 Preface of Principia Ethica, this is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Fredrik Karlsson. Principia Ethica by G. E. Moore. Preface. It appears to me that in ethics, as in all other philosophical studies, the difficulties and disagreements of which its history is full are mainly due to a very simple cause. Namely to the attempt to answer questions without first discovering precisely what question it is which you desire to answer. I do not know how far this source of error would be done away if philosophers would try to discover what question they were asking before they set about to answer it. For the work of analysis and distinction is often very difficult. We may often fail to make the necessary discovery, even though we make a definite attempt to do so. But I am inclined to think that in many cases a resolute attempt would be sufficient to ensure success, so that if only this attempt were made, many of the most glaring difficulties and disagreements in philosophy would disappear. At all events, philosophers seem, in general, not to make the attempt. And whether in consequence of this omission or not, they are constantly endeavoring to prove that yes or no will answer questions to which neither answer is correct, owing to the fact that what they have before their minds is not one question, but several, to some of which the true answer is no, to others yes. I have tried in this book to distinguish clearly two kinds of questions, which moral philosophers have always professed to answer, but which, as I have tried to show, they have almost always confused both with one another and with other questions. These two questions may be expressed the first in the form, what kind of things ought to exist for their own sakes, the second in the form, what kind of actions ought we to perform. I have tried to show exactly what it is that we ask about a thing, when we ask whether it ought to exist for its own sake, is good in itself, or has intrinsic value, and exactly what it is that we ask about an action, when we ask whether we ought to do it, whether it is a right action or duty. But from a clear insight into the nature of these two questions, there appears to me to follow a second most important result, namely, what is the nature of the evidence, by which alone any ethical proposition can be proved or disproved, confirmed or rendered doubtful. Once we recognize the exact meaning of the two questions, I think it also becomes plain exactly what kind of reasons are relevant as arguments for or against any particular answer to them. It becomes plain that, for answers to the first question, no relevant evidence, whatever, can be adduced. From no other truth except themselves alone, can it be inferred that they are either true or false. We can guard against error only by taking care that, when we try to answer a question of this kind, we have before our minds that question only, and not some other or others. But that there is a great danger of such errors of confusion I have tried to show, and also what are the chief precautions by the use of which we may guard against them. As for the second question, it becomes equally plain that any answer to it is capable of proof or disprove, that, indeed, so many different considerations are relevant to its truth or falsehood, as to make the attainment of probability very difficult, and the attainment of certainty impossible. Nevertheless, the kind of evidence, which is both necessary and alone relevant to such proof and disproof, is capable of exact definition. Such evidence must contain propositions of two kinds and of two kinds only. It must consist in the first place of truth with regard to the results of the action in question of causal truths. But it must also contain ethical truths of our first or self-evident class. Many truths of both kinds are necessary to the proof that any action ought to be done, and any other kind of evidence is wholly irrelevant. It follows that if any ethical philosopher offers for propositions of the first kind any evidence whatever, or if for propositions of the second kind he either fails to adduce both causal and ethical truths, or adduces truths that are neither, his reasoning has not the least tendency to establish his conclusions. But not only are his conclusions totally devoid of weight, we have, moreover, reason to suspect him of the error of confusion. Since the offering of irrelevant evidence generally indicates that the philosopher who offers it has had before his mind not the question which he professes to also, but some other entirely different one. Ethical discussion he adhered to has perhaps consisted chiefly in reasoning of this totally irrelevant kind. One main object of this book may then be expressed by slightly changing one of Kant's famous titles. I have endeavored to write Prolegomena to any future ethics that can possibly pretend to be scientific. In other words, I have endeavored to discover what are the fundamental principles of ethical reasoning, and the establishment of these principles rather than of any conclusions which may be attained by their use, may be regarded as my main object. I have, however, also attempted in chapter 6 to present some conclusions with regard to the proper answer to the question. What is good in itself, which are very different from any which have commonly been advocated by philosophers? I have tried to define the classes within which all great goods and evils fall, and I have maintained that very many different things are good and evil in themselves, and that neither class of things possesses any other proper which is both common to all its members and peculiar to them. In order to express the fact that ethical propositions of my first class are incapable of proof or disproof, I have sometimes followed Sitchwick's usage in calling them intuitions, but I beg that it may be noticed that I am not an intuitionist in the ordinary sense of the term. Sitchwick himself seems never to have been clearly aware of the immense importance of the difference which distinguishes his intuitionism from the common doctrine which has generally been called by that name. The intuitionist proper is distinguished by maintaining that propositions of my second class, and propositions which assert that a certain action is right or a duty are incapable of proof or disproof by any inquiry into the results of such actions. I, on the contrary, am no less anxious to maintain that propositions of this kind are not intuitions than to maintain that propositions of my first class are intuitions. Again, I would wish to observe that when I call such propositions intuitions, I mean merely to assert that they are incapable of proof. I imply nothing whatever as to the manner or original of our cognition of them. Still less do I imply, as most intuitionists have done, that any propositions whatever is true because we cognize it in a particular way or by the exercise of any particular faculty. I hold, on the contrary, that in every way in which it is possible to cognize a true proposition, it is also possible to cognize a false one. When this book had been already completed, I found in Brentano's origin of the knowledge of right and wrong, opinions far more closely resembling my own than those of any other ethical writer with whom I am acquainted. Brentano appears to agree with me completely. One, in regarding all ethical propositions as defined by the fact that they predicate a single unique objective concept. Two, in dividing such propositions sharply into the same two kinds. Three, in holding that the first kind are incapable of proof and four, with regard to the kind of evidence which is necessary and relevant to the proof of the second kind. But he regards the fundamental ethical concept as being not the simple one which I denote by good, but the complex one which I have taken to define beautiful. And he does not recognize but even denies by implication the principle which I have called the principle of organic unities. In consequence of these two differences, his conclusions as to what things are good in themselves also differ very materially from mine. He agrees, however, that there are many different goods and that the love of good and beautiful objects constitutes an important class among them. I wish to refer to one oversight, of which I became aware only when it was too late to correct it and which may, I am afraid, cause unnecessary trouble to some readers. I have omitted to discuss directly the mutual relations of the several different notions which are all expressed by the word end. The consequences of this omission may be partially avoided by reference to my article on teleology in Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology. If I were to rewrite my work now, I should make a very different and I believe that I could make a much better book. But it may be doubted whether, in attempting to satisfy myself, I might not merely render more obscure the ideas which I am most anxious to convey without a corresponding gain in completeness and accuracy. However that may be, my belief that to publish the book as it stands was probably the best thing I could do does not prevent me from being painfully aware that it is full of defects. 1. The subject matter of ethics 1. It is very easy to point out some among our everyday judgments with the truth of which ethics is undoubtedly concerned. Whenever we say, so-and-so is a good man, or that fellow is a villain, whenever we ask what ought I to do, or is it wrong for me to do like this? Whenever we hazard such remarks as temperance is a virtue and drunkenness a vice, it is undoubtedly the business of ethics to discuss such questions and such statements, to argue what is the true answer when we ask what is right to do and to give reasons for thinking that our statements about the character of persons or the morality of actions are true or false. In the vast majority of cases where we make statements involving any of the terms virtue, vice, duty, right, ought, good, bad, we are making ethical judgments and if we wish to discuss their truth we shall be discussing a point of ethics. So much as this is not disputed, but it falls very short of defining the province of ethics. That province may indeed be defined as the whole truth about that which is at the same time common to all such judgments and peculiar to them. But we have still to ask the question what is it that is thus common and peculiar? And this is a question to which very different answers have been given by ethical philosophers of acknowledged reputation and none of them perhaps completely satisfactory. 2. If we take such examples as those given above we shall not be far wrong in saying that they are all of them concerned with the question of conduct. With the question what in the conduct of us human beings is good and what is bad what is right and what is wrong? For when we say that a man is good we commonly mean that he acts rightly when we say that a drunkenness is a vice we commonly mean that to get drunk is a wrong or a wicked action. And this discussion of human conduct is in fact that with which the name ethics is most intimately associated. It is so associated by derivation and conduct is undoubtedly by far the commonest and most generally interesting object of ethical judgments. Accordingly we find that many ethical philosophers are disposed to accept as an adequate definition of ethics the statement that deals with the question what is good or bad in human conduct. They hold that its inquiries are properly confined to conduct or to practice they hold that the name practical philosophy covers all the matter with which it has to do. Now without discussing the proper meaning of the word for verbal questions are properly left to the writers of dictionaries and other persons interested in literature. Philosophers as we shall see has no concern with them. I may say that I intend to use ethics to cover more than this a usage for which there is I think quite sufficient authority. I am using it to cover an inquiry for which at all events there is no other word the general inquiry into what is good. Ethics is undoubtedly concerned with the question what good conduct is but being concerned with this it obviously does not start at the beginning unless it is prepared to tell us what is good as well as what is conduct. For good conduct is a complex notion all conduct is not good for some is certainly bad and some may be indifferent and on the other hand other things beside conduct may be good and if they are so then good denotes some property that is common to them and conduct. And if we examine good conduct alone of all good things then we shall be in danger of mistaking for this property some property which is not shared by those things. And thus we shall have made a mistake about ethics even in this limited sense for we shall not know what good conduct really is. This is a mistake which many writers have actually made from limiting their inquiry to conduct. And hence I shall try to avoid it by considering first what is good in general hoping that if we can arrive at any certainty about this it will be much easier to settle the question of good conduct for we all know pretty well what conduct is. This then is our first question what is good and what is bad and to the discussion of this question I give the name ethics since the science must at all events include it. 3. But this is a question which may have many meanings if for example each of us were to say I am doing good now or I had a good dinner yesterday these statements would each of them be some sort of answer to our question although perhaps a false one. So 2. When A asks B will he or to send his son to B answers will certainly be an ethical judgment and similarly all distribution of praise or blame to any personage or thing that has existed now exists or will exist does give some answer to the question what is good in all such cases some particular thing is judged to be good or bad the question what is answered by this this is not the sense into which a scientific ethics asks the question not one of all the many million answers of this kind which must be true can form a part of an ethical system although that science must contain reasons and principles sufficient for deciding on the truth of all of them. There are far too many persons things and events in the world past, present or to come for a discussion for their individual and many science. Ethics therefore does not deal at all with the facts of this nature facts that are unique, individual absolutely particular facts with which such studies as history, geography, astronomy are compelled in part at least to deal and for this reason it is not the business of the ethical philosopher to give personal advice or exhortation 4. But there is another meaning which may be a question what is good books are good would be an answer to it though an answer obviously falls for some goods are very bad indeed and ethical judgments of this kind do indeed belong to ethics though I shall not deal with many of them such as the judgment pleasure is good a judgment of which ethics should discuss the truth although it is not nearly as important as the other judgment with which we shall be much occupied presently alone is good it is judgments of this sort which are made in such books on ethics as contain a list of virtues in Aristotle's ethics for example but it is the judgments of precisely the same kind which form the substance of what is commonly supposed to be a study different from ethics and one much less respectable the study of casjewis tree we may be told that casjewis tree differs from ethics in that it is much more detailed and particular ethics much more general but it is most important to notice that casjewis tree does not deal with anything that is absolutely particular particular in the only sense in which a perfectly precise line can be drawn between it and what is general it is not particular in the sense just noticed the sense in which this book is a particular book and ace friends advice particular advice casjewis tree may indeed be more particular in ethics more general but that means they differ only in degree and not in kind and this is universally true of particular and general when used in this common but inaccurate sense so far as ethics allows itself to give lists of virtues or even to name constituents of the ideal it is indistinguishable from casjewis tree both alike deal with what is general in the sense in which physics and chemistry deal with what is general just as chemistry aims at discovering what are the properties of oxygen wherever it occurs and not only of this or that particular specimen of oxygen so casjewis tree aims at discovering what actions are good whenever they occur and this respect ethics and casjewis tree alike are to be classed with such sciences as physics chemistry and physiology in their absolute distinctions from those of which history and geography are instances and it is to be noted that owing to their detailed nature casjewistical investigations are actually nearer to physics and to chemistry than are the investigations usually signed to ethics for just as physics cannot rest content with the discovery that light is propagated by ways of ether but must go on to discover the particular nature of ether waves corresponding to each several color so casjewis tree not content with the general law that charities are virtue must attempt to discover the relative merits of every different form of charity casjewis tree forms therefore part of the ideal of ethical science ethics cannot be complete without it the defects of casjewis tree are not defects of principle no objection can be taken to its aim and object it has failed only because it is far too difficult a subject to be treated adequately in our present state of knowledge the casjewist has been unable to distinguish in the cases which he treats those elements upon which their value depends hence he often thinks two cases to be alike in respect of value when in reality they are alike only in some other respect it is to mistakes of this kind that the pernicious influence of such investigations has been due for casjewis tree is the goal of ethical investigation it cannot be safely attempted at the beginning of our studies but only at the end five but our question what is good may still have another meaning we may in the third place mean to ask not what thing or things are good but how good is to be defined this is an inquiry which belongs only to ethics not to casjewis tree and this is the inquiry which will occupies first it is an inquiry to which most special attention should be directed since this question how good is to be defined is the most fundamental question in all ethics that which is meant by good is in fact except it's converse bad the only simple object of thought which is peculiar to ethics its definition is therefore the most essential point in the definition of ethics and moreover a mistake with regard to it entails a far larger number of erroneous ethical judgements than any other unless this first question be fully understood and it's true to clearly recognize the rest of ethics is as good as useless from the point of view of systematic knowledge true ethical judgments of the two kinds last dealt with may indeed be made by those who do not know the answer to this question as well as by those who do and it goes without saying that the two classes of people may live equally good lives but it is extremely unlikely that the most general ethical judgments will be equally valid in the absence of a true answer to this question I shall presently try to show that the gravest errors have been largely due to beliefs in a false answer and in any case it is impossible that till the answer to this question be known anyone should know what is the evidence for any ethical judgment whatsoever but the main object of ethics as a systematic science is to give correct reasons for thinking that this is or that is good and unless this question be answered such reasons cannot be given even therefore apart from the fact that a false answer leads to false conclusions the present inquiry is a most necessary and important part of the science of ethics what then is good how is good to be defined now it may be thought that this is a verbal question a definition does indeed often mean the expressing of one words but this is not the sort of definition I am asking for such a definition can never be of ultimate importance to any study except lexicography if I wanted that kind of definition I should have to consider in the first place how people generally use the word good but my business is not with its proper usage as established by custom I should indeed be foolish if I try to use it for something which it did not usually denote if for instance I were to announce that whenever I use the word good I must be understood to be thinking of that object which is usually denoted by the word table I shall therefore use the word in the sense in which I think it is ordinarily used but at the same time I am not anxious to discuss whether I am right in thinking it is so used my business is solely with that object or idea which I hold rightly or wrongly that the word is generally used to stand for what I want to discover is the nature of that object or idea and about this I am extremely anxious to arrive at an agreement but if we understand the question in this sense my answer to it may seem a very disappointing one if I am asked what is good my answer is that good is good and that is the end of the matter or if I am asked how is good to be defined my answer is that it cannot be defined and that is all I have to say about it but disappointing as these answers may appear they are of the very last importance to readers who are familiar with philosophic terminology I can express their importance by saying that the amount to this that propositions about the good are all of them synthetic and never analytic and that is plainly no trivial matter and the same thing may be expressed more popularly by saying that if I am right then nobody can foist upon us such an axiom as that pleasure is the only good or that the good is the desired on the pretense that this is the very meaning of the word 7 let us then consider this position my point is that good is a simple notion just as yellow is a simple notion that just as you cannot by any manner of means explain to anyone who does not already know it what yellow is so you cannot explain what good is definitions of the kind that I was asking for definitions which describe the real nature of the object or notion denoted by a word and which do not merely tell us what the word is used to mean are only possible when the object or notion in question is something complex you can give a definition of a horse because a horse has many different properties and qualities all of which you can enumerate but when you have enumerated them all when you have reduced a horse to his simplest terms you can no longer define those terms they are simply something which you think of or perceive and to anyone who cannot think of or perceive them you can never by any definition make their nature known it may perhaps be objected to this that we are able to describe to others objects which they have never seen or thought of for instance make a man understand what a chimera is although he has never heard of one or seen one you can tell him that it is an animal with a lioness head and body with a goat's head growing from the middle of its back and with a snake in place of its tail but here the objects which you are describing is a complex object it is entirely composed of parts with which we are perfectly familiar a snake, a goat, a lioness and we know to the manner in which those parts are to be put together because we know what is meant by the middle of a lioness back and where her tail is worn to grow and so it is with all objects not previously known which we are able to define they are all complex all composed of parts which may themselves in the first instance be capable of similar definition but which must in the end be reducible to simplest parts which can no longer be defined but yellow and good we say are not complex there are notions of that simple kind out of which definitions are composed and with which the power of further defining ceases 8. When we say as Webster says the definition of the horse is a hoofed quadruped of the genus aqueus we may in fact mean three different things 1. We may mean merely when I say horse you are to understand that I am talking about a hoofed quadruped of the genus aqueus this might be called the arbitrary verbal definition and I do not mean that good is indefinable in that sense 2. We may mean as Webster ought to mean when most English people say horse they mean a hoofed quadruped of the genus aqueus this may be called the verbal definition proper and I do not say that good is indefinable in this sense either for it is certainly possible to discover how people use a word otherwise we could never have known that good may be translated by gut in German and by bon in French but 3. We may when we define horse mean something much more important we may mean that a certain object which we all of us know is composed in a certain manner that it has four legs a head lever etc etc all of them arranged in definite relations to one another it is in this sense that I deny good to be definable I say that it is not composed of any parts which we can substitute for it in our minds when we are thinking of it we might think just as clearly and correctly about a horse if we thought of all its parts and their arrangements instead of thinking of the whole it is in this sense that I deny good to be definable that it is not composed of any parts which we can substitute for it in our minds when we are thinking of it we might think just as clearly and correctly about a horse if we thought of all its parts and their arrangements instead of thinking of the whole we could I say think how a horse differed from a donkey just as well just as truly in this way as now we do only not so easily but there is nothing whatsoever which we could substitute for good and that is what I mean when I say that good is indefinable 9 but I am afraid I have still not removed the chief difficulty which may prevent acceptance of the proposition that the good is indefinable I do not mean to say that the good that which is good is thus indefinable if I did think so I should not be writing on ethics for my main object is to help towards discovering that definition it is just because I think there will be less risk of error in our search for a definition of the good that I am now insisting that good is indefinable I must try to explain the difference between these two I suppose it may be granted that good is an adjective well the good that which is good must therefore be the substantive to which the adjective good will apply it must be the whole of that to which the adjective will apply the adjective must always truly apply to it but if it is that to which the adjective will apply it must be something different from that adjective itself and the whole of that something different whatever it is will be our definition of the good now it may be that this something will have other adjectives beside good that will apply to it it may be full of pleasure for example it may be intelligent and if those two adjectives are really part of its definition then it will certainly be true that pleasure and intelligence are good and many people appear to think that if we say pleasure and intelligence are good or if we say only pleasure and intelligence are good we are defining good well I cannot deny that propositions of this nature may sometimes be called the definitions I do not know well enough how the word is generally used to decide upon this point I only wish it to be understood that that is not what I mean when I say there is no possible definition of good and that I shall not mean this if I use the word again I do most fully believe that some true proposition of the form intelligence is good and intelligence alone is good can be found if none could be found our definition of the good would be impossible as it is I believe the good to be definable and yet I still say that good itself is indefinable 10 good then if we mean by it the quality which we assert to belong to a thing when we say that the thing is good is incapable of any definition in the most important sense of the word the most important sense of definition is that in which a definition states what are the parts which invariably compose a certain whole and in this sense the good has no definition because it is simple and has no parts it is one of those innumerable objects of thought which are themselves incapable of definition because they are the ultimate terms of reference to which whatever is capable of definition must be defined that there must be an indefinite number of such terms is obvious on reflection since we cannot define anything except by an analysis which when carried as far as it will go refers us to something which is simply different from anything else and which by that ultimate difference explains the peculiarity of the whole which we are defining for every whole contains some parts which are common to other holds also there is therefore no intrinsic difficulty in the contention that good denotes a simple and indefinable quality there are many other instances of such qualities consider yellow for example we may try to define it by describing its physical equivalent we may state what kind of light vibrations must stimulate the normal eye in order that we may perceive it but a moment's reflection is sufficient to show that those light vibrations are not themselves what we mean by yellow they are not what we perceive indeed we should never have been able to discover their existence unless we had first been struck by the patent difference of quality between the different colours the most we can be entitled to say of those vibrations is that they are what corresponds in space to the yellow which we actually perceive yet a mistake of this simple kind has commonly been made about good it may be true that all things which are good are also something else just as it is true that all things which are yellow produce a certain kind of vibration in the light and it is a fact that ethics aims at discovering what are those other properties belonging to all things which are good but far too many philosophers have thought that when they named those other properties they were actually defining good that these properties in fact were simply not other but absolutely and entirely the same with goodness this view I propose to call the naturalistic fallacy and of it I shall now 11. Let us consider what it is such philosophers say and first it is to be noticed that they do not agree among themselves they not only say that they are right as to what good is but they endeavour to prove that other people who say that it is something else are wrong one for instance will affirm that good is pleasure another perhaps that good is that which is desired and each of these will argue eagerly to prove that other people who say that it is something else are wrong but how is that possible one of them says the good is nothing but the object of desire and at the same time tries to prove that it is not pleasure but from this assertion that good just means the object of desire one of two things must follow as regards his proof one he may be trying to prove that the object of desire is not pleasure but if this be all where is his ethics the position he is maintaining is merely a psychological one desire is something which occurs in our mind and pleasure is something else which so occurs and our would-be ethical philosopher is merely holding that the latter is not the object of the former but what has that to do with a question in dispute his opponent held the ethical proposition that pleasure was the good and although he should prove a million times over the psychological proposition that pleasure is not the object of desire he is no nearer proving his opponent to be wrong the position is like this one man says a triangle is a circle another replies a triangle is a straight line and I will prove to you that I am right for this is the only argument a straight line is not a circle that is quite true the other may reply a triangle is a circle and you have said nothing whatever to prove the contrary what is proved is that one of us is wrong for we agree that a triangle cannot be both a straight line and a circle but which is wrong there can be no earthly means of proving since you define triangle as straight line and I define it as circle well that is one alternative which any naturalistic ethics has to face if good is defined as something else then it is impossible either to prove that any other definition is wrong or even to deny such definition two the other alternative will scarcely be more welcome it is that a discussion is after all a verbal one when a says good means pleasant and b says good means desire it they may merely wish to assert that most people have used the word for what is pleasant and for what is desired respectively and this is quite an interesting subject for discussion only it is not a bit more an ethical discussion than the last was nor do I think that any exponent of naturalistic ethics would be willing to allow that this was all he meant they are also anxious to persuade us that what they call the good is what we really ought to do pray act so because the word good is generally used to denote actions of this nature such on this view would be the substance of their teaching and insofar as they tell us how we ought to act their teaching is truly ethical as they mean it to be but how perfectly absurd is the reason they would give for it you are to do this because most people use a certain word to denote conduct such as this you are to say the thing which is not because most people call it lying that is an argument just as good my dear sirs what we want to know from you as ethical teachers is not how people use a word it is not even what kind of actions they approve which the use of this word good may certainly imply what we want to know is simply what is good we may indeed agree that what most people do think good is actually so we shall at all events be glad to know their opinions but when we say that their opinions about what is good we do mean what we say we do not care whether they call that thing horse or table or chair goat or bon or agathos we want to know what it is that they so call when they say pleasure is good we cannot believe that they merely mean pleasure is pleasure and nothing more than that end of chapter one part one chapter one part two of Principia Ethica this Librivox recording is in the public domain recording by Fredrik Karlsson Principia Ethica by G.E. Moore 12 suppose a man says I am pleased and suppose it is not a lie or a mistake but the truth is true what does that mean it means that his mind a certain definite mind distinguished by certain definite marks from all others has at this moment a certain definite feeling called pleasure pleased means nothing but having pleasure and though we may be more pleased or less pleased and even we may admit for the present have one or another kind of pleasure yet in so far as it is pleasure we have whether there be more or less of it and whether it be of one kind or another what we have is one definite thing absolutely indefinable some one thing that is the same in all the various degrees and in all the various kinds of it that there may be we may be able to say how it is related to other things that for example it is in the mind that it causes desire that we are conscious of it etc etc we can I say describe its relations to other things but define it we cannot and if anybody try to define pleasure for us as being any other natural object if anybody were to say for instance that pleasure means the sensation of red and were to proceed to deduce from that that pleasure is a color we should be entitled to laugh at him and to distrust his future statements of pleasure well that would be the same fallacy which I have called a naturalistic fallacy that pleased does not mean having the sensation of red or anything else whatever does not prevent us from understanding what it does mean it is enough for us to know that pleased does mean having the sensation of pleasure and though pleasure is absolutely indefinable though pleasure is pleasure yet we feel no difficulty in saying that we are pleased the reason is of course that when I say I am pleased I do not mean that I am the same thing as having pleasure and similarly no difficulty need be found in my saying that pleasure is good and yet not meaning that pleasure is the same thing as good that pleasure means good and that good means pleasure if I were to imagine that when I said I am pleased I meant that I was exactly the same thing as pleased I should not indeed call that a naturalistic fallacy although it would be the same fallacy as I would call naturalistic with reference to ethics the reason of this is obvious enough when a man confuses two natural objects with one another defining the one by the other if for instance he confuses himself who is one natural object with pleased or with pleasure which are others then there is no reason to call the fallacy naturalistic but if he confuses good which is not in the same sense a natural object with any natural object whatever then there is reason for calling that a naturalistic fallacy it's being made with regard to good marks it as something quite specific the specific mistake deserves a name because it is so common as for the reasons why good is not to be considered a natural object they may be preserved for discussion in another place but for the present it is sufficient to notice this even if it were a natural object that would not alter the nature of the fallacy nor diminish its importance one with all that I have said about it would remain quite equally true only the name which I have called it would not be so appropriate as I think it is and I do not care about the name what I do care about is the fallacy it does not matter what we call it provided we recognize it when we meet it it is to be met with in almost every book on ethics and yet it is not recognized and that is why it is necessary to multiply illustrations of it and convenient to give it a name it is a very simple fallacy indeed when we say that an orange is yellow we do not think our statement biases to hold that orange means nothing else than yellow or that nothing can be yellow but an orange supposing the orange is also sweet does that bind us to say that sweet is exactly the same thing as yellow that sweet must be defined as yellow and supposing it be recognized that yellow just means yellow nothing else whatever does that make it any more difficult to hold that oranges are yellow most certainly it does not on the contrary it would be absolutely meaningless to say that oranges were yellow unless yellow did in the end mean just yellow and nothing else whatever unless it was absolutely indefinable we should not get very far with our science if we were bound to hold that everything which was yellow meant exactly the same thing as yellow we should find we had to hold that an orange was exactly the same thing as a stool a piece of paper a lemon anything you like we could prove any number of absurdities but should we be the nearer to the truth why then should it be different with good why if good is good and indefinable should I be held to deny that pleasure is good is there any difficulty in holding both to be true at once on the contrary there is no meaning in saying that pleasure is good unless good is something different from pleasure it is absolutely useless so far as ethics is concerned to prove as miss dispenser tries to do that increase of pleasure coincides with increase of life unless good means something different from either life or pleasure he might just as well try to prove that an orange is yellow by doing that it is always wrapped up in paper 13 in fact if it is not the case that good denotes something simple and indefinable only two alternatives are possible either it is a complex a given whole about the correct analysis of which there could be disagreement or else it means nothing at all and there is no such subject as ethics in general however ethical philosophers have attempted to define good without recognizing what such an attempt must mean they actually use arguments which involve one or both of the absurdities considered in section 11 we are therefore justified in concluding that the attempt to define good is chiefly due to want of clearness as to the possible nature of definition there are in fact only two serious alternatives to be considered in order to establish the conclusion that good does denote a simple and indefinable notion it might possibly denote a complex as horse does or it might have no meaning at all neither of these possibilities has however been clearly conceived and seriously maintained as such by those who presume to define good and both may be dismissed by a simple appeal to facts one the hypothesis that disagreement about the meaning of good is disagreement with regard to the correct analysis of a given whole may be most plainly seen to be incorrect by consideration of the fact that whatever definition may be offered it may always be asked with significance of the complex so defined whether it is itself good to take for instance one of the more plausible because one of the more complicated of such proposed definitions it may easily be thought at first sight that to be good may mean to be that which we desire to desire thus if we apply this definition to a particular instance and say when we think that a is good we are thinking that a is one of the things which we desire to desire our proposition may seem quite plausible but if we carry the investigation further and ask ourselves is it good to desire to desire a it is apparent on a little reflection that this question is itself as intelligible as the original question is a good that we are in fact now asking for exactly the same information about the desire to desire a for which we formally asked with regard to a itself but it is also apparent that the meaning of this second question cannot be correctly analyzed into is the desire to desire a one of the which we desire to desire we have not before our minds anything so complicated as the question do we desire to desire to desire to desire a more over anyone can easily convince himself by inspection that the predicate of this proposition good is positively different from notion of desiring to desire which enters into its subject that we should desire to desire a is good is not merely equivalent to that a should be good is good it may indeed be true that what we desire to desire is always good perhaps even the converse may be true but it is very doubtful whether this is the case and the mere fact that we understand very well what is meant by doubting it shoes clearly that we have two different notions before our mind and the same consideration is sufficient to dismiss the hypothesis that good has no meaning whatsoever it is very natural to make the mistake of supposing that what is universally true is of such a nature that its negation would be self contradictory the importance which has been assigned to analytic propositions in the history of philosophy shoes how easy such a mistake is and thus it is very easy to conclude that what seems to be a universal ethical principle is in fact an identical proposition that if for example whatever is called good seems to be pleasant the proposition pleasure is the good does not assert a connection between two different notions but involves only one that of pleasure which is easily recognized as a distinct entity but whoever will attentively consider with himself what is actually before his mind when he asks the question is pleasure or whatever it may be after all good can easily satisfy himself that he is not merely wondering whether pleasure is pleasant and if he will try this experiment with each suggested definition in succession he may become expert enough to recognize that in every case he has before his mind a unique object with regard to the connection of which with any other object a distinct question may be asked everyone does in fact understand the question is this good when he thinks of it his state of mind is different from what it would be where he asked is this pleasant or desired or approved it has a distinct meaning for him even though he may not recognize in what respect it is distinct whenever he thinks of intrinsic value or intrinsic worth or says that a thing ought to exist he has before his mind the unique object the unique property of things that I mean by good everybody is constantly aware of this notion although he may never become aware at all that it is different from other notions of what he is also aware but for correct ethical reasoning it is extremely important that he could become aware of this fact and as soon as the nature of the problem is closely understood there will be a little difficulty in advancing so far in analysis 14 good then is indefinable and yet so far as I know there is only one ethical writer Professor Henry Sitchwick who has clearly recognized and stated this fact we shall see indeed how far many of the most reputed ethical systems fall short of drawing the conclusions which follow from such a recognition I will only quote from one instance which will serve to illustrate the meaning and importance of this principle that good is indefinable or as Professor Sitchwick says an unanalyseable notion it is an instance to which Professor Sitchwick himself refers in a note on the passage in which he argues that ought is unanalyseable Bentham says Sitchwick explains that his fundamental principle states the greatest happiness of all those whose interest is in question as being the right and proper end of proper action and yet his language in other passages of the same chapter would seem to imply that he means by the word right conducive to the general happiness Professor Sitchwick sees that if you take these two statements together you get the absurd result that greatest happiness is the end of human action which is conducive to the general happiness and so absurd does it seem to him to call this result as Bentham calls it the fundamental principle of a moral system that he suggests that Bentham cannot have meant it yet Professor Sitchwick himself states elsewhere that psychological hedonism is not seldom confounded with egoistic hedonism and that confusion as we shall see rests chiefly on the same fallacy in the naturalistic fallacy which is implied in Bentham's statements Professor Sitchwick admits therefore that this fallacy is sometimes committed, absurd as it is and I am inclined to think that Bentham may really have been one of those who committed it. Mill as we shall see certainly did committed. In any case whether Bentham committed it or not his doctrine as above quoted will serve as a very good illustration of this fallacy and of the importance of the contrary proposition that good is indefinable. Let us consider this doctrine Bentham seems to imply so Professor Sitchwick says that the word right means conducive to general happiness now this by itself need not necessarily involve the naturalistic fallacy for the word right is very commonly appropriated to actions which lead to the attainment of what is good which are regarded as means to the ideal and not as ends in themselves this use of right as denoting what is good as a means whether or not it also be good as an end is indeed the use to which I shall confine the word. Had Bentham been using right in this sense it might be perfectly consistent for him to define right as conducive to the general happiness provided only and note this proviso had already proved or laid down as an axiom that general happiness was the good or what is equivalent to this that general happiness alone was good for in that case he would have already defined the good as general happiness a position perfectly consistent well seen with the contention that good is indefinable and since right was to be defined as conducive to the good it would actually mean conducive to general happiness but this method of escape from the charge of having committed the naturalistic fallacy has been closed by Bentham himself for his fundamental principle is we see that the greatest happiness of all concerned is the right and proper end of human action he applies the word right therefore to the end as such not only to the means which are conducive to it and that being so right defined as conducive to the general happiness without involving the fallacy in question for now it is obvious that the definition of right as conducive to the general happiness can be used by him in support of the fundamental principle that general happiness is the right end instead of being itself derived from that principle if right by definition means conducive to general happiness then it is obvious that general happiness is the right end it is not necessary now first to prove or assert that general happiness is the right end before right is defined as conducive to general happiness a perfectly valid procedure but on the contrary the definition of right as conducive to general happiness proves general happiness to be the right end a perfectly invalid procedure since in this case the statement that general happiness is the right end of human action is not an ethical principle at all but either as we have seen a proposition about the meaning of words or else a proposition about the nature of general happiness not about its rightness or its goodness now I do not wish the importance I assigned to this fallacy to be misunderstood the discovery of it does not at all refute Bentham's contention that greatest happiness is the proper end of human action if that be understood as an ethical proposition as he undoubtedly intended it that principle may be true all the same we shall consider whether it is so in the succeeding chapters Bentham might have maintained it as professor Sitchwick does even if the fallacy had been pointed out to him what I am maintaining is that the reasons which he actually gives for his ethical proposition are fallacious ones as they consist in a definition of right what I suggest is that he did not perceive them to be fallacious that if he had done so he would have been led to seek for other reasons in support of his utilitarianism and that had he sought for other reasons he might have found none which he thought to be sufficient in that case he would have changed his whole system a most important consequence it is undoubtedly also possible that he would have thought other reasons to be sufficient and in that case his ethical system in its main results would still have stood but even in this latter case his use of the fallacy would be a serious objection to him as an ethical philosopher for it is the business of ethics I must insist not only to obtain true results but also to find valid reasons for them the correct object of ethics is knowledge and not practice and anyone who uses the naturalistic fallacy has certainly not fulfilled this first object however correct his practical principles may be my objections to naturalism are then in the first place that it offers no reason at all far less any valid reason for any ethical principle whatever and in this it already fails to satisfy the requirements of ethics as a scientific study but in the second place I contend that though it gives a reason for no ethical principle it is the cause of the acceptance of fall principles it deludes the mind into accepting ethical principles which are false and in this it is contrary to every aim of ethics it is easy to see that if we start with a definition of right conduct as conduct conducive to general happiness then knowing that right conduct is universally conduct conducive to the good we very easily arrive at the result that the good is general happiness if on the other hand we once recognize that we must start our ethics without a definition we shall be much more apt to look about us before we adopt any ethical principle whatever and the more we look about us the less likely we are to adopt a false one it may be reply to this yes but we shall look about us just as much before we settle on our definition and are therefore just as likely to be right but I will try to shoe that this is not the case if we start with a conviction that a definition of good can be found we start with a conviction that the good can mean nothing else than some one property of things and our only business will then be to discover what that property is but if we recognize that so far as the meaning of good goes anything whatever may be good we start with a much more open mind more over apart from the fact that when we think we have a definition we cannot logically define our ethical principles in any way whatever we shall also be much less apt to defend them well even if illogically for we shall start with a conviction that good must mean so and so and shall therefore be inclined either to misunderstand our opponent's argument or to cut them short with the reply this is not an open question the very meaning of the word decides it no one can think otherwise except through confusion 15 our first conclusion as to the subject matter of ethics is then that there is a simple indefinable object of thought by reference to which it must be defined by what name we call this unique object is a matter of indifference so long as we clearly recognize what it is and that it does differ from other objects the words which are commonly taken as the science of ethical judgments all do refer to it and they are expressions of ethical judgments solely because they do so refer but they may refer to it in two different ways which is very important to distinguish if we are to have a complete definition of the range of ethical judgments before I proceeded to argue that there was such an indefinable notion involved in ethical notions I stated that it was necessary for ethics to enumerate all true universal judgments asserting that such and such a thing was good whenever it occurred but although all such judgment do refer to the unique notion which I have called good they do not all refer to it in the same way they may either assert that this unique property does always attach to the thing in question or else they may assert only that the thing in question is a cause or necessary condition for the existence of other things to which this unique property does attach the nature of these two species of universal ethical judgment is extremely different and a great part of the difficulties which are met in ordinary ethical speculation are due to the failure to distinguish them clearly their different has indeed received expression in ordinary language by the contrast between the terms good as means and good in itself value as a means and intrinsic value but those terms are apt to be applied correctly only in the more obvious instances and this seems to be due to the fact that the distinction between the conceptions they denote has not been made a separate object of investigation this distinction may be briefly pointed out as follows 16 whenever we judge that a thing is good as a means we are making a judgment with regard to its causal relations we judge both that it will have a particular kind of effect and that effect will be good in itself but to find causal judgments that are essentially true is notoriously a matter of extreme difficulty the late date at which most of the physical sciences became exact and the comparative of the laws which they have succeeded in establishing even now are sufficient proofs of this difficulty with regard then to what are the most frequent objects of ethical judgments namely actions it is obvious that we cannot be satisfied that any of our universal causal judgments are true even in the sense in which scientific laws are so we cannot even discover hypothetical laws of the form exactly this action will always under these conditions produce exactly that effect but for a correct ethical judgment with regard to the effects of certain actions we require more than this in two respects one we require to know that a given action will produce a certain effect under whatever circumstances it occurs but this is certainly impossible it is certain that in different circumstances the same action may produce effects that are utterly different in all respects upon which the value of the effects depends hence we can never be entitled to more than a generalization to a proposition of the form this result generally follows this kind of action and even this generalization will only be true if the circumstances under which the action occurs are generally the same this is in fact the case to a great extent within any one particular age and state of society but when we take other ages into account in many most important cases the normal circumstances of a given kind of action will be so different that the generalization which is true for one will not be true for another than to ethical judgments which assert that a certain kind of action is good as a means to a certain kind of effect none will be universally true and many though generally true at one period will be generally false at others but two we require to know not only that one good effect will be produced but that among all subsequent events affected by the action in question the balance of good will be greater than if any other possible action had been performed in other words to judge that an action is generally a means to good is to judge not only that it generally does some good but that it generally does the greatest good of which the circumstances admit in this respect ethical judgments about the effects of action involve a difficulty and a complication far greater than that involved in the establishment of scientific laws for the latter we need only consider a single effect for the former it is essential to consider not only this but the effects of that effect and so on as far as our view into the future can reach it is indeed obvious that our view can never reach far enough for us to be certain that any action that we can achieve in the future can be achieved in the future in the future now for us to be certain that any action will produce the best possible effects we must be content if the greatest possible balance of good seems to be produced within a limited period but it is important to notice that the whole series of effects within a period of considerable length is actually taken account of in our common judgments that an action is good as a means and that hence this additional complication which makes ethical generalization so far more difficult to establish than scientific laws is one which is involved in actual ethical discussions and is of practical importance the commonest rules of conduct involve such considerations as the balancing of future bad health against immediate gains and even if we can never settle with any certainty how we shall secure the greatest possible total of good we try at least to assure ourselves that probable future evils will not be greater than the immediate good end of chapter 1 part 2 chapter 1 part 3 of Principia Ethica this Librivox recording is in the public domain recording by Fredrik Carlson Principia Ethica by G. E. Moore 17 there are then judgments which state that certain kinds of things have good effects and such judgments for the reasons just given have the important characteristics 1. that they are unlikely to be true if they state that the kind of thing in question always has good effects and 2. that even if they only state that it generally has good effects many of them will only be true of certain periods in the world's history on the other hand there are judgments which state that certain kinds of things themselves good and these differ from the last in that if true at all they are all of them universally true it is therefore extremely important to distinguish these two kinds of possible judgments both may be expressed in the same language in both cases we commonly say such and such a thing is good but in the one case good will mean good as means that is merely that the thing is a means to good will have good effects in the other case it will mean good as end we shall be judging that the thing itself has the property which in the first case we are certain only to belong to its effects it is plain that these are very different assertions to make about a thing it is plain that either or both of them may be made both truly and falsely about all manner of things and it is certain that unless we are clear as to which of the two we mean to assert we shall have a very poor chance of deciding rightly whether our assertion is true or false it is precisely this clearness as to the meaning of the question asked which has hitherto been almost entirely lacking in ethical speculation ethics has always been predominantly concerned with the investigation of a limited class of actions with regard to these we may ask both how far they are good in themselves and how far they have a general tendency to produce good results and the arguments brought forward in ethical discussion have always been of both classes both such as would prove the conducting question to be good in itself and such as would prove it to be good as a means but that these are the only questions which any ethical discussion can have to settle and that to settle the one is not the same thing as to settle these two fundamental facts have in general escaped the notice of ethical philosophers ethical questions are commonly asked in an ambiguous form it is asked what is a man's duty under these circumstances or is it right to act this way or what ought we to aim at securing but all these questions are capable of further analysis a correct answer to any of them involves both judgments of what is good in itself and causal judgments this is implied even by those who maintain that we have a direct and immediate judgment of absolute rights and duties such a judgment can only mean that the course of action in question is the best thing to do that by acting so every good that can be secured will have been secured now we are not concerned with the question whether such a judgment will ever be true what does it imply if it is true and the only possible answer is that whether true or false it implies both a proposition as to the degree of goodness of the action in question as compared with other things and a number of causal propositions for it cannot be denied that the action will have consequences and to deny that the consequences matter is to make a judgment of their intrinsic value as compared with the action itself in asserting that the action is the best thing to do we assert that it together with its consequences presents a greater sum of intrinsic value than any possible alternative and this condition may be realized by any of the three cases A. if the action itself has greater intrinsic value than any alternative whereas both its consequences and those of the alternatives are absolutely devoid either of intrinsic merit intrinsic demerit or B. if though its consequences are intrinsically bad the balance of intrinsic values greater than would be produced by any alternative or C. if its consequences being intrinsically good the degree of value belonging to them and it conjointly is greater than that of any alternative series in short to assert that a certain line of conduct is at a given time absolutely right or obligatory is obviously to assert that more good or less evil will exist in the world if it be adopted than if anything else be done instead but this implies a judgment as to the value both of its own consequences and of those of any possible alternative and that in action will have such and such consequences involves a number of causal judgments similarly in answering the question what ought we to aim at securing? Causal judgments are again involved but in a somewhat different way we are liable to forget because it is so obvious that this question can never be answered correctly except by naming something which can be secured not everything can be secured and even if we judge that nothing which cannot be obtained would be of equal value with that which can the possibility of the latter as well as its value is essential to its being a proper end of action accordingly neither our judgments as to what actions we ought to perform nor even our judgments as to the ends which they ought to produce are pure judgments of intrinsic value with regard to the former an action which is absolutely obligatory may have no intrinsic value whatsoever that it is perfectly virtuous merely that it causes the best possible effects and with regard to the latter these best possible results which justify our action can in any case have only so much of intrinsic value as the laws of nature allow us to secure and they in their turn may have no intrinsic value whatsoever but may merely be a means to the attainment in a still further future of something that has such value whenever therefore we ask what ought we to do or what ought we try to get we are asking questions which involve a correct answer to two others completely different in kind from one another we must know both what degree of intrinsic value different things have and how these different things may be obtained but the vast majority of questions which have actually been discussed in ethics all practical questions indeed involve this double knowledge and they have been discussed without any clear separation of the two distinct questions involved a great part of the vast disagreements prevalent in ethics is to be attributed to this failure in analysis by the use of conceptions which involve both that of intrinsic value and that of causal relation as if they involve the intrinsic value only two different errors have been rendered almost universal either it is assumed that intrinsic value which is not possible or else it is assumed that what is necessary must have intrinsic value hence the primary and peculiar business of ethics the determination of what things have intrinsic value and in what degrees has received no adequate treatment at all and on the other hand a thorough discussion of means has been also largely neglected owing to an obscure perception of the truth that it is perfectly irrelevant to the question of intrinsic values but however this may be and however strongly any particular reader may be convinced that some one of the mutually contradictory systems which hold the field has a given correct answer either to the question what has intrinsic value or to the question what we ought to do or to both it must at least be admitted that the question what is best in itself and what will bring about the best possible are utterly distinct both belong to the actual subject matter of ethics and that the more clearly distinct questions are distinguished the better is our chance of answering both correctly 18 there remains one point which must not be admitted in a complete description of the kind of questions which ethics has to answer the main divisions of these questions is as I have said into two the question what things are good in themselves and the question to what other things these are related as effects the first of these which is the primary ethical question and is presupposed by the other includes a correct comparison of the various things which have intrinsic value if there are many such in respect of the degree of value which they have and such comparison involves a difficulty of principle which has greatly aided the confusion of intrinsic value with mere goodness as a means it has been pointed out that one difference between a judgment which asserts that a thing is good in itself and a judgment which asserts that it is a means to good consists in the fact that the first if true of one instance of the thing in question is necessarily true of all whereas a thing which has good effects under some circumstances may have bad ones under others now it is certainly true that all judgments of intrinsic value are in this sense universal but the principle which I have now to enunciate may easily make it appear as if they were not so but resemble the judgment of means in being merely general there is as will presently be maintained a vast number of different things each of which has intrinsic value there are also very many which are positively bad and there is still a larger class of things which appear to be indifferent but a thing belonging to any of these three classes may occur as part of a whole which includes among its other parts other things belonging both to the same and to the other two classes and these holds as such may also have intrinsic value the paradox to which it is necessary to call attention is that the value of such a whole bears no regular proportion to the sum of the values of its parts it is certain that a good thing may exist in such in relation to another good thing that the value of the whole thus formed is immensely greater than the sum of the values of the two good things it is certain that a whole formed of a good thing and an indifferent thing may have immensely greater value than the good thing itself processes it is certain that two bad things or a bad thing and indifferent thing may form a whole much worse than the sum of the badness of its parts and it seems as if indifferent things may also be the soul constituents of a whole which has great value either positive or negative whether the addition of a bad thing to a good whole may increase the positive value of the whole or the addition of a bad thing to a bad may produce a whole having a positive value may seem more doubtful but it is at least possible and this possibility must be taken into account in our ethical investigations however we may decide particular questions the principle is clear the value of a whole must not be assumed to be the same as the sum of the values of its parts a single instance will suffice to illustrate the kind of relation in question it seems to be true that to be conscious of a beautiful object is of great intrinsic value whereas the same object the conscious of it has certainly comparatively little value and it is commonly held to have none at all but the consciousness of a beautiful object is certainly a whole of some sort in which we can distinguish as parts of the object on the one hand and the being conscious on the other now this latter factor occurs as part of a different whole whenever we are conscious of anything and it would seem that some of these holes have at all events very little value and may even be indifferent or positively bad yet we cannot always attribute the slightness of their value to any positivity merit in the object which differentiates them from the consciousness of beauty the object itself may approach as near as possible to absolute neutrality since therefore mere consciousness does not always confer great value upon the whole of which it forms apart we cannot attribute the great superiority of the consciousness of a beautiful thing over the beautiful thing itself to the mere addition of the value of consciousness to that of the beautiful thing whatever the intrinsic value of consciousness may be it does not give to the whole of which it forms apart a value proportional to the sum of its value and that of its object if this be so we have here an instance of a whole possessing a different intrinsic value from the sum of that of its parts whether it be so or not what is meant by such a difference is illustrated by this case 19. there are then holes which possess the property that their value is different from the sum of the values of their parts and the relation which subsists between such parts and the whole of which they form apart have not here to been distinctly recognized or received a separate name two points are especially worthy of notice 1. it is plain that the existence of any such part is a necessary condition for the existence of that good which is constituted by the whole and exactly the same language will also express the relation between a means and the good thing which is its effect but yet there is a most important difference between the two cases constituted by the fact that the part is, whereas the means is not a part of the good thing for the existence of which its existence is a necessary condition the necessity by which if the good in question is to exist the means to it must exist is merely a natural or causal necessity if the laws of nature were different exactly the same good might exist although what is now a necessary condition of its existence did not exist the existence of the means has no intrinsic value and its utter annihilation would leave the value of that which it is now necessary to secure entirely unchanged but in the case of a part of such a whole as we are now considering it is otherwise in this case the good in question cannot conceivably exist unless the part exist also the necessity which connects the two is quite independent of natural law what is asserted to have intrinsic value is the existence of the whole and the existence of the whole includes the existence of its part suppose the part removed and what remains is not what was asserted to have intrinsic value but if we suppose a means removed what remains is just what was asserted to have intrinsic value and yet to the existence of the part may itself have no more intrinsic value than that of the means it is this fact which constitutes the paradox of the relation which we are discussing it has just been said that what has intrinsic value is the existence of the whole and that this includes the existence of the part and from this it would seem a natural inference that the existence of the part has intrinsic value but the inference would be as false as if we were to conclude that because the number of two stones was two each of the stones was also two the part of a valuable whole exactly the same value when it is as when it is not a part of that whole if it had value under other circumstances its value is not any greater when it is part of a far more valuable whole and if it had no value by itself it has none still however great be that of the whole of which it now forms a part we are not then justified in asserting that one and the same thing is under some circumstances intrinsically good and under others not so as we are justified in asserting of a means that it sometimes does and sometimes does not produce good results and yet we are justified in asserting that it is far more desirable that a certain thing should exist under some circumstances than under others namely when other things will exist in such relations to it as to form a more valuable whole it will not have more intrinsic value under those circumstances than under others it will not necessarily even be a means to the existence of things having more intrinsic value but it will like a means be a necessary condition for the existence of that which has greater intrinsic value although unlike a means it will itself form a part of the more valuable existent 20 I have said that the peculiar relation between part and whole which I have just been trying to define as one which has received no separate name it would however be useful that it should have one and there is a name which might be well appropriated to it if only it could be divorced from its present unfortunate usage philosophers especially those who profess to have derived great benefit from the writings of Hegel have laterally made much use of the terms organic whole unity, organic relation the reason why these terms might well be appropriated to the use suggested is that the peculiar relation of parts to whole just defined as one of the properties which distinguishes the holds to which they are actually applied with the greatest frequency and the reason why it is desirable that they should be divorced from the present usage is that as a present used they have no distinct and on the contrary both imply and propagate errors of confusion to say that the thing is an organic whole is generally understood to imply that its parts are related to one another and to itself as means to end it is also understood to imply that they have a property described in some such phrase as they have no meaning or significance apart from the whole and finally such a whole is also treated if it had the property to which I am proposing that the name should be confined but those who use the term give us in general no hint as to how they suppose these three properties to be related to one another it seems generally to be assumed that they are identical and always at least that they are necessarily connected with one another that they are not identical I have already tried to shoe to suppose them so is to neglect the very distinctions pointed out in the last paragraph and the usage might well be discontinued merely because it encourages such neglect but a still more cogent reason for its discontinuance is that so far from being necessarily connected the second is a property which can attach to nothing being a self contradictory conception whereas the first if we insist on its most important sense applies to many cases to which we have reason to think that the third applies also and the third certainly applies to many to which the first does not apply 21 these relations between the three properties just distinguished may be illustrated by references to a whole of the kind from which the name organic was derived a whole which is an organism in the scientific sense namely the human body one there exists between many parts of our body though not between all a relation which has been familiarized by the fable attributed to Minini usagrippa concerning the belly and its members we can find it in parts such that the continued existence of one is a necessary condition for the continued existence of the other while the continued existence of this letter is also a necessary condition for the continued existence of the former this amounts to no more than saying that in the body we have instances of two things both enduring for some time which have a relation of mutual causal dependence on one another a relation of reciprocity frequently no more than this is meant by saying that the parts of the body form an organic unity or that they are mutually means and ends to one another and we certainly have here a striking characteristic of living things but it would be extremely rash to assert that this relation of mutual causal dependence was only exhibited by living things and hence was sufficient to define their peculiarity and it is obvious that of two things which have these relations of mutual dependence neither may have intrinsic value or one may have it and the other lack it they are not necessarily ends to one another in any sense except that in which end means effect and moreover it is plain that in this case the whole cannot be an end to any of its parts we are apt to talk of the whole in contrast to one of its parts when in fact we mean only the rest of the parts but strictly the whole must include all its part and no part can be a cause of the whole because it cannot be a cause of itself it is plain therefore that this relation of mutual causal dependence implies nothing with regard to the value of either of the objects which have it and that even if both of them happen also to have value this relation between them is one which cannot hold between part and whole but two it may also be the case that our body as a whole has a value greater than the sum of values of its parts and this may be what is meant when it is said that the parts are means to the whole it is obvious that if we ask the question why should the parts be such as they are a proper answer may be because the whole they form has so much value but it is equally obvious that the relation which we thus assert to exist between part and whole is quite different from that which we assert to exist between part and part when we say this part exists because that one could not exist without it in the latter case we assert the two parts to be causally connected but in the former part and whole cannot be causally connected and the relation which we assert to exist between them may exist even though the parts are not causally connected either all the parts of a picture do not have that relation of mutual causal dependence which certain parts of the body have and yet the existence of those which do not have it may be absolutely essential to the value of the whole the two relations are quite distinct and kind and we cannot infer the existence of the one from that of the other it can therefore serve no useful purpose to include them both under the same name and if we are to say that a whole is organic because its parts are in this sense means to the whole we must not say that it is organic because its parts are causally dependent on one another 22 but finally 3 the sense which has been prominent in recent uses of the term organic whole is one whereby it asserts the parts of such a whole have a property which the parts of no whole can possibly have it is supposed that just as the whole would not be what it is but for the existence of the parts so the parts would not be what they are but for the existence of the whole and this is understood to mean not merely that any particular part could not exist unless others existed too which is the case where relation one exists between the parts but actually that the part is no distinct object of thought that the whole of which it is a part is in turn a part of it that this position is self contradictory a very little reflection should be sufficient to show we may admit indeed that when a particular thing is part of a whole it does possess a predicate which it not otherwise possess namely that it is a part of the whole but what cannot be admitted is that this predicate alters the nature or enters into the definition of the thing which has it when we think of the part itself we mean just that which we assert in this case to have the predicate that it is part of the whole and the mere assertion that it is a part of the whole involves that it should itself be distinct from that which we assert of it otherwise we contradict ourselves since we assert that not it but something else namely it together with that which we assert of it has the predicate which we assert of it in short it is obvious that no part contains analytically the whole to which it belongs or any other parts of that whole the relation of part to whole is not the same as that of whole to part and the very definition of the latter is that it does not contain analytically that which it is said to be its part and yet this very self-contradictory doctrine is the chief mark which shows the influence of Hegel upon modern philosophy an influence which pervades almost the whole of orthodox philosophy this is what is generally implied by the cry against falsification by abstraction that a whole is always a part of its part if you want to know the truth about a part we are told you must consider not that part but something else namely the whole nothing is true of the part but only of the whole yet plainly it must be true of the part at least that it is part of the whole and it is obvious that when we say it is we do not mean merely that the whole is a part of itself this doctrine therefore part can have no meaning or significance apart from its whole must be utterly rejected it implies itself that the statement this is a part of that whole has a meaning and in order that this may have one both subject and predicate must have a distinct meaning and it is easy to see how this false doctrine has a written by confusion with the relations one and two which may really be properties of a the existence of a part may be connected by a natural or causal necessity with the existence of other parts of its whole and further what is a part of a whole and what has been seized to be such a part although differing intrinsically from one another may be called by one and the same name thus to take a typical example if an arm be cut off from the human body we still call it an arm when it is part of the body undoubtedly differs from a dead arm and hence we may easily be led to say the arm which is a part of the body would not be what it is if it were not such a part and to think that the contradiction thus expressed is in reality a characteristic of things but in fact the dead arm never was part of the body it is only partially identical to the living arm those parts of it which are identical with parts of the living arm are exactly the same whether they belong to the body or not and in them we have an undeniable instance of one and the same thing at one time forming a part and at another not forming a part of the presumed organic whole on the other hand those properties which are possessed by the living and not by the dead arm do not exist in a each form in the latter they simply do not exist there at all by a causal necessity their existence depends on their having that relation to the other parts of the body which we express by saying that they form part of it yet most certainly if they ever did not form part of the body they would be exactly what they are when they do that they differ intrinsically and that they form part of the body our propositions not analytically related to one another there is no contradiction in supposing them to retain such intrinsic differences and yet not to form part of the body but be when we are told that a living arm has no meaning or significance apart from the body to which it belongs a different fallacy is also suggested to have meaning or significance is commonly used in the sense of to have importance and this again means to have value either as a means or as an end now it is quite possible that even a living arm apart from its body would have no intrinsic value whatever although the whole of which it is apart has great intrinsic value owing to its presence thus we may easily come to say that as a part of the body it has a value whereas by itself it would have none and thus that its whole meaning lies in its relation to the body but in fact the value in question obviously does not belong to it at all to have value merely as a part is equivalent to having no value at all but merely being a part of that which has it owing however to neglect of this distinction the assertion that a part has value as a part which it would not otherwise have easily leads to the assumption that it is also different as a part from what it would otherwise be for it is in fact true that two things which have a different value must also differ in other respects hence the assumption that one and the same thing because it is a part of a more valuable whole at one time than at another therefore has more intrinsic value at one time than at another has encouraged the self contradictory belief that one and the same thing may be two different things and that only in one of its forms is it truly what it is for these reasons I shall where it seems convenient take the liberty to use the term organic with a special sense I shall use it to denote the fact that a whole has an intrinsic value different in amount from the sum of the values of its parts I shall use it to denote this and only this term will not imply any causal relation whatever between the parts of the whole in question and it will not imply either that the parts are inconceivable except as parts of that whole or that when they form parts of such a whole they have a value different from that which they would have if they did not understood in this special and perfectly definite sense the relation of an organic whole to its parts is one of the most important which ethics to recognize a chief part of that science should be occupied in comparing the relative values of various goods and the grossest errors will be committed in such comparison if it be assumed that wherever two things form a whole the value of that whole is merely the sum of the values of those two things with this question of organic holds then we complete the enumeration of the kind of problems with which it is the business ethics to deal 23 in this chapter I have to enforce the following conclusions one the peculiarity of ethics is not that it investigates assertions about human conduct but that it investigates assertions about the property of things which is denoted by the term good and the converse property denoted by the term bad it must in order to establish its conclusions investigate the truth of all such assertions except those which assert the relation of this property only to a single existent this property by reference to which the subject matter of ethics must be defined is itself simple and indefinable and three all assertions about its relation to other things are of two and only two kinds they either assert in what degree things themselves possess property or else they assert causal relations between other things and those which possess it finally four in considering the different degrees in which things themselves possess this property we have to take account of the fact that a whole may possess it in a degree different from that which is obtained by summing the degrees in which its parts possess it end of chapter one