 Wars must often be won by conquering a hostile environment as well as enemy armies. In World War II, the United States Army engaged in combat on a worldwide scale. It found that it had to fight in steaming tropical jungles, on bleak subarctic coasts where winds carried a polar chill, on towering mountains that demanded a special kind of agility and stamina from the foot soldiers. In subzero cold but numb the limbs and spirit of the stoutest fighting men, American arms finally prevailed, but peace endured less than a decade. Global commitments by the United States to defend freedom everywhere found its soldiers engaging the enemy in bleak remote Korea, one of the harshest environments in American battle history. 15 years later, the jungle thickets of Southeast Asia were the scene of another war, as American fighting men again took up the cause of resistance to communist aggression. History's lesson was plain. The battlefields of today and tomorrow may be anywhere on earth. The modern American soldier must be able to live and fight under the most difficult conditions of weather and terrain. To achieve victory, he must be equal to the environment, the jungle, hot, humid, exhausting, towering forest canopy and tall grass, blazing sun and leafy shade, swamps and mud, an endless series of obstacles making movement slow and difficult, a hostile environment, hazardous to live in, treacherous to fight in, an environment demanding stamina and resourcefulness for survival. Plus training and skill for success in combat. Since 1951, the U.S. Army has maintained a jungle warfare training center in the Panama Canal Zone. Applying lessons learned in Vietnam, its veteran staff teaches students not to fight the jungle, but to live with it. They are shown proper use of the machete, the prime tool in coping with the heavy vegetation. Another vital lesson is to travel light. This demonstration of what not to take into the jungle has a comedy touch, but its meaning is serious. The soldier who over burdens himself in the humid jungle will soon be exhausted and leave a trail of discarded gear behind him as he seeks to lighten his load. The jungle is not entirely inhospitable as this open-air cafeteria shows. It offers food if one doesn't insist on gourmet fare. Monkey and turtle meat is quite edible. Turtle eggs are even considered a delicacy. Plantans, both flamed and fried, are excellent substitutes for potatoes. So is otto and yucca. The persistent forager may even find a chicken, so he must have a rough and ready technique for dressing it. The jungle is no place for the squeamish, not when survival is at stake. Each man finds out for himself that with a little knowledge he can live off the land, even find potable drinking water in plants, if he knows which ones to look for. Constant marches condition the body to the hardships of climate and terrain. The jungle becomes less strange and sinister, but familiarity never breeds contempt. The man are constantly reminded that the jungle is a difficult environment, even after they have become used to it. Probably no environment has such an abundance of natural obstacles. Screams and swamps are endless. The jungle soldier becomes resigned to getting wet and staying wet. Some jungle screams run deep and wide and may have unfriendly tenants, so it's wiser and often safer to crawl across on a rope, or even better, to slide across express. When the water is too wide for a rope bridge, the student has to improvise surface transportation. The jungle is generous with material for building rafts. Clothing can be kept dry by being carefully wrapped in ponchos which have been lashed onto the raft. Off they go. Into the water, each man steering his own little craft. After learning various ways of making a water crossing without boats, the men are drilled in boat handling, just in case they're lucky enough to have them around when they need them. As for land obstacles, jungle terrain often abounds in hilly ground. Using rope to move quickly down a cliff calls for knowledge of the mountaineer's art of repelling. It is easy to lose one sense of direction in this environment, so there is training in day and night navigation. The compass proves to be as indispensable a tool as the machete, perhaps even more so. Since the jungle is ideal for guerrilla warfare, the combat soldier must be conditioned to sniper attack at close quarters. Each trainee at the school is taken individually through a quick reaction course, where he becomes a depth at snapping return fire at enemy riflemen. The close in nature of jungle vegetation requires constant patrolling to locate the enemy and to guard against ambush. A student patrol is briefed by an instructor, a Vietnam combat veteran. Improvising with stones, he explains how the jungle environment affects a patrol formation and why the alert performance of its security elements are a matter of life or death. In this kind of terrain, the enemy's favorite tactic is the ambush. A series of realistic exercises toughen the men to withstand the shock and fear created by sudden ambush. They react fully and return fire and to call in reinforcements when necessary. They learn that the enemy is capable of great ingenuity in camouflaging spider holes for concealed firing. That he has a large assortment of tricks in his ambush bag and is constantly devising new ones, while continuing to use old tricks like this tree sniping. The jungle soldier's answer is know-how and aggressiveness, to move in fast and hit the waiting enemy before he can do any damage. However, aggressiveness must be tempered by caution, otherwise the soldier will be victimized by the guerrillas' skill in setting traps like this swinging mace. Each student quickly learns that he can be the perpetrator of an ambush rather than its victim. The enemy is just as vulnerable to this guerrilla tactic, as long as the ambush is well planned, cunningly set up and patiently sweat it out. Aircraft provides a heartening reminder that the soldier is never completely isolated, even deep in the jungle. Light planes as well as helicopters are always on hand for supply or evacuation missions. Training at the jungle warfare school concludes with a day and night exercise in escape and evasion. Student teams simulating combat patrols are given a destination on a map, then sent into the jungle with nothing but a poncho, two canned teams of water, a compass and their wits to find their way back. The course is laid out so that they will encounter every variety of obstacle the jungle abounds in, both natural and man-made. One team blunders into an ambush and is captured. Another team has better luck. It encounters a simulated partisan who gives them help. He shows them how to take routes to avoid various ambush sites and where to find a boat to make a river crossing. The fortunes of war are kind to this team. They go the rest of the way on the escape and evasion course without any trouble and even travel in comfort. Some teams have to make it the hard way. To avoid ambush on land, these men also take to the water, but without boats, it is slow going. Unpleasant and exhausting. But the men are buoyed by the thought that they have met the harsh demands the jungle makes on the combat soldiers. That they have proved equal to one of nature's most difficult environments, far from the jungle, spectacularly different in terrain and climate is the cold weather environment of the arctic and subarctic. Scenically it is magnificent, snow-crowned mountain peaks, gleaming snow fields that climb their slopes and sweep for miles across the valleys in between. Vast forests whose snow-mantled trees have a fairyland loveliness. Yet all this beauty cloaks a cruel and deadly environment that holds more menace for man than any other. The problems it creates for military operations are unique. Its extremities of weather and terrain are a constant threat to human survival. Footing is uncertain, often treacherous. The cold can be bone-shattering. Temperatures of 40 degrees below zero are common, making physical effort uncomfortable, exhausting, and a threat to health. Blinding snow, often reaching blizzard proportions, taxes human endurance to the end-degree. To fight effectively in such a hostile environment, the cold weather soldier must learn, first of all, how to stay alive and well, how to remain mobile so that he can maneuver and advance on snow and ice, how to keep weapons combat-ready and fire them effectively in temperatures that can gel lubricating oil and can make metal brittle. To teach these facts of life to its cold weather soldiers, the U.S. Army operates the Northern Warfare Training Center at Fort Brealy, Alaska. Probably in no environment is correct clothing so important to wear. The cold weather trainee is warned never to go outdoors unless he is wearing all of his protective clothing. If he gets careless, he courts frostbite or other cold injuries. He learns to move and work at a pace that is steady but not too fast, since overexertion creates perspiration. When clothing gets wet, its insulating quality decreases, excessive body heat is lost, and cold injury may follow. The surprising fact is that the active cold weather soldier may lose so much water through perspiration that dehydration may result. He must be sure to replenish the loss by drinking a minimum of two quarts of water daily. Otherwise, he may suffer from headache, stomach cramps, and fatigue. Warm shelters to rest in are an obvious necessity in this killing climate. Field tents are adequate when supply trains can keep up with advancing troops. But the Arctic soldier soon learns that he can borrow a trick from the Eskimo and build a snow igloo that will keep him warm and dry as long as he needs. Arctic weather and terrain are a constant challenge to mobility, especially for the foot soldier. When snow conditions allow, he can take the snowshoes or skis and sometimes move with considerable speed, limited only by the skill with which he can handle his equipment. Great distances can be covered this way, but the winter soldier must be ever watchful. The snow landscape may be deceptive as to the type of footing underneath. Often it is wise for a patrol leader to work his way forward with great caution, sometimes marking the route with flags. Frequently the difficulties of the terrain are so great that the men must rope themselves together for safety's sake. Occasionally, the snow soldier gets an assist from a snow cloud to clear the way for men and machines. Military mobility means mechanization. The army has for decades carried out research in the cold weather operation of mechanized vehicles. This enormous experience has given it the know-how to keep vehicles operational in extremes of temperature and terrain. Tracked vehicles in particular have benefited from the tireless effort to improve their performance and reliability in this icy environment. One of the features of Arctic terrain, even among mountain ranges, is the occurrence of vast open areas, either on flat land or slope. When they are filled with hard-packed snow, mechanized mobility is accelerated. The foot soldier can be carried with relative rapidity and ease across considerable distances, before terrain or tactical considerations require him to leave his vehicle, change the skis and proceed on foot. In sharp contrast to the jungle, long-range observation in this environment is fairly easy, thanks to the sparsity of vegetation, the many high vantage points and the clear dry air. The Sub-Zero cold yields another bonus. By freezing rivers and lakes, it creates natural landing fees for fixed wing planes on courier or supply missions. The helicopter is the aerial workhorse here as it is in other difficult environments. The thin air and freezing cold create maintenance and operational problems for aircraft, especially the rotary type. But army aviation has mastered them to the point where it routinely flies in men and supplies on any kind of tactical mission. Likewise, in the best tradition of air mobile operations, artillery can be airlifted anywhere to augment firepower. Although the helicopter provides most aerial trucking services, resupply drops by parachute are carried out when the volume of supplies is very large or when troops are operating far from their base. Intensive training exercises and maneuvers prove the feasibility of combined arms operations in Northern warfare. Armor plays its classic role in the infantry tank team, providing shock power and fire support. When advancing troops stop to set up a firing line, the men use snow to build up gun emplacements or for cover and concealment when laying down fire. The concentration of firepower is formative. Weather combat training is a grueling experience. But thanks to it, the American soldier gains the confidence and skill to push forward to victory even in this most difficult and hostile of environment. There is a strong heritage of mountain men in the traditions of the United States Army. Since the days of Ethan Allen's Green Mountain Boys in the Revolutionary War, there has been a special breed of fighting man who glories in overcoming the difficulties of high precipitous terrain. However, modern global warfare has shown that even the ordinary rifleman may have to fight on high ground. At Fort Carson, Colorado, the Army has developed mountain training techniques to prepare any American soldier to move and fight on heights where only eagles or mountain goats are at home. Even the soldier in prime physical condition needs extra strength and endurance for mountain operations. These are developed by exercises, road march after road march and double timing. However, running is not favored as the usual way of getting around in mountain country. Instead, conservation of energy is stressed. The fledgling soldier learns to adjust his technique of mountain walking to the type of terrain, hard ground. Grass or slopes with loose crumbling material under foot. Rock climbing is the most important feature of mountain training. It calls for a high order of skill and precision that comes only with intensive practice. The mountain trooper gets to know various body positions and different types of holes. Hand holes and foot holes used in combination. Each step is taken literally under expert supervision. The beginner starts on gentle slopes, moving up to steeper and higher ones. The piton, an artificial climbing aid that comes in several lengths and shapes, is the basic tool of the mountaineer. The trainee learns how to put them firmly in place with the piton hammer. Secure piton placement is a matter of life and limb. It secures the snap link which holds the rope, the mountaineer's lifeline. On this terrain, a man's best friend is indeed his rope. Each new mountain soldier becomes a specialist in rope management and in making knots. He develops a seamen's skill in tying them, learning a variety of basic knots for different uses. Mountain climbing must never be attempted alone. Soldiers climb in teams, helping one another with the technique of delaying. Here, the climber moving up is being supported by a standing hip delay. This is a demonstration of the sitting delay used by the belay man when the climber is below him. When the climber is above him and intends to use a piton, the belay man changes the position of the rope on his body since its pull now comes from a different direction. The climber goes to work on his piton. His technique in piton placement and in securing the snap link or carabiner had better be flawless since he's going to try a practice fall. When ready, he warns the belay man pushes back and falls. The terrain or tactical situation may favor anchoring ropes. Trees make excellent natural anchors when they are at hand, so do rocky outcroppings. Since the mountain soldier cannot always count on natural anchors, he learns how to make artificial ones such as an A-frame used on steep cliffs to raise or lower men in supply. Another type of anchor has the cheerful name of dead man. A tree limb is placed in a ditch and covered with rocks and dirt to weigh it down. Extra shovel pull is extra insurance that the tree limb will stay put. The climber passes his rope around the limb which serves as the anchor. Then ties it to his waist, always making sure to test it before use. A series of pitons firmly embedded in rocky ground will also provide safe anchorage for vertical lines. Using rope to climb down a steep incline calls for knowledge of rappelling. This instructor has stopped halfway to demonstrate how the rope is adjusted for a basic type of rappel, the hasty seat rappel. It is quite easy to use just like walking down a mountainside. Even students pick up the knack quickly if somewhat clumsily. Far more difficult is a hasty rappel down a sheer mountainside. Taking a vertical walk seems simple enough when an expert does it. Although even he takes plenty of time to make sure the rope is securely fastened. Dropping in a free rappel is the most exhilarating sensation in mountaineering. After the instructor lands he makes sure the ropes remain untangled for the next man. It is the student's turn. The novice mountaineer finds out that it is not as easy as it looks. But the spirit is willing even if the flesh is reluctant. The instructor urges him to keep moving since he who hesitates may freeze in fear. So down he goes. As the course continues the trainees are shown more illustrations of how rope is truly a lifeline. The evacuation of sick and wounded soldiers is a graphic example. Rope bridges provide a direct way of bypassing mountain gorges. This man is crossing on a single rope type. Not quite the Brooklyn Bridge but adequate. Rope installations are musts to raise or lower weapons and supplies especially when the load is heavy or cumbersome. This is where an A-frame can be of great help. Saving time as well as sparing the man needless exertion. Here rope becomes a railing in a fixed rope installation. Placed in advance by experts it enables untrained troops to move across or up a mountainside. Once the mountain soldier has mastered the skills that enable him to cope with the obstacles and hazards of this difficult environment. He can with confidence bear down on his primary mission to fight. Named many a wilderness as he grew in numbers and reached out for living space. Yet despite the growth of cities and the population explosion much of nature remains wild and primitive. Empty of human habitation difficult of access though and strenuous to traverse which threatens. Either because of treacherous terrain or climatic extreme hot humid weather or fearsome cold that swiftly annihilates the unprepared. The difficult environments of this world have often been used as corridors for aggression by enemy forces trained and equipped for the severities of these regions. To defeat such an enemy whose boldness and skill must never be underestimated. The American soldier is prepared to fight on any kind of ground in any kind of weather confident that no matter how difficult the battle field he will be the ultimate victim. Improved himself equal to any environment on earth the American fighting man has shown that he can master even more difficult environments with strange unprecedented hazards. The frigid waste of outer space and eventually the airless dust planes of the moon and the unexplored planets beyond it.