shown that diction ought to have a proper rhythm, and should not be without rhythm, and also what the rhythms are and how those subsist that produce a proper rhythm in diction. Chapter 9 It is necessary, however, that diction should either be diffuse and one by a bond, as the dilatations in Dithyrambex, or that it should be periodic and similar to the antistrophes of the ancient poets. Diffused diction, therefore, is ancient, as in the work of Herodotus, the Thurian, the beginning of which is, quote, this is the exposition of history, etc. Close quote. For this, formerly, all writers used, but at present it is not used by many. But I call the diction diffuse, which has of itself no end, till a thing which is discussed be brought to a conclusion. This diction is, however, unpleasant, on account of the infinite, for all men wish to see the end of a thing. Hence, racers in the turnings round the goal are out of breath and faint. But prior to this, when they have a prospect of the goal, their labor is not so extreme. Such, therefore, is diffuse diction. But periodic diction is that which consists of periods. I call, however, a period diction which has of itself a beginning and end and a magnitude which may easily be perceived. The diction of this kind is pleasing and easily learnt. It is pleasing indeed because it subsists, in a way, contrary to that which is boundless. And because the hearer always fancies he obtains something because there is always something for him which is bounded. But it is unpleasant where nothing is foreseen and nothing affected. It is also easily learnt because it may easily be remembered. Because this diction has number in the periods. Hence, all men remember verse more easily than prose, for it has number by which it is measured. It is necessary, however, that a period should contain a complete and not a mutilated and abrupt meaning, as in the Iambics of Sophocles, quote, Caledon, the land where pilops rained, close quote. For the contrary might be thought to be true by a division of the period, as in the above instance it would seem that Caledon is in the Peloponnesus. With respect to periods, however, one is in the colons, or members, but the other is simple. But the period which is in the colons is a perfect and distinct diction, and in which what is pronounced admits of easy respiration and does not consist in a division, like the above mentioned period of Sophocles, but is a whole and entire. But I call the period simple which consists of one colon. It is necessary, however, that the colons and the periods should neither be curtailed nor prolix, for when the periods are very short they cause the hearer to stumble frequently. For the mind of the hearer being called farther to the end, which he had proposed to himself, stumbles as it were when the orator stops short. But prolix periods cause the orators to be left by the orator just as those who in walking pass beyond the boundaries of their walk, for they leave their companions behind. In a similar manner, periods which are long become themselves in oration and resemble diffused diction. Of Democrates, the Cayenne upon Melanipides who dilated in his writings instead of making antistrophes quote, this man frames evil for himself in framing evil for another but to dilate much is the worst of evils to him who does it, close quote. For a thing of this kind may be aptly said to those who use long colons. Very short colons, however, may not become periods. These therefore hurry away the orator with them precipitately. But of periodic diction which consists of many colons or members, one kind is distinct and the other opposite. And the distinct, indeed, is such as the beginning of the panagyric of isocrates quote, I have often admired those who collected public assemblies and instituted the gymnastic contests, close quote. But the opposite is that which consists of many colons and in which either the same thing is composed with contraries or contraries are composed with contraries as in the panagyric of isocrates quote, the Athenians benefited both those that remained at home and those that followed for they acquired more for those that followed them possessed at home and they left sufficient for the support of those that stayed behind, close quote. Here the contraries are staying and following, sufficient and more. And again in the same oration, quote so that to those who were in want of money and to those who were willing to enjoy it, etc. close quote. Here enjoyment is opposed to acquisition. Further still, quote, it frequently happens in these things that prudent men are unfortunate and the imprudent are prosperous, close quote. And, quote, immediately, indeed they obtained the rewards of brave men and not long after they became masters of the sea, close quote. Another example is, quote, he sailed indeed through the continent but walked through the sea. He joined the helispont but dug through Mount Athos, close quote. And, quote, being citizens by nature but by law deprived of a city for some of them indeed perished miserably but others were shamefully preserved, close quote. And, quote, privately indeed they used barbarian servants but publicly overlooked many of their allies that were in slavery, close quote. And, quote, to have them when living or leave them when dead, close quote. Or, what a certain person said against Pythalaus and Lycophron in a court of justice, quote, they sold you indeed when they were at home but when they came to us they were themselves bought, close quote. For all these instances make the above mentioned periodic opposite diction. Diction, however, of this kind is confusing because contraries are most known and when placed by each other are more known and also because they resemble a syllogism. For an alinkus or a syllogism of contradiction is a collection of opposites. A thing therefore of this kind is antithesis. But at equation takes place when the colons or members are equal, as, quote, the father died in battle, and was married at home, close quote. And assimilation is when both the colons have similar extremes, but it is necessary that they should have similar extremes, either in the beginning or the end. And the beginning indeed has always similar nouns, but the end has the last syllables similar or cases of the same noun or the same noun. In the beginning indeed the similar extremes are such as in the following instances, quote, he received land from him, but it was uncultivated land, close quote, and, quote, appeased with gifts and mollified with words, close quote. But the similar extremes in the Andar, quote, they did not think that he had brought forth a boy, but that he was the cause of his birth, close quote, quote, in great cares and in little hopes, close quote. Cases of the same noun are such as, quote, but he deserves to have a brazen statue though he is not worthy of brass, i.e., of a brazen coin, close quote. And an instance of the repetition of the same noun is, quote, you while he was living defamed him and now he is dead right ill of him, close quote. But an instance when there is a similitude alone in the last syllable is, quote, what evil have you suffered if you have seen an indolent man, close quote. A period also may have all these at once, so as not only to consist of opposite, but also of equal and similarly ending colons. The beginnings, however, of periods are nearly all of them enumerated in Artheodectian rhetoric. There are likewise false oppositions, such as Epicharmus made, quote, then I was one of them, then I was with them, close quote. Chapter 10 These things, therefore, being discussed, let us now show whence polite and the most approved diction is derived. To speak politely, therefore, is the province of an ingenious man or of one who is exercised in elocution, but to show the sources from whence polite diction is derived belongs to this method, i.e., to rhetoric. We shall, therefore, unfold and enumerate what they are. Let the beginning, therefore, be this. To learn easily is naturally delightful to all men, but names signify something. Hence, such names as cause us to learn are most pleasing. Foreign tongues, therefore, are unknown, but proper words we know. Metaphor, however, especially causes diction to be polite. For, when the poet says that, quote, old age is stubble, close quote, he produces in us learning and knowledge through the genus, i.e., through the agreement of old age and stubble, since both produce a de-floration. The image, therefore, of poets produce indeed the same thing, and hence, if they are well employed, the diction will appear to be polite. For an image, as we have before observed, is a metaphor, differing from it in the collocation, on which account it is less pleasing, because it is a longer simile, and it does not say this thing is that. Hence, in a metaphor, the mind does not investigate the similitude, i.e., its attention is not diverted from the object to which it is directed. That diction, therefore, and those enthememes must necessarily be polite, which cause us to learn or produce in us knowledge rapidly. Hence, neither are superficial enthememes approved. Bracket, for we call those enthememes superficial, which are manifest to everyone, and which require no investigation, close bracket, nor such as when produced are not understood. But those only render the diction polite, which are understood as soon as they are uttered, though there was no previous knowledge of them, or which shortly after lead us to the knowledge of something of which we were ignorant. For, by the latter enthememes, discipline is as it were produced, but by no means by the former. Enthemes, therefore, of this kind are approved from the sense of meaning of the diction. Urbanity, however, is produced in the figure or form of the diction, if contraries are opposed to contraries, as in the aeration of isocrates to pace. Quote, and they thought that the peace, which is common to the other Greeks, was war to their own private affairs. Close quote, for here war is opposed to peace. Urbanity also is produced in names or words if they are metaphorical, and the metaphor is neither foreign, for this is difficult to understand, nor superficial, for this does not affect the hearer. Further still, urbanity in diction is produced if the thing itself is placed before the eyes, for it is more necessary to see what has been, then what will be done. It is requisite, therefore, to pay attention to these three things, vis, metaphor, antithesis, and energy. As, however, there are four kinds of metaphors, those are most approved, which subsist according to analogy, as when Pericles said, quote, that youth perishing in battle was taken away from the city, just as if someone should take away the spring from the year, close quote. And, as Leptonese said of the Lassidimonians, quote, that the Athenians should not suffer Greece to be deprived of its other eye, close quote. Thus, too, Cephasoditus, when Charis was anxious to give an account of the Olinthiachor, said indignantly, quote, that while he endeavored to give the people an account of his conduct, he kept them in a furnace, close quote. And, the same person, once exhorting the Athenians to forage in Ubia, said, quote, it was necessary that the decree of Miltiades should proceed to the Ubiic expedition. And, Iphicrates, when the Athenians had made a league with Epidurus and the Seacoast, said indignantly, quote, that they had deprived themselves of the Viattica of war, close quote. And, Pythelus, called the Athenianship which was denominated Perilus, the club, Bracket Robalon, close bracket, of the people. He also called Cestus the granary of the Pyraeum. Pericles, likewise, exhorted the Athenians to destroy Argyna, as the ophthalomy of the Pyraeum. And, miracles, naming a certain worthy person, said, quote, that he was in no respect more depraved than this person, for with respect to him, he had taken 3% interest, but that he himself had taken 10%, close quote. And, the Iambic of Anaxanderides, upon his daughters, that were a long time before they married, quote, the virgins have passed beyond the appointed day of wedlock, close quote. To these may be added, what Polyutus said on one Spusipus, who was a restless man and apoplectic, quote, that he could not be quiet, though he was bound by fortune in the disease, close quote. Cephisodotus, likewise, called three banked galleys various baking houses, but the dog, i.e. Diogenes, called Taverns the Attic Fidicia. And, Ashen said, quote, that the Athenians had poured forth their city into Sicily, close quote. For, this is a metaphor, and places the thing before the eyes. Ascian adds, quote, that the Athenians had so poured forth their city into Sicily, that Greece vociferated, close quote. For, this also is, after a manner, a metaphor, and places the thing before the eyes. Cephisodotus also exhorted the Athenians to beware, quote, that they did not make their assemblies hostile congresses, close quote. And, Isocrates said, quote, that this office addressed themselves to those who run together in the public assemblies, close quote. And, as in the funeral oration of Lyceus, quote, it was but just that Greece should cut off her hair on the tomb of those who died at Salamis because her liberty was buried with their virtue, close quote. For, if he had said, quote, that it was but just Greece should weep in consequence of virtue being buried with those who died at Salamis, close quote. It would have been only a metaphor and the thing would have been placed before the eyes. But the words, quote, liberty was buried with virtue, close quote, have a certain antithesis. And, as Iphicrates said, quote, the path of my oration is through the midst of the transactions of Charis, close quote. For, this is a metaphor according to analogy, and the words, through the midst, close quote, place the thing before our eyes. Antithesis, quote, to call on dangers, to give assistance to dangers, close quote, is to place the thing before the eyes, and is a metaphor. Another instance is that of Lycolian in defense of Chabrius, quote, neither will you revere his suppliant brazen statue, close quote. For, this is a metaphor in the present time but not always, and places the thing before the eyes. For, he being in danger, the statue supplicates for him, and supplication is attributed to an inanimate statue, which is the property of an animated thing, and, quote, a monument of the works of the city, close quote, and, quote, they meditated by every possible way to have groveling conceptions, close quote. For, to meditate is to increase something, and again, quote, that God encandled the light of intellect in the soul, close quote. For, both light and intellect accord in illuminating, and, quote, for, we do not dissolve war, but defer it, close quote. For, both deferring and a peace of this kind signify something future, and to say, quote, that the compacts of peace are a trophy much more beautiful than those which are procured in war. For, the latter are obtained for things of small consequence, and through one fortune, but the former, for every battle, close quote. For, both a trophy and a compact are indications of victory, and, quote, that cities through the censure of men suffer great punishment, close quote. For punishment is a certain just injury. And thus we have shown how polite diction should be derived from metaphor, according to the analogous, and from placing a thing before the eyes. End of Chapter 10 of Book 3 Recording in memory of Mitchell Edwards Chapter 11 of Book 3 of Rhetoric This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Jeffrey Edwards Rhetoric by Aristotle translated by Thomas Taylor Chapter 11 of Book 3 Let us now show what we mean by placing a thing before the eyes, and what is to be done in order to affect this. I say then that those words place a thing before the eyes which signify things energizing. Thus, for instance, to say QUOTE that a good man is a square is metaphorical. For both a good man and a square are perfect. But it does not signify energy. But to say possessing a flourishing acme signifies energy. Likewise to say QUOTE but you as liberated indicates energy. QUOTE then with impetuous feet forth rushed the Greeks. QUOTE Here the word impetuous is energy and a metaphor. Thus, too, energy is everywhere exhibited by Homer who speaks of inanimate things as animated through a metaphor. But to produce energy in everything as he does is very much applauded as in the following instances. QUOTE Back on the ground then rolled the shameless stone. QUOTE the arrow flew. QUOTE and QUOTE longing to strike. QUOTE Trojan and Greshan darts in earth then stood and longed to gorge themselves with human blood. QUOTE The furious pointed dart then pierced his breast. QUOTE For in all these instances because the things are animated they appear to energize for to be shameless and furious etc. are energies. But Homer has added these through metaphor from analogy for as the stone is Decisifus so is an impudent person to him who he impudently torments. However likewise in his celebrated images attributes to inanimate things the proper energies of such as are animated as QUOTE the afflicted deeps tumultuous mix and roar the waves behind impel the waves before wide rolling foaming high and tumbling to the shore. QUOTE For he makes everything moving and living but energy is imitation Metaphors however ought to be derived as we have before observed from things familiar and not obvious. Just as in philosophy it is the province of a sagacious man to survey the similar in things very different from each other. As Architus says QUOTE For he who is injured flies to both these QUOTE Or if someone should say that an anchor and a cremastra are the same thing QUOTE For both perform an office which is in a certain respect the same but they differ in this that the one is fixed above and the other beneath. To say also that cities are anomalous is another instance of an appropriate metaphor taken from things very dissimilar For as a superficial use is said to be anomalous because one part rises above another so a city may be said to be anomalous when some of the citizens in it surpass others in power. Polite diction however is for the most part affected through metaphor and previous deception. For the diction which not only causes us to learn something of which we were before ignorant but also something about which we had been before deceived is more polite and pleasant since the mind passing from error to truth is delighted and says to itself QUOTE How true is this which I have learnt I was in an error of apathems likewise those are polite which imply something different from what the words at first seem to signify as that apathem of stesichorus QUOTE Good enigmas also are for the same reason pleasing for they cause us to learn something and are metaphorical and as the adorah says QUOTE it is pleasing to say something new but this is affected when what is said is paradoxical and bracket as he says close bracket is not conformable to prior opinion and as the adorah says it is conformable to prior opinion but as in ridiculous assertions is slightly transformed this likewise is capable of being affected by jests in which the letters of the words are somewhat changed for these pleasantly deceive the hero and also inverse for something is said different from what the hero expected QUOTE he walked along with chill-blanes close quote but the hero expected it would have been said that he had sandals on his feet this kind of jest however ought to be immediately manifest paragraphs or jests formed by the mutation of letters are produced when that is not signified which the words at first seem to signify as the jest of theodorus upon Nikon the harper for Nikon having been vexed by a certain person theodorus deriding him said throt he in which appears as if he had said QUOTE he disturbs you close quote and deceives the hero for in reality he said QUOTE he makes you a thration close quote hence this is pleasing to him who learns the true meaning of what is said for unless the hero apprehends that Nikon was a thration the jest would not appear to be polite thus also to say out on seems at the first view to signify are you willing to vex him close quote but the true meaning is are you willing to make him a favor of the persians and a betrayer of the greeks close quote it is requisite however hence of the ambiguous word should be adapted to him of whom it is said another example is such as the following QUOTE the archae of the sea was not to the Athenians the archae of evils for they derived advantage from it close quote and as isocrates says QUOTE the archae of the sea was to the city i.e. to the Athenians the archae of evils close quote for in both these instances the real meaning is different from what at the first view it appears to be and the hero knows that what is asserted is true for to say that archae was archae is to say nothing to the purpose but this is not what is said in the above instances nor is that denied which is asserted but the word has another meaning in all these instances however if the word is appropriately employed whether it be a homonymous word or a metaphor then the diction is proper as if the name of someone were anishitas and it should be said that anishitas is not anishitas i.e. important it for he who says this denies the homonymous signification of the word and this is appropriately affected if the word is always used twice again quote oh hospes i.e. guest you will not become more hospes than is requisite close quote and quote it is not necessary that hope should always be hopes close quote for this also is foreign the same thing also is affected in the celebrated saying of anxandridies quote it is a beautiful thing to die prior to having done anything deserving of death close quote for this is the same thing as to say quote it is worthwhile to die when not deserving to die close quote or quote it is worthwhile to die when not deserving of death or not doing things worthy of death close quote the form of diction therefore is the same in these instances but in proportion as they are shorter and contain a greater opposition in such proportion they are more elegant and pleasing the cause however of this is that we in a greater degree learn something from opposition and that this is more rapidly affected by brevity but it is always necessary that the person should be present on whom the thing is said or that it should be rightly said if the assertion is true and not superficial for these two things may exist separately thus for instance to say quote it is necessary to die free from all faults close quote and quote it is requisite that a worthy man should marry a worthy woman close quote is true but is not politely said but to say quote it is worthwhile to die when not deserving to die close quote is both true and politely said the diction also will appear to be more polite the more it contains of those things from which politeness is derived as if the words are metaphorical and metaphors of such a kind and if there is antithesis at equation and energy images likewise as we have before observed are always after a manner approved metaphors for they are always derived from two things in the same manner as an analogous metaphor thus we say that a shield is the cup of Mars and that a bow is a stringless harp when we thus speak however the assertion is not simple but to say that a bow is a harp or a shield a cup is a simple assertion they assimilate however as follows as a player on the flute to an ape and a short sighted man to a trickling lamp for in both there is a contraction but images are celebrated when they contain a metaphor for it is to assimilate to say that a shield is the cup of Mars that a runous building is a worn out garment and that Niceratis according to the assimilation of Thrasymachus was Phylloctetes bit by the poet Pratis for Thrasymachus said this in consequence of seeing Niceratis vanquished by Pratis in a poetical contest and through this neglecting his person in these similitudes however poets fail unless they are proper even if they are celebrated I mean for instance when they say he carries legs like parsley bent and as Philemon with Coricus yoked in contest and all such things are images but that images are metaphors has been frequently observed by us Proverbs likewise are metaphors from species to species i.e. in which one species is predicated of another on account of agreement in the same genus thus of him who expects to derive advantage from a certain thing if he should afterwards suffer a loss from it it is said as the Carpathian the hare for both suffered the evil we have mentioned and thus we have nearly assigned the cause whence and why diction is polite celebrated hyperbolies also are metaphors as of one who had contusions on his face you would have thought him to be a basket of mulberries for the part under the eyes is read but this hyperbole is much too great and hyperbole however may differ from an hyperbole in the diction as instead of saying Philemon yoked in contest with Coricus close quote it might be said you would have thought it was Philemon fighting with Coricus and instead of saying he carried legs as distorted as parsley close quote I should have thought that he had not legs but parsley they are so distorted hyperbole however are purile for they indicate a vehement motion of the soul hence they are especially used by those who are angry thus Achilles in Iliad 9 speaks hyperbolically when he says he is not to be appeased by the gifts of Agamemnon quote though bribes were heaped on bribes in number more than dust in fields or sands along the shore close quote Iliad's daughter never shall be laid an ill-matched consort to Achilles bed like Golden Venus though she charmed the heart or vied with palace in the works of art close quote the Attic Returitions also especially use hyperbole on which account it is unbecoming in an old man to speak hyperbolically chapter 12 it is however not to be ignorant that a different diction is adapted to each genus of erasions for graphic and agonistic diction i.e. the diction employed in writing and at the bar are not the same nor forensic and that which is employed in popular harangues but it is necessary to know both these kinds of diction for to know the one is to know how to speak properly and by a knowledge of the other we are not compelled to be silent when we wish to impart something to others which those suffer who do not know how to write but graphic diction or the diction pertaining to writing is indeed most accurate but the agonistic or that which belongs to the bar is most adapted to action of this latter however there are two species classical but the other pathetic hence also players choose dramas of this kind and poets choose such like players to act their fables those poets likewise are most approved whose fables delight not only when acted but also when read such as those of chairman whose diction is as accurate as that of any writer of erasions and among the dithirambic poets those of Lysimnicus when erasions also are compared with each other those which are written will appear when recited in forensic contests to be jejun on the other hand those erasions which when publicly delivered are heard with applause if they are perused when written will appear to be unpolished and inaccurate the reason of which is that they are merely adapted to forensic contests hence those which are adapted to action when deprived of action in consequence of not accomplishing their proper work appear to be jejun thus for instance disjointed sentences and frequent repetition are rightly rejected in the diction pertaining to writing but rhetoricians use these in the diction which belongs to the bar for both these are adapted to action this repetition however ought to be delivered with a change of the voice which as it were prepares the way for action as quote he it is who robbed you he it is who deceived you he it is who at last endeavored to betray you close quote as filament the player also did whilst he acted in the gerontomeria of andreides when ratamanthus and palaminespeak and also in the prologue of the play called the pious where I is frequently repeated for if such repetitions are not accompanied with action the actor according to the proverb will seem to carry a beam the like also must be observed with respect to disjointed sentences such as I came I met him I requested him for it is necessary that these should be accompanied with action and not as if only one thing was said pronounced with the same manner and the same tone of voice further still disjointed diction possesses something peculiar since in an equal time many things appear to be said for the conjunction of active copula causes many things to be one so that if it is taken away it is evident that on the contrary one thing will be many hence he amplifies who says quote I came I spoke to him I supplicated him much but he seems to despise whatever I have said whatever I do say close quote Homer also intends to do this when speaking of Nereus in the second book of the Iliad he says quote three ships with Nereus sought the Trojan shore Nereus whom Aglais to Charapas bore Nereus in faultless shape and blooming grace the loveliest youth of all the Gratian race close quote for he of whom many things are said must necessarily be frequently mentioned if therefore he is frequently mentioned many things also appear to be said of him hence Homer though he has only mentioned Nereus in one place amplifies from paralogism and mentions him here though he did not intend to mention him in any other place afterwards the diction therefore adapted to popular harangues and quickly resemble sciagraphy for the greater the number of the spectators the more remotely is such a picture to be seen hence in both accuracy is superfluous and both become worse through it but judicial diction is more accurate and it is requisite that the diction should be still more accurate which is addressed to one judge for this is the least thing for that which is appropriate to and that which is foreign from a thing are more easily perceived in this case also contention is absent so that the judgment is pure hence the same returations are not celebrated in all these kinds of diction but where action is especially necessary their accuracy is in the smallest degree requisite and where voice and especially allowed one is required their action is necessary demonstrative diction therefore is most proper for writing for demonstrative errations are composed in order that they may be read but judicial diction is the next in order it is however superfluous to divide diction into the pleasing and magnificent for why may it not as well be divided into the temperate and liberal or into any other ethical virtue for it is evident that the particulars already mentioned will render it pleasing if the virtue of diction has been rightly defined by us for why audit to be perspicuous and not abject but decorous since it will not be perspicuous either if it be verbose or concise but it is evident that the medium between these is appropriate the particulars also before mentioned render diction pleasing if usual and foreign words are well mingled together and likewise rhythm and that which is calculated to persuade from the decorous and thus much concerning diction as well in common about every as in particular about each genus Chapter 13 it now remains should speak concerning the order of diction but there are two parts of a narration for it is necessary to speak of the thing which is the subject of discussion and then to demonstrate hence it is impossible for him who narrates a thing not to demonstrate or that he should demonstrate without previous narration for he who demonstrates demonstrates something propounds for the sake of demonstrating of these necessary parts of a narration however the one is the proposition but the other the confirmation in the same manner as in the sciences one thing is a problem but another a demonstration but the division which returitions now make is ridiculous for narration belongs to a forensic oration but in the demonstrative genus how can there be a narration such as they say there is or those things which are urged against the opponent or how can there be a pararation of things demonstrative the poem however the comparison and the repetition then take place in orations to the people when there is altercation bracket for in these there is frequently accusation and defense close bracket but not so far as there is consultation in these but neither does pararation belong to every forensic oration for it is not requisite when the oration is short or the thing can easily be remembered since in this pararation it would happen that something would be taken away from the length of such a narration the necessary parts of a narration therefore are proposition proof and these indeed are proper or peculiar parts but the most numerous parts of a narration are the poem, the proposition proof and pararation for what is said against the opponent pertains to proof and the comparison is an amplification of our arguments so that it is a certain part of the proof for he demonstrates something as this neither the poem however nor the pararation is a part of the proof but each is subservient to recollection if therefore anyone makes a division of things of this kind like the followers of the adoras narration, pre-narration super-narration confutation and super-confutation will be different from each other that he who speaks of a certain species and difference of a thing should give a name to it for if not it will become vain and nougatory and this fault of needlessly introducing new names was committed by Lyceumnius in his art of rhetoric when he speaks of eruption aberration and ramification chapter 14 the poem therefore is the beginning of a narration which in dramatic poetry is the prologue and in playing on the pipe the prelude for all these are principles or beginnings and as it were preparatory to what follows and the prelude indeed is similar to the poem of the demonstrative kind of erasions for as those that play on the pipe connect the prelude with the beginning of the song thus also in demonstrative erasions immediately after the orator has mentioned what he wishes to say it is necessary to collect aptly with it what is to follow of which all rhetoricians adduce as an example the poem of isocrates in his oration in praise of Helen for isocrates begins his incomium with blaming the sophists which has nothing in common with the praise of Helen and yet because he has aptly conjoined it with the argument he has obtained praise but the poems of demonstrative erasions are derived from praise or blame as in the poem of Gorgias to his olympic oration quote oh greeks this is a thing worthy of general admiration close quote for he praises those who are skeptical isocrates on the contrary blames them quote because they honored indeed with gifts the virtues of the body but appointed no reward for wise men close quote the poems also of demonstrative erasions are derived from counsel and advice such for instance as quote that it is requisite to honor good men on which account he has undertaken to praise Aristides close quote or as he who wrote an oration in praise of Paris for he says quote that it is neither requisite to praise those who are celebrated nor those who are of no account but those who are good and at the same time obscure men such as was Paris the son of prime close quote for he who thus begins his oration is one that gives counsel further still the poems of demonstrative erasions are derived from forensic poems but this is from things pertaining to the hearer if the oration is concerning something paradoxical or difficult or much celebrated so as to require pardon from the auditors such for instance as the poem of Coralus quote but now since all things are divulged close quote the poems therefore of demonstrative orations are derived from these things fizz from praise and blame from exhortation and dissuasion and from those things which are referred to the hearer it is necessary however that the poems should either be foreign or appropriate to the oration with respect to poems of the forensic kind it is necessary to assume that they are able to affect the same thing as the prologues of dramatic and the poems of epic poems for Dithirambic poems are similar to those of the demonstrative kind as quote on account of the and thy gifts or spoils close quote but in dramatic and epic poems the poems are a specimen of what is to follow and therefore see what the subject of them is and that his mind may not be kept in suspense for that which is indefinite causes the mind to wander the poet therefore who delivers into the hands of the reader the beginning of his poem makes him follow with attention the rest of it hence Homer quote the wrath of Pellius son oh goddess sing the man for wisdoms various arts renowned long exercised in woes oh muse resound close quote and another poet quote again oh muse inspire my verse and sing how from the Asian land a mighty war spread over Europe close quote tragic poets also indicate respecting the drama though not immediately as it does yet they indicate what it is in the prologue as Sophocles in the Oedipus quote Pellibius was my father close quote and after the same manner comic poets the most necessary and proper office therefore of a poem is this to unfold the end for the sake of which the oration was composed on which account if the poem is manifest and the subject matter is trifling the poem must be omitted other species of poems however which are used by orators are remedies and things of a common nature and these are derived from the speaker and the hearer from the subject matter and from the opponent from the orator therefore and the opponent those poems are derived which pertain to the dissolving and accusation but these must not be similarly employed by the plaintiff and defendant for by the defendant what pertains to accusation must be introduced in the beginning but by the plaintiff at the end of the oration but for what reason it is not a manifest for it is necessary that the defendant when he is about to introduce himself should remove all impediments so that he must dissolve the accusation at the beginning of his speech but the opponent should be criminated by the plaintiff at the end in order that the hearers may remember the better what however pertains to the auditor consists in rendering him benevolent to the orator and enraged with the opponent sometimes also it is advantageous to the cause that the auditor should be attentive and sometimes that he should not for it is not always beneficial to render him attentive hence many orators endeavour to excite laughter in their hearers a summary account of a thing also contributes to celerity of apprehension and this is likewise affected by the orators appearing to be a worthy man for the audience are more attentive to men of this description but they are attentive to great things to things pertaining to themselves to admirable and to delightful things hence it is necessary to inform the audience that the oration will be concerning things of this kind on the contrary if the orator wishes the audience not to be attentive to the cause he must say that the subject matter is a thing of small consequence that it does not pertain to them and that it is a troublesome affair it is necessary however not to be ignorant that all such things are foreign to the orations for they pertain to a depraved hearer and to one who attends to what is foreign to the purpose for if you were not a person of this description there would be no occasion for a poem except so far as it is requisite to give a summary account of the affair in order that the oration as a body may have a head further still to render the audience attentive if it should be requisite is common to all the parts of an oration because universally the audience are less attentive to what is said in the progress then in the beginning of the oration hence it is ridiculous to endeavor to procure attention in the beginning of the oration because then all the hearers are especially attentive hence attention is to be procured wherever occasion offers by saying for instance quote give me your attention for this business is not more mine than yours close quote and quote I will relate to you a transaction of such a nature that you have never heard of anything so dreadful or so admirable close quote but this is as Prodocus says when the audience are drowsy to promise to say something to them from his demonstration estimated at 50 drachmans it is evident however that the proam is referred to the auditor not so far as he is an auditor for all orators in the proams either criminate or dissolve fear as from the antigony of Sophocles quote I will tell you o king though it was not my intention to have come hither as a messenger close quote and from the Iphigenia in Taurus of Euripides quote why do you preface close quote a proam also is necessary when the cause is bad or appears to be bad for in this case it is better to discuss anything else than to dwell upon the cause hence servants do not directly reply to the question they are asked but their answer is circuitous and prefatory but we have shown whence it is requisite to render the audience benevolent and have explained everything else of this kind since however it is well said by Ulysses to Minerva in Odyssey 14 quote give me as a friend and a man to be pitied to reach Phoenicia's land close quote it is necessary to pay attention to these two things but in proams of the demonstrative kind it is necessary to make the auditor fancy that either himself or his race or his pursuits or something else belonging to him is praised together with the person who is the subject of the oration for what Socrates says in the Menexemus of Plato is true quote that it is not difficult to praise the Athenians among the Athenians but among the Lacedemonians that the proams of popular orations are derived from those of the forensic kind for these have not naturally any themselves since the audience are well acquainted with the subject and the thing itself is not in want of any proam but a proam is here requisite either on account of the orator or the opponents or if the audience should not think the affair of just so much consequence as it is but of greater or less consequence hence it is necessary either to criminate the opponent or to dissolve the accusation against him and either to amplify or diminish the affair but for the sake of these things a proam is requisite or a proam is necessary for the sake of ornament since without this the oration will appear to be carelessly composed is the encomium of Gorgias on the Elians for without any previous extension and graceful movement of his arms like the athelete before they engage he immediately begins quote Ellis a happy city close quote end of chapter 14 of book 3 recording in memory of Mitchell Edwards