 Welcome to this 21st lecture of this course on Aspects of Western Philosophy module 21st. In continuation with the previous lecture, this is again trying to give an understanding about Immanuel Kant's philosophy. In the previous lecture I have mentioned Kant's philosophy is known as the critical philosophy because it is basically engaged in a kind of critiquing of human faculties. And for Kant there are fundamentally three faculties of the mind which is related to knowing, willing and feeling roughly can be divided into pure reason, practical reason and aesthetic judgments. And the previous lecture and this lecture would are focusing on the first critic, the critic of pure reason which is also the name of Kant's major publication for the first critic. And the previous lecture we have trying to introduce this whole process of critical philosophy and how Kant has started his examination of pure reason. And this lecture would be actually trying to understand what is this critic of pure reason all about, what is it trying to achieve. So there are three basic aspects of the critic which are known as transcendental aesthetic, transcendental analytic and transcendental dialectic. The transcendental dialectic part we will probably discuss in the next lecture. We will just mention about it, but we will discuss it in the next lecture. This lecture we will concentrate on the first two transcendental aesthetic and transcendental analytic, that is what we do when we discuss these two issues, the forms of sensibility and categories of understanding. And by elaborating these two the transcendental aesthetic and transcendental analytic we would attempt to explain the process of knowledge acquisition in the sense in which Kant was trying to elaborate it. And then finally we will see the concepts of phenomena and phenomena or rather to put it the other way, the reality which is known to us, the reality which is understood by us and the reality those capital R, if at all there is a reality, that reality which is unknowable and for Kant there is no doubt there is, there is a domain, there is a realm of things in themselves for Kant, though Kant again was categorical in saying that this is unknowable. So this is the famous Kantian agnosticism. So these are the issues which we are going to discuss in this lecture. So we will start with what where we have stopped in the previous lecture, the possibility of synthetic a priori prepositions. This is the central problem in Kant's critic of pure reason. So that is why it keeps on repeating these issues. So what we have seen yesterday was that synthetic a priori prepositions are on the one hand they talk about the world, on the other hand they also talk about us. So these two aspects of internal and external space, the outer and inner space is brought together to explain the process of knowledge acquisition by Kant. The synthetic aspect presupposes experience or percepts from an external source. So this is a very important step when we try to understand Kant's critic of pure reason, particularly the critic transcendental aesthetic part of it. Because the transcendental aesthetic part deals with this percepts or the experience or the sensations that we receive from an external source. Then also our experience of the world must be perceivable and it is about the world. So that is what the synthetic part of it deals with. And the a priori part deals with presupposes certain elements that are not derived from experience that are given a priori not which is the result of experience. The mental counterpart something which is innate what the mind contributes I mean real knowledge the scientific knowledge when he talks about the scientific knowledge. This knowledge is constitutive of synthetic a priori prepositions not synthetic a posteriori. They are not scientific they are just commonsensical like when I say it is very hot outside or it is very cold inside. These are all not very scientifically tested statements this is my feeling. Another person might contradict me by saying that no no no it is very hot inside this room. So these are all subjective feelings but scientific knowledge cannot be subjective feeling. For example when I say the temperature in this room is 25 degree centigrade which is this cannot be your feeling this is based on certain data which come from outside and also something which we contribute to understand to conceptualize this data in a particular way. So there are certain things crude data which comes from outside and this crude data is ordered by the mind. This ordering business by the mind is done by the a priori structures which the mind possesses this is Kant's theory. So synthetic a priori prepositions would explain this synthetic a priori preposition would if you analyze such prepositions you will get the structure of the mind you will also get to know how knowledge is possible. You can develop an epistemology for natural sciences. You can overcome the humance skepticism. You can overcome the kind of dogmatism which was involved among the rationalist philosophers and come up with a more comprehensive well balanced theory of knowledge which Kant was aiming to attain. Now our experience of the world must be thinkable as well. So on the one hand our knowledge should be about the world but it is not that we are just a photographer whatever is there just copying no we contribute to that that is the Kantian point it is about ourselves. The way in which we think about it the way in which we conceptualize about it in order to think about it in order to conceptualize about the world we should process the instruments by means of which we conceptualize and think. Those instruments are a priori they are part of our mental structure. This is why in the previous lecture I mentioned Kant has introduced something called a Copernican Revolution philosophy. This is how Kant has introduced it. Kant made the human mind at the center of the knowledge acquisition process like Copernicus made son at the center of the universe. Now preconditions of knowledge what are these preconditions of knowledge knowledge is possible only about the world that we can experience there you know it is empiricism it is nothing that you know something which we come with but there should be a world and experiential knowledge is thinkable only if there is some regularity in what is not apparently it looks that Kant is referring to or subscribing to a kind of fundamental empiricist principle which asserts that all knowledge is a result of experience that is true all knowledge is a result of sense experience sensations and perceptions are important. But this sensations apparently the crude data which we encounter these sensations in its first encountered by the mind itself comes to the mind enters the mind in an ordered fashion. So, before it reaches the mind or rather the process of encounter itself they are ordered in a certain fashion. So, there is a regularity in which it is known it is possible only if there is some knower in whom that regularity can be represented. So, what Kant says is that this regularity cannot be seen there in the world out there in the world we never know this regularity needs to be located within ourselves within our mind concepts without percepts are empty and percepts without concepts are blind this statement is again another very important statement by Kant concepts without percepts. So, just by having an innate structure of the mind without having this percepts which come from an outside world then it is going to be empty. Similarly something which comes from the external world, but there are no conceptual background from which we can order them and regulate them and understand them then it would become blind. So, clear understanding knowledge is possible only when concepts and percepts come together when there is a cooperative endeavor activity of both concepts and percepts. Now, let us see the beginning of knowledge what happens the process step by step the only way in which our knowledge can be relate can relate immediately to objects is by means of an intuition. So, here he talks about an intuition intuition is some sort of a sensible sensation in the sense in which Kant uses it and an intuition can take place only in so far as an object is given to us. So, there should be an object in front of I see for example, I have computer in front of me or I have this water bottle in front of me I am holding it in my hand and I can see it this water bottle. So, what is it there should be something in the outside world that actual water bottle should be there in the world. Now, human subject must be affected by the object in some way. In some way you know it should affect me it should have an impact on me the capacity, but again it is very interesting the capacity for receiving representations of objects by being affected by them is named sensibility. So, to get a sensation when I see this bottle water bottle I get certain sensation some shape some color which the empiricists were talking about. So, this is called sensibility and here he agrees with empiricism, but there is a very important aspect of human thinking which is called the synthetic function of thought I mentioned in the previous lecture that you know typical synoptical mind of Kant who is trying to synthesize reconcile the different tradition. So, here he says that it is true that something should affect me there should be an impact from an outside world, but there is a synthetic function of thought which needs to be recognized that it refers to the constructive power of the understanding. What is that constructive power mind is active even when the sensations are received from outside it is not that mind is a passive receiver or a passive spectator of sensations. The mind does not work like a camera which just takes what is out there, but it is an active counterpart in the process. The sensations are not received passively by the mind opposes the photographic theory of sense perception which was actually very common among philosophers and perceptions are produced by the active working of thought upon the sensory material. So, the human thinking process is already in under operation. The mind is already active the moment sensations are received they are received in an ordered regulated fashion they are not just dumb to the mind. So, that the mind would encounter a kind of chaotic bundle of things and in this sense we can say that every seeing is thinking every seeing is a process of thinking. So, here this figure will give you an understanding about what happens when the synthetic function of thought and this will also give you a kind of summary of Kant's philosophical program. So, you have the synthetic function on the left hand side of the mind there are three phases of our thought activity in the first phase you have sense perception. The second one is relating various perceptions with each other and the third one is making inferences from that. So, these are the three phases of our thought activities and which will lead to three corresponding faculties. Sense perception would lead to sensibility which we have already explained relating various perceptions lead to understanding and the third one inference is leads to the faculty of reason. And again Kant's whole program is concerned about these three things the first one is transcendental aesthetic second one is transcendental analytic and the third one is transcendental dilating. So, when it deals with sense perception and sensibility it is called transcendental aesthetic and when it deals with the process of understanding it deals with transcendental analytic. We are going to discuss these two things in detail in this lecture. So, what is transcendental aesthetic? The transcendental approach as I already mentioned in the previous lecture it is different from empirical and other sorts of approaches because a transcendental approach would focus on preconditions what are the a priori preconditions? It is not something which is derivative of or derived from experience it is something which even think about the preconditions that make experience itself possible. So, here when it deals with transcendental aesthetic sensibility what makes sensibility possible that is the question factors that are indispensable and necessary in the perception of all objects those preconditions without which perception of objects would never take place not the perception of one object a bottle or a chair or any of these particular things, but all the objects entire range of objects what are those factors that are indispensable for their perception elements present in the sensory process, but are not qualities of any particular object of perception. As I mentioned not dealing with one particular thing the part of the sensory process as such have an a priori and not an empirical origin these factors which enables us to have sensibilities to perceive. They have an a priori origin and not an empirical origins and they are transcendental. So, what are these two conditions? So, Kant's introduces two such conditions space and time and can cause them the forms of sensibility. So, these two are essential conditions for all sensibility they are called the forms of sensibility space and time every object the moment we perceive an object we perceive it in a particular space and a particular time it is situated in a particular place when I talk about this bottle of water it is there in my hand the place at this moment now. So, my understanding is this whole sense of time and place cannot be separated from my understanding my process of understanding my sensations or my sensibility cannot be detached from this spatial temporal organization which is so inherently present in it you cannot abstract it away and conceive of this bottle existing outside space and time all my understanding all my conceptualization all my imagination about everything is necessarily and essentially situated in space and time all sensibilities all perceptions. So, they are so fundamental there and this figure will give you an understanding about what happens in this process of sensibility. So, knowledge through senses there are basically two elements he talks about there is a variable element and there is a constant element whenever you encounter an object there are these two elements the variable elements and the constant element the variable elements are the qualities of the object which determine it and differentiate it from all other objects see I take once again the example of this water bottle it has got certain qualities which is variable which determine it the shape of it the color of it and certain other qualities which determine which definitely tells us what it is at the same time and again this is variable because this can change there are certain constant elements what are they space and time and space according to Kant is observed by the outer sense and time is observed by the inner sense. I am not going to the details of this because that is not in the scope of this lecture it basically deals with the common forms in which all objects of sense perception show themselves in experience. So, that is what the space and time means. So, they are not variable they are constant elements of any sensation about this world they are there the spatial form of sensibilities observed by the outer sense and the temporal form is observed by the inner sense this is what Kant says and again space and time when you talk about them they are not the result of inductive generalization of experience from where do I get this idea I mean it is part of it is not something which I derived from my experience again constant elements in the objects of perception things appear in space and are connected with some point or period of time. So, space and time are indispensable all experience is conditioned by space and time all my experiences and this is quite obvious in the case of day to day conversations as well without the very process called grammar in language is based on space and time to very great extent on time because we would not make sense if you do not use space and time categories and assume that the other person or other people would also understand it we would not make sense at all we would not be able to communicate with each other if you do not employ it when I say I came to this room 10 minutes back or 20 minutes back to give a lecture in continuation with the lecture I had given in the last week or whatever whenever I make such a statement I involve the space show temporal categories a lot this room space yesterday today 10 minutes back all these are temporal categories when I came. So, when I say I came it presupposes a place 2 places from somewhere I came from somewhere and I came reached this place. So, all these are so integral to our understanding and we cannot separate them from our conceptual processing they are common forms in which all objects of sense perception appear and show themselves in experience have their origin in the very nature of thought itself this is the point which can is trying to drive us to they are not the result of experience they are not being inferred from the process of thinking, but they are the very preconditions of thinking and their sources have to be they have to be found in the mind itself the structure of the mind itself or in the nature of thought itself quite interestingly that is where he calls them forms of sensibility the sensibility the sensations are possible in an orderly manner because of them. Now, they are a priori forms of the mind according to which it arranges the mind arranges sensations it is not that we are at first aware of unordered sensations and that we then subject them to a priori forms of space and time no that is not the case it is not that you know the first encounter with the world is with all these unordered chaotic data we never know that we never we are not aware of the fact that whether the data is order or chaotic we can always assume that it was chaotic and the mind imposes, but it is true that you know we cannot conceive this data as already spatially and temporarily organized ordered. We are never faced with unordered sensations all that sensations we encounter are already ordered and regulated in a particular fashion. So, that is very interesting aspect of can you know he introduces the active cooperation of the mental component the a priori structures of understanding are under operations at the level of sensibility itself it is not that at the level of sensibility you do not encounter any a priori structures, but just receive the data and then only when you it goes to the mind then the mind does all these business which the rash the empiricist were claiming it was not that kind of a picture which Kant is trying to advocate for him we never faced we never encounter unordered sensations the ordering is a condition of awareness or consciousness not a consequence of it. So, it is already there it is a precondition and all representations are determinations of the mind and when you talk about the forms of sensibility they are universal and necessary the space and time they are universal and necessary and all experience must conform to the constraints imposed by space and time that is the reason why they are called a priori they are called transcendental they are called preconditions. These forms are imposed by the nature of the mind which conceives them and they are the subjective conditions imposed upon experience by the mind and applied only to things as appearing to us. So, this is again from here we can see that Kant is trying to implicate that there are certain limitations to the application of these forms of sensibility as well we cannot just apply this forms of sensibility to anything on the one hand these forms of sensibility are necessary preconditions no doubt about it without that there is no knowledge without that there is no experience. On the other hand these forms of sensibility do not find an application on certain things like wherever you do not have objects that appear to us the sensibilities you cannot apply them say for example, God the very concept of God is by definition or by all human imagination God is conceived as an infinite entity philosophically as well as religiously God is conceived as an infinite entity who cannot be seen who cannot be sensed in the sense in which objects can be sensed. So, can we ever talk about having knowledge about such a God that is the question and if you follow this logic you cannot you cannot talk about God you cannot talk about any object which is not given to you through sensations if there is no sensibility there cannot be any application of these categories possible and without the application of these categories you cannot have knowledge. So, it says that these subjective conditions are applicable only to things as they appear to us and not applicable to things in themselves like God like Saul or any such metaphysical object which is metaphysics which is beyond the physical world. They are essentially conditions for the possibility of appearances. So, that is why they are called forms of sensibility it is transcendental aesthetic it deals with sensible object it deals with the world which we perceive and their reality according to Kant they are they are real one can really raise an issue whether if that is a case if they are subjective conditions of knowledge can you conceive them as real it is a very tricky question because it needs to first clarify what you mean by real if you mean by real something which is totally independent of the mind then there are certain reservations in accepting these forms of sensibility as real, but for Kant they are real Kant would say that space and time are empirically real, but transcendentally ideal they are empirically real means what is given in experience is in space and time in that sense they are real and they are transcendentally ideal because the sphere of phenomena is the only sphere of their validity and that they do not apply to things in themselves considered apart from their appearance to us. So, in that sense they are ideal transcendentally ideal space and time are not illusions for Kant they are real it is something very similar to the kind of I am not saying same, but very similar to the kind of distinction which the Advaitins make between the Paramartika and the Viharika levels of reality. And they talk about Maya the concept of Maya which is not an illusion, but something which when we talk about the categories the space and time the subjective categories finding an application on the data on reality that where the question is whether that can be conceived as ultimately real and Kant's answer would be something like they are not unreal they are not illusions, but there is a reality which lies behind or which lies beyond them the phenomena the things in themselves which can never be understood which can never be approached or exist with the help of these space and time categories and another aspect of is that we human beings cannot approach or understand anything without the application of these two categories. So, for Kant reality would always remain unknowable, agnosticism. Now, transcendental analytic the second part of his theory is transcendental analytic here it talks about the cooperation of sense and understanding in human knowledge as I mentioned percepts and concepts are essential without the cooperation of percepts which are senses and concepts which stand for understanding no knowledge is possible. So, percepts without concepts are blind and concepts without percepts are empty. So, now what is it human knowledge here there is sensibility where the faculty of receiving impressions are highlighted and on the bottom you can see the power of thinking the data by means of concepts which is called understanding and human knowledge is possible with the cooperation of sensibility understanding where the faculty of receiving impressions cooperates with the power of thinking the data by means of concepts percepts and concepts. Now, what do you mean by concepts? Because you basically what Kant means by concepts are with the term concepts he refers to a set of laws by means of which human understanding is possible a set of laws on the basis of which the mind organizes the data it receives from sensations. And what is this how can you legitimately say that there is a set of laws which deal with human understanding from where do you discover what methodology did you adopt to discover it. So, Kant adopts a kind of logical method he says that there is a transcendental logic involved because it is concerned about the a priori concepts and principles of the understanding and their application to objects again you can see the transcendental approach which deals with preconditions. So, Kant's approach is this the following that examine what are the preconditions of our understanding by examining our understanding of this world when I understand the world in a particular way say for example, when I am given an apple I understand it is an apple as a red object round with a taste with a smell and several other qualities how is this understanding possible. And here he says that it is possible on the one hand because as the previous slide indicates there is a faculty of receiving impressions present in me. So, that I would receive these qualities of redness taste smell etcetera in an ordered fashion and then further the power of the thinking this data would be taught about by the concepts by understanding. So, the understanding will put it in relation with each other and it forms a concrete shape it attributes a concrete shape to the data received from sensations and understand it as an apple. So, this cooperative activity is possible because there is something which is a priori concepts present in the mind. And studies the a priori concepts and principles of the understanding as necessary conditions for objects being taught just sensations would not give you knowledge you have to think about it you have to conceptualize it just sensing red color round shape would not give you any knowledge at all you have to conceptualize this red color and related with round shape and make finally, a kind of a picture of an apple and understand it is an apple only then there is knowledge. And this is possible when only there are certain a priori concepts and principles of understanding necessarily present it studies the a priori concepts of understanding by which the manifold of phenomena is synthesized. So, there is a synthesizing process that the mind performs by relating these ideas putting them together and relating them and finally, forming a concrete shape to discover the ways in which human understanding necessarily synthesizes phenomena. So, these are the processes which Kant is Kant tries to explain with transcendental analytic and the task of transcendental analytic is the following one to ascertain the a priori concepts of the understanding with an examination of the faculty of judgment or the power of thought. Second one reduce all operations of understanding to judgment. So, there is the fundamental question is what you mean by understanding when you understand something what essentially happens and here it is a logical examination of the process of understanding what logically what is the process that takes place in the mind when you understand something. Say for example, when I understand that this is a camera in front of me this is a laptop computer or anything this is a chair all these understanding which I have in my day to day life. They are necessarily involved in judging something as something when I understand this as a chair I am making a judgment this is a chair or when I understand that there are 20 chairs in this class I basically make a statement a judgment there are 20 chairs in this class or when I say the temperature is 26 degree centigrade again it is a judgment it is 26 degree centigrade or when I say that the clapping produces sound again there is a judgment about a causal relationship the clapping is the cause of sound. So, all these are examples which we can cite where we reduce all operations of the understanding to judgment and examine what are the possible kinds of judgments. So, this is a logical inquiry which can't conducts to judge is same as to think to judge is to think to unify different representations to form one cognition by means of concepts. So, these are all the things which we do when we essentially make a judgment we are thinking we are synthesizing we are uniting judgments synthesize representations by means of concepts. So, we are basically involving concepts to synthesize it to unify it. So, when I say there are 20 chairs in this class I am using concepts like 20 for example, 20 is a concept it deals with quantity then chairs when I say chair again it deals with an object with a particular shape. So, these are all qualities and quantities and relationships in this room these chairs are present in this room. So, I am relating the presence of 20 chairs with this room. So, a relationship has been established. So, all these processes involve what I would say making judgments synthesizing and uniting and here he talks about categories of understanding these are the categories by means of which we unite with synthesize we form concepts. Understanding involves a process of judging a process of synthesizing can seeks to examine the different ways of judging the number of possible ways of judging the number of logical types of judgments. So, logicians have done it traditionally logicians have already made a list of possible kinds of judgments and can just has to take them from the tradition the logical traditions only thing is that can takes it a little further and tries to identify the a priori structures that are operational behind the very possibility of making such judgments. So, is making an advancement from the possibility of this judgment to the kind of what you call the kind of structures that enable any one of us to make such a judgment. So, it is from a statement to the logical structure of that statement because any statement any judgment would be exhibiting a kind of logical property from that logical property can't infuse the logical structure of that judgment the logical structure is essentially an a priori structure for him it is not derived from experience, but it is the very precondition of all experience. Now, this is examine the reason why these and only these forms of judgments are possible each form of judgment is determined by an a priori concept. So, when I say 20 chairs 20 is an a priori it is a category of quantity deals with quantity 20 and it is a priori present in me the quantity is a priori that is the reason why I could learn mathematics. If the category of quantity is not there in me then I would not be able to communicate anything about numbers discover the fundamental synthesizing functions of the understanding in these a priori concepts of understanding and they are known as categories or categories of understanding. Now, categories of understanding so anyone who had heard about Kant's transcendental analytic would have heard about these famous expression categories of understanding which is so central in Kantian philosophy. The understanding is the unifying synthesizing or judging power which I have already mentioned and discussed it possesses an a priori categorical structure it necessarily synthesizes representations in certain fundamental ways according to certain basic categories and the categories of understanding are a priori conditions for knowledge their a priori conditions for the possibility of objects being thought the very possibility that we can think about object without the thinking component of part there is no knowledge possible. So, you have to basically think about it and when you think you are synthesizing it you are relating that different perceptions and synthesizing it and forming a concept. So, here Kant talks about different categories of understanding according to him there are four broad groups of categories categories of quantity categories of quality categories of modality and categories of relations out of in under each category there are three types of judgments corresponding to three types of judgments there are three types of categories. So, there are three judgments of quantity corresponding to them there are three categories of quantity they are the judgments of quantity are universal particular and singular and corresponding to that you have unity, plurality and totality. So, the category of quantity we employ these categories when we understand anything when you talk about unity of an object or plurality or totality, generality basically these categories we employ in our day to day conversation and in our scientific explorations and they are actually there in the mind, they are part of the logical structure of the mind according to can. And now when we come to categories of quality they are affirmative, negative and infinite judgments corresponding to that there is a quality of reality, negation and limitation. And this is category of modality where you have the judgments like problematic, esoteric and apodictic, the categories are possibility or impossibility that is why it is problematic, existence or non-existent corresponding to esoteric and corresponding to apodictic there is necessity or contingency. And the categories of relation is again a very interesting aspect because it is interesting because this is something an aspect which Hume has observations in accepting. So, there are judgments of categorical, hypothetical and disjunctive judgments and corresponding to them you have the categories of endurance and subsistence, substance and accident. Then causality and dependence you have cause effect relationship and you have disjunctive where community reciprocity between agent and patient. So, these are the essential 12 categories of understanding can never thought that this 12 is an arbitrary number. Of course, you can always I did there are criticism about against cans transcendental analytic by saying that why cannot we have more than 12. If there are 12 then why not 13, why not 14, why not more you can keep on adding to that, but what can would say is that this number 12 is not something which is arrived at in an arbitrary fashion. It has been arrived at as a result of a very detailed kind of logical analysis and examination. And basically he believed that all other so called categories can be ultimately reduced to these 12 fundamental categories. There could be more than 12, but ultimately all the other categories could be reduced to these 12 categories which are fundamental. So, let us see the process involved in this. The sensations cost by the world is primarily ordered by space and time or forms of intuition which we have already examined the forms of intuition come to play. And these ordered sensations are further categorized by the 12 categories of understanding as a result we get knowledge about the phenomenal world. So, this figure is an attempt to picture eyes what happens when we know the process of knowledge. So, you have on the left hand side reality which is unknowable according to Kant which is what he calls things in themselves. And we encounter this reality through senses. So, you have pure reason understanding the 12 categories and sensibilities of form and space and then you get knowledge or more clearly we will see this picture will give you a better understanding of it. Here you have reality which is called technically called nomina and this reality is being known through sensation. So, I have just mentioned sensation 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 because corresponding to our 5 sense organs. And these sensations are actually given to space and time which are forms of sensibility. So, they are already ordered before they enter the mind and the moment it enters the mind the 12 categories will be operating upon them. So, the mind in structurally constitutive of these 12 categories which would operate on these sensations received through the sense organs and are already received in an ordered fashion because they are ordered through the forms of sensibility of space and time. And the 12 categories will work on it and you will get knowledge which is nothing but phenomena. So, there is a definite gap between nomina and phenomena reality and knowledge about the world. What is the real world we can never know it there is a gap between nomina and phenomena because in between the nomina and phenomena in between reality with a capital R things in themselves and our knowledge about the world you have all these things the sensations and the forms of sensibility and the 12 categories. So, these are all subjective conditions which the mind imposes and there is no knowledge possible devoid of these mental subjective conditions of understanding. So, that is why Kant is an idealist that is why there is a Copernican revolution initiated by Kant because he places the human mind at the center. But one aspect of Kantian philosophy I need not say that explicitly because that is quite obvious that Kant would not say that this is a subjective mind mind of one person, but rather this structure of mind according to Kant is something which is universal. So, that is why it is transcendental a perception it is called. So, as I raise the question how can you talk about these categories of understanding. So, Kant says that there is a transcendental deduction is possible about these categories which would ultimately contain or consist of a justification of categories. You can justify this categories through this transcendental deduction where they are a priori condition of all experience they make all experience possible. They are conditions of the possibility of experience and. So, when we talk about these conditions as I already mentioned there are two types of them two categories of them. The first one is space and time the forms of sensibility, but there is a difference between them they are necessarily required in order that object should be given to us. So, the forms of sensibility are also preconditions they are also a priori conditions of understanding, but they are necessarily required in order that object should be given to us. Now, the categories are conditions which are necessarily required for objects to be thought. So, the first one is objects to be given to us the second one is objects to be thought and they have to come together with the objects given. Objects cannot be thought except through the synthesizing categories of understanding and it is in this context you have the distinction between phenomena and phenomena which I have already mentioned and this distinction is going to play a very important role in Kant's philosophy further which we would discuss in our next lecture. The entire analysis presented by Kant in critic of pure reason aims at drawing the limit of human understanding it is trying to understand the limitations of human understanding and Kant would remind us that scientific knowledge is possible no doubt. So, he is trying to overcome the human skepticism, but at the same time on the one hand he says that human understanding has the ability to gain knowledge, human understanding has the capacity to know there is objective scientific knowledge possible. So, in that sense skepticism is not entertained, but at the same time this knowledge has got certain limitations. This knowledge does not the capacity to know does not mean that human mind can know anything or human beings can know anything know there are certain limitations the limitations are imposed by virtue of preconditions. The preconditions are forms of sensibility and categories of understanding. So, without there are three things involved the first one is sensibility the forms of sensibility the sensations which are spatially temporarily ordered and the categories of understanding. So, only when these two things come together we can have knowledge, but in order to come together there should be two things one is a mind with 12 categories another one is a world with objects or sensations should come from outside. So, you need a cooperative activity of both with the cooperation of sense and understanding in human knowledge we get to know about the phenomena it is the world as we see it with our preconditions and limitations things in themselves or phenomena are always unknown and impossibility of metaphysics. So, Kant is trying to underline the impossibility of metaphysics impossibility of applying the scope of human understanding to know reality in itself or ultimate realities or metaphysical realities. So, in one sense Kant's work underlines the fact that metaphysics as a science is impossible human knowledge is always confined to the phenomenal world. The phenomenal world is a spatiotemporal world in which we leave and we can converse about each other with each other. So, that is humane Kantian philosophy in nutshell. So, in the next lectures we will concentrate on some of the implications of this and also his ethical theory. And so Kant's critic of pure reason is to understand the process of knowledge acquisition in natural sciences. How sensibility and understanding cooperate it is trying to explain the role of human mind is also explained with this notion of idealism. And the idea of independent reality would suggest the Kantian agnosticism and then it will also talk about Kant and metaphysics and also raises a question about morality which we will discuss in the next lecture. So, we will wind up this lecture here this lecture on Kant's critic of pure reason and his notion of human understanding and knowledge. Thank you.