 21. Crime and Correction 228. The Nature of Crime A crime is an act which is punishable by law because it is considered injurious to the community. If the average man were a hermit, living entirely alone, his actions would affect only himself, and he would be subjected to little or no control by any community. But the average man is a member of a highly civilized community, and what he does or what he fails to do often profoundly affects other individuals. Members of the community therefore agree upon standards of conduct to which individuals must conform. Footnote, where democracy does not exist or is only partially developed, laws may be imposed upon the group from without. In such a country as the United States, however, legal standards of conduct are preeminently the result of mutual agreements freely entered into. End of footnote, it is the failure to conform to these standards which constitutes a crime and which entails punishment by law. What constitutes a crime depends, of course, upon the level of civilization reached by a community and upon the interpretation which it places upon right conduct. A D considered heroic in one age may be considered a crime in a later century. In the days of chivalry, for example, it was sometimes considered heroic to rob or even kill wicked nobles in order to distribute their wealth to the poor. At the present time, of course, such acts would constitute a crime. 229. The Causes of Crime The causes of crime are so various and so complex that their accurate classification is impossible. But some light may be thrown upon the subject if we think of crime as influenced by economic, social, personal and political factors. Looking at crime from an economic point of view, it is obvious that poverty often accompanies crime. In many cases, it is claimed such crimes as larceny, forgery and robbery are directly traceable to poverty. Similarly, it is said that unemployment and industrial accidents may incite individuals to crime. Many authorities claim, however, that while bad economic conditions accompany and often encourage crime, such conditions alone are not a direct cause of crime. According to this lighter view, poverty, for example, will not cause a person to commit a crime unless he is feeble-minded, depraved in morals or otherwise defective in character. While there is a good deal of dispute as to whether or not poverty is a direct cause of crime, it is quite generally agreed that a bad economic situation gives rise to social conditions, which can be definitely connected with criminality. The strain and artificiality of urban life, together with the difficulty of obtaining inexpensive and wholesome recreation in the poorer sections of large cities, has a close connection with crime. The overcrowding so common in tenement districts renders difficult or impossible the maintenance of high moral standards. Where mother or children are habitually employed outside the home, the young are often denied proper home training. Divorce, desertion, or the death of the breadwinner may break up the family and indirectly give rise to illiteracy, vice, and crime. Often indistinguishable from the social causes are the personal causes of crime, where alcoholism and vicious habits are given as the cause of crime. It may be impossible to say whether social or personal defect is primarily to blame. Illiteracy, superficially a personal cause of crime, may often be traced to a bad social environment. Thus an individual may be illiterate because his parents were unwilling or unable to send him to school, or because evil companions discouraged him from study. Such personal causes as mental defect are extremely important. Indeed, many students maintain that bad economic and social conditions are negligible causes of crime, unless found in connection with low mentality and a depraved moral sense. Last among the causes of crime, we may consider defects in government. The laws of a community may be so numerous or so unwisely worded that even responsible individuals violate them without understanding the nature of their act. After children have committed petty offenses through carelessness or a sense of mischief, the harshness of the police may so embitter or antagonize the culprits that their criminal tendencies are intensified. An important cause of crime is the custom, still common in many states, of imprisoning young and first offenders in county jails where they are allowed to mingle with and learn about crime from hardened and depraved criminals. 230. The Remedies for Crime The causes of crime suggest the nature of its remedies. Wherever bad economic conditions either directly or indirectly encourage crime, the remedy is, of course, the relief or abolition of poverty. This problem has already been discussed. Since bad social conditions are often the result of poverty, any measures which will lessen poverty will also remove many of these so-called social causes of crime. Education, the safeguarding of the home, constructive charity, and similar measures will also help to remove the social causes of crime. These questions are discussed elsewhere in this text and need not be gone into here. The improvement of economic and social conditions will ultimately help to eliminate bad heredity, vice, and other of the personal causes of crime. With the understanding then that the eradication of the economic, social, and personal causes of crime is discussed elsewhere, we may here confine ourselves to the question of preventing crime by remedying the defects of government. 231. Justice as an Ideal Justice has constituted one of the basic ideals of the English-speaking peoples since the days of Magna Charta. To no one will we sell, and to no one will we refuse or delay right or justice, declared that great document. This conception was later glorified into an ideal which, after having persisted for four centuries in England, was brought to the New World by the English colonies. The first ten amendments to the federal constitution and the Bill of Rights contained in the constitutions of the several states have been called by Lord Bryce, the legitimate children of Magna Charta. Since the beginning of our history, thus, a great cornerstone of American democracy has been the concept of sound and equitable law impartially and effectively administered. 232. The Denial of Justice Within the last decade, we have come to realize that in many of the criminal courts of this country, justice is an ideal rather than a fact. The administration of criminal law in all the states of this union, said Chief Justice Taft a few years ago, is a disgrace to civilization. Our criminal law is administered unjustly in two ways. First, it sometimes allows the rich, the cunning, and the powerful offenders to escape the penalty for their crimes. In many states, the court dockets are so crowded that influential offenders are not convicted for years, if at all. Rich prisoners may be released on bail, in consideration of their case so delayed that the evidence disappears. Public interest is diverted to new cases, and eventually the case may be quietly dismissed. Mr. Taft points out that we lead the world in the number of serious crimes which go unpunished. Appeals are allowed almost as a matter of course, so that in many serious criminal trials, the original verdict is only the beginning of the case. Second, the law which often allows the powerful and crafty to avoid punishment may operate to deny justice to the poor. Ignorant prisoners are in many cases so bewildered by cumbersome and technical court procedure that they allow their cases to be disposed of without adequate protection of their rights. Often, they have no one to advise them as to their constitutional rights and privileges. If they are not only ignorant but poor, they find themselves unable to employ proper counsel. The Constitution, indeed, recognizes the right of an accused person to have counsel, but in many states, if a man is too poor or too ignorant to secure a lawyer, he is obliged to stand trial without anyone to represent or advise him. In some states, the court appoints a lawyer to represent such defendants. Sometimes, the assigned counsel is dishonest, and too often, his primary object is to get a fee rather than to secure justice for his client. Generally, the counsel so appointed is inexperienced and consequently no match for an able and experienced prosecuting attorney whose reputation may depend upon the number of convictions that he secures. 233. The Reform of Criminal Procedure The reform of criminal procedure is assuming great importance as a problem of American democracy. In many states, there is a demand for a wider and more energetic use of the Bertilian and fingerprint systems for the identification of criminals. Because of the fact that in our large cities, a heavy percentage of crimes are committed without the subsequent arrest of the culprit, there is a growing demand for the improvement of our police systems. Our criminal law needs to be simplified so that justice may not be delayed by technicalities, long arguments on the admissibility of evidence, and the abuse of the right of appeal. Probably, a good many of the delays and technicalities of legal procedure could be avoided if, at the trial, the judge were to exercise a greater amount of control over the proceedings. The reform of criminal procedure has a double aim. First, it aims to reorganize and perfect criminal procedure so that persons who have committed an offense will be apprehended and always made to pay the penalty for their crimes. Toward the achievement of this ideal, we have as yet done very little. We are still woefully behind such a country as England where justice is administered with relative rapidity and sureness. Second, the reform of criminal procedure aims to prevent the law from bearing with undue weight upon the poor and ignorant. Here we are making greater progress. Let us notice what is being done to guarantee justice to persons who are unable adequately to safeguard their own legal rights. 234. The Legal Aid Society A valuable institution is the Legal Aid Society, which originated in New York City in 1876 and which has since spread to other parts of the country. Of the 40 Legal Aid Societies now in existence in this country, some of the better known are located in New York City, Los Angeles, Kansas City, Boston, and Chicago. The Legal Aid Society is generally a private organization created and maintained by public spirited citizens who believe that the poor and ignorant ought to be given legal advice free of charge or upon the payment of a nominal fee. These societies extend advice on both civil and criminal matters. The Legal Aid Society helps materially to secure justice by acquainting the individual with his legal rights and by acting as his counsel in court. Such organizations are especially valuable in safeguarding the rights and privileges of immigrants in large cities. The total number of persons helped annually by Legal Aid Societies in the United States is over 100,000. 235. The Public Defender The Public Defender movement is an outgrowth of the feeling that it is unfair for the court to assign an inexperienced and sometimes unreliable lawyer to defend a penniless prisoner while the case is prosecuted by a skillful district attorney. In spite of the presumption that the prisoner is innocent until he has proved guilty, such practices as this have operated as though the prisoner were presumed to be guilty. In 1912, Oklahoma attempted to remedy this evil by appointing a public defender whose duty it should be to aid in the defense of persons unable to employ counsel. The next year, the city of Los Angeles appointed a public defender who, as a sworn public counsel of experience and integrity, makes it his business to defend poor prisoners without charge. A few years later, Portland, Oregon and Omaha, Nebraska appointed similar officers. Since 1916, many other cities and a few states have provided for a public defender of some kind, although in many cases the provision is as yet inadequate. In all cities in which the plan has been given a trial, the public defender has been instrumental in securing justice for the poor and in raising the moral tone of the criminal trial. By eliminating much unnecessary delay from the criminal trial, the public defender has also helped to reduce court expenses. In the early stages of society, the spirit of revenge seems to have been a chief motive in the punishment of criminals, although the desire to prevent crime must also have been a factor. With the progress of civilization, revenge declined in importance and the punishment of the criminal seems to have been undertaken chiefly for the purpose of preventing future crimes. Long periods of imprisonment, inhumane punishments, and the frequent use of the death penalty were characteristic of this attitude toward crime. Curiously enough, punishments were imposed according to the seriousness of the crime committed, without regard to the character and needs of the criminal. Of recent years, the theory of punishment has been still further modified in the first place. We have begun to doubt if punishment always serves as a useful purpose. Punishment does not always deter criminals, and for this reason, it is likely that the death penalty and other cruel and inhumane methods of punishment may be dispensed with, without a resultant increase in the amount of crime. In the second place, punishment has taken on a new aim. More and more, we are coming to believe that it should be imposed, not according to the seriousness of the crime committed, but according as the individual criminal needs to be punished in order to affect his reformation. This new attitude is based upon the assumption that the criminal is a person who is not adapted to the conditions of modern life, and that the chief aim of the authorities should be so to reform him that he will become a useful member of society. In case reform seems impossible, the criminal should be segregated in an institution. 237. Individualized treatment of offenders The emphasis now placed upon reformation has made necessary a new point of view on the part of the public. We are beginning to make use of a mass of data furnished by physiology, psychology, and sociology, and on the basis of these data to subject prisoners to individualized treatment. Instead of hurting all offenders into a single institution, such as the county jail or the penitentiary, we are beginning to inquire, first of all, whether the prisoner might not be treated most effectively outside prison walls. For those offenders who seem to require institutional treatment, we are developing a whole series of institutions designed to care for special types of abnormality. Industrial and farm colonies for petty offenders and occasional criminals, hospitals and colonies for the mentally defective, industrial schools and reformatories for certain types of juvenile offenders, and penitentiaries for the hardened offenders. All these are included in the correctional system of the more progressive states. 238. Substitutes for imprisonment The belief is growing that young offenders, first offenders, and those committing petty crimes, may often be corrected without actual imprisonment. Increasingly common is the probation system, the essence of which is to suspend the sentence of the court upon certain conditions. The offender is placed in charge of a court officer who will stand in the relation of friend and guardian to him in order to supervise his conduct and to attempt his reformation. The success of the probation system depends largely upon the care and judgment with which probation officers control their charges. The use of the fine deserves mention. Generally the sentence for a petty offense is a fine, with imprisonment as an alternative in case the prisoner is unable to pay the fine. Realizing the corrupting influence of the jail sentence for first or slight offenders, court officials in many cities are making the payment of the fine less difficult. In Buffalo, Indianapolis, Chicago, and other cities, it is customary in some cases to allow the payment of a fine in installments. This ultimately secures the fine. It has a disciplinary effect upon the offender and it keeps him out of jail. 239. Mental defectives Recent progress in medicine and psychology has demonstrated that many criminals are mentally defective. Such persons are not fully responsible for their acts and nothing is to be gained by committing them to prison. They need special treatment and institutions for the insane, the fee-well-minded, and the otherwise defective. In recognition of this fact, the criminal courts of our larger cities now make extensive use of psychopathic experts. It is the duty of these experts to determine the mental status of the prisoner and, in case he is found to be mentally defective, to recommend the type of treatment needed. This is an admirable development, provided care is taken to prevent the abuse of the insanity plea by influential criminals who, though normal mentally, seek to evade responsibility for their deliberate crimes. 240. The juvenile offender It has been proved that a large percentage of hardened criminals began their careers by some careless or mischievous acts for which they were severely or unwisely punished. Formally, juvenile offenders were treated much as were adult criminals. More recently, we are coming to believe that children ought not to be committed to penal institutions, but rather should be put on probation or sent to correctional institutions of a special type. Wherever possible, institutional treatment of every kind ought to be avoided, for the crimes of children are clearly in a different class from those of the adult. In New York City, a few years ago, for example, half the children brought into court were there because of the lack of recreation facilities. Petty theft and malicious mischief are often traceable to bad home influences and the unnatural surroundings of the city. These circumstances, coupled with the fact that immature children are often unaware of the seriousness of their lawless acts, justify the special treatment of the juvenile offender. 241. The juvenile court The juvenile court has been created to meet the special needs of the youthful offender. An early institution of this kind was established in Chicago in 1889. Shortly afterward, Denver established a juvenile court, and since then, many other cities have taken up the idea. In some states, county judges are authorized to suspend the ordinary rules of procedure where the defendant is under 18 years of age. A typical juvenile court provides separate judges and separate hearings for youthful prisoners. It avoids publicity, investigates the whole life of the youthful offender, and attempts by kindly treatment to guide him back into a wholesome, honest life. In some cases, delinquent children are sent back to school. In other cases, they are placed on probation. In still other cases, special institutional treatment is provided. Every effort is made to keep juvenile offenders from associating with habitual criminals. The aim of the court is not to punish the offender for a particular offense, but to weigh all the circumstances which have influenced his life and to correct his wrong tendencies. Work of this type is preventative in the fullest sense of the word. 242. The indeterminate sentence The realization that punishment ought to fit the criminal rather than the crime has led to the indeterminate sentence. Though not yet widely applied, this reform is attracting more and more attention. A logical application of the indeterminate sentence would require prisoners to be committed to prison, not for a specific term, but for an indefinite period. The actual length of the prison term would depend upon the prison record of the individual and upon the promise that he showed of becoming a useful and normal citizen if released. According to this plan, occasional criminals and persons enticed or forced into wrongdoing would be entitled to release, regardless of the character of the crime, as soon as it became apparent that they would not repeat the offense. Hardened criminals, on the other hand, might remain in prison permanently, even though committed for a trifling offense. Certainly, we ought not to continue to commit and to recommit hardened criminals for short terms when their past conduct proves that they have neither the intention nor the ability to make proper use of their freedom. 243. The function of the modern prison In addition to the principle of the indeterminate sentence, modern penology has approved a whole series of supplementary measures. The ideal prison of today is not a gloomy dungeon, but a great plant which attempts to turn criminals into useful citizens through the use of the school, the chapel, the workshop, the gymnasium, the library, and even the theater. Discipline, the fundamental weakness of offenders against the law, is a cornerstone of prison life. More and more prisons are adopting the merit system, according to which prisoners are graded and promoted to additional privileges on the basis of behavior. In many prisons, these privileges may include an honor system and inmate self-government. The prison attempts to supply the deficiencies and the convicts early training. Prisoners are taught to take care of their bodies. They are taught useful trades, according to their abilities. If illiterate, they may go to the prison school. Religious exercises and moral instruction are employed to develop a sense of moral values. When consistent good behavior and earnest endeavor in prison duties indicate that the prisoner is entitled to another chance in the outside world, he may be paroled. That is to say, he may be released on certain conditions. Generally, prisoners are not paroled until some person is found, who will guarantee them employment. In many states, the work of the parole board is ably supplemented by unofficial prisoners' aid societies, which help the released man to readjust himself to a free life. After a certain period of satisfactory conduct on parole, the prisoner is entitled to a full and unconditional discharge. The whole aim of the parole system is to supervise the actions of the prisoner without adding to his irritation or humiliation, but with sufficient strictness to guard against temptation and to replace him in prison if he proves unworthy of the trust bestowed upon him. End of chapter 21 Chapters 22 and 23 of Problems in American Democracy This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. This reading by Allison Hester of Athens, Georgia. Problems in American Democracy by Times-Williamson. Chapter 22 The Negro 244 Origin of the American Negro Early in the 17th century, the scarcity of labor in the American colonies led to the introduction of African Negroes as slaves. In response to the demand for slave labor on the southern plantations, the importance of Negroes increased steadily during the next century. The slave trade was nominally abolished in 1808, but Negroes continued to be brought in until the Civil War period. In September 1862, President Lincoln proclaimed abolished both the slave trade and the institution of slavery in the United States. The legality of this act was substantiated in 1865 by the 13th Amendment to the Federal Constitution. 245 Rise of the Negro Problem The Emancipation Proclamation, followed by the 13th Amendment, conferred freedom upon four million slaves. In 1868, the 14th Amendment made the freed Negro citizens of the United States, and in 1870 the 15th Amendment enfranchised them. Largely as the result of these measures, the problem of the slave developed into the present Negro problem. The racial differences between the white and the Negro, as well as the demoralizing effects of slavery, promised to render difficult the adjustment of the Negro to American life. The situation was made more serious by the suddenness of emancipation, and by the fact that the vote was extended the Negroes before most of them were ready for it. The economic, social, and political upheaval affected in the South by the war, together with the bitterness with which many Southern white men regarded the newly freed Negroes also contributed to the difficulty of the situation. Lastly, the Negro became a problem because of the lack of a national program in his behalf. 246 Numbers and Distribution In 1920, the Federal Census gave 10,463,131 as the Negro population of the United States. According to these figures, the Negro constitutes slightly less than one-tenth of our total population. 85% of the Negroes live in the South. In Mississippi and South Carolina, the Negro exceeds the white population. While in several other Southern states, the Negro constitutes from one-fourth to one-half of the total population. About three-fourths of our Negroes live in the rural districts. There is, however, an important migratory movement which operates to decrease this percentage. There is a growing tendency for Southern Negroes to leave the rural districts and to move cityward. Chiefly because of the economic attractions of urban life, many rural Negroes are moving toward the Southern city. In search of social equality as well as greater economic opportunities, many Southern Negroes are migrating to the cities of the North. 247 Adaptability of the Negro From one important angle, civilization is the process of getting along with one's environment, partly by changing that environment and partly by adapting oneself to external conditions. An important characteristic of the Negro, not usually taken into account, is his adaptability. Ours is predominantly a white man's civilization and we are accustomed to think of the Negro as an individual who finds it more or less difficult to fit into our way of living. And yet, one reason for believing that the Negro has a capacity for modern civilization is that he has survived until the present time. Compare the Negro in this regard with the American Indian who, despite his many noble traits, has fared poorly under the white man's civilization. The Indians of Cuba, for example, were so proud and unbending that they died out under the slavery which the early Spanish imposed upon them. The Negro, because of his teachableness and his passive strength, not only survives slavery, but has weathered freedom under very disadvantageous circumstances. 248 Progress since the Civil War The Negro has made considerable progress since the Civil War. Many Negroes have become independent farmers and artesians, owing a considerable amount of property. Despite the backwardness of Negro schools, great progress has been made in the matter of decreasing Negro illiteracy. Whereas, at the close of the Civil War, some 90% of the Negroes were illiterate. Less than a third of our present Negro population is illiterate. In art, literature, and science, the Negro has already made a tolerable showing. Altogether, it is likely that an able and constructive leadership is being developed among the Negroes. 249 Present Economic Condition In spite of the substantial progress made since the Civil War, however, the present economic condition of the Negro is unsatisfactory. The great majority of Negroes are unskilled laborers of a shiftless disposition, because he is frequently neither a dependable nor an efficient worker. The average Negro tends to receive low wages. The Negro is not skilled in manufacturing or mechanical lines, and he is kept out of the higher trades and professions by reasons of illiteracy and social barriers. Very often, the Southern Negro is a tenant farmer, carelessly tilling a small plot of land and mortgaging his crop in order to secure the bare necessities of life. Large families, inadequately supported and reared under sanitary living conditions, are characteristic of the Southern Negro. The failure to save money and the inability to protect themselves against exploitation by unscrupulous white men are characteristic weaknesses of many Negroes. 250 Present Social Condition Though decreasing statically, Negro illiteracy is still high. This is a serious evil. Not only does illiteracy bar the Negro from the education and training of which he is in such great need, but it allows unscrupulous persons to swindle and exploit him. The Negro furnishes an abnormally large preparation of our prison population. Whether or not this is partly the result of racial characteristics, it is uncertain that the bad economic and social conditions surrounding Negro life lead to a high degree of criminality. In justice to the Negro, it should be noted that in many communities he is apprehended and convicted more often than is the white culprit. Acts which would go unpunished or even unnoticed if committed by white men often arouse the community and lead to severe punishment when committed by Negroes. Statistics on Negro crime are also influenced by the fact that the poverty of the Negro often causes him to go to jail while the white offender escapes with a fine. A serious evil is race mixture between Negroes and whites. This has gone on since colonial times until at the present time probably more than half of the Negroes in the United States have some degree of white blood. Such mixtures, while probably not disastrous from the standpoint of biology, have unfortunate consequences socially. Generally, the mulatto offspring are forced to remain members of the Negro group where they are subjected to social surroundings which too often encourage disease, vice and degeneracy. The majority of the states now have laws forbidding marriage between Negroes and whites. Both white and Negro leaders agree that race mixture ought to be stopped. 251. Present Political Condition The Fifteenth Amendment declared that the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Yet in many southern states, the Negro was barred from the polls. In many northern cities where the Negro was allowed the ballot, his ignorance and irresponsibility make him the prey of political bosses who control his vote. The question of Negro suffrage will be treated later. Here we may content ourselves with noting that the Negro's right to vote is often restricted. In the south at least, it is also true that the Negro has but little share either in making the laws or in administering them. 252. Urgent Nature of the Negro Problem The Negro problem was never of more pressing importance than it is today. Illiteracy is still perilously high. Negro crime is becoming more serious and the cityward tendency of the Negro is increasing his susceptibility to disease and vice. In spite of prohibitive laws, racial intermixture is continuing and the problem of mixed blood is becoming more and more acute. Social unrest among the masses of southern Negroes is increasing. The World War created new aims and aspirations among thousands of Negroes. New leaders are arising to preach racial equality for the Negro. Old leaders are, in many cases, becoming more impatient with the attitude of the white population. 253. Hesitancy in Attacking the Problem The American people have been singularly backward about grappling with the problem of fitting 10 million Negro citizens into the fabric of American democracy. One explanation of this backwardness is that until recently, many have believed that the Negro would die out under freedom. This expectation has not been realized. For while the Negro population is increasing less rapidly than is the white population, it is nevertheless increasing. The Negro is not dying out, nor can he be deported to Liberia or other colonies as was often suggested in the last century. The Negro is here to stay and his problems must be solved. 254. Need of a Consistent Program Many institutions and individuals have attacked various phases of the Negro problem with courage and success, but we are in need of a unified and comprehensive program rather than of a series of unrelated endeavors. Above all, what is needed is not impassioned opinion or cure-all schemes, but rather the development of a sound and comprehensive program which shall attack the problem from a number of angles at the same time. Such a program must have a double end in view. First, the immediate needs of the Negro must be met. Second, we must permit the Negro to be trained toward a position in which he will be able to play a useful and honorable role in our national life. Thus, the great comprehensive purpose of this program is to help the Negro adapt himself to American life, to aid him in fitting in with our economic, social, and political institutions, and to encourage him to contribute to the development of American culture to the best of his ability. 255. Education Education is the most important element of any program designed to help the Negro. Ability to read and write, the habit of study, training, and correct thinking all are of such basic value that it is difficult to understand why we have so long neglected the education of the Negro. We spend three or four times as much for the education of a white child per capita as for the education of the Negro child. Negro schools are sparsely distributed, they are poorly equipped, and they are sadly hampered by lack of competent teachers. Clearly, we must spend vast sums on Negro education if we are to expect marked improvement in the Negro's social and economic condition. We cannot expect the Negro to cease being a problem until he has been trained in the fundamentals of citizenship. The inadequate provision for the education of the Negro, says the Southern University Race Commission, is more than an injustice to him. It is an injury to the white man. The South cannot realize its destiny if one-third of its population is undeveloped and inefficient. 256. Economic Adjustment The Negro cannot be expected to become a thrifty responsible citizen until he is rendered capable of earning a decent living at productive work. He must acquire the habit of working steadily and efficiently under a system of free contract. This economic readjustment, many students of the Negro problem believe, will be attained largely through industrial education. We already have several excellent industrial training schools for Negroes, including Hampton and Tuskegee. The latter was made famous by Booker T. Washington, an ex-slave who devoted his life to the economic readjustment of his people. A great deal more must be done in this direction. In spite of the excellent beginnings made at Hampton and Tuskegee, not more than one percent of our Negroes have the privilege of industrial education. More adequate instruction is needed in methods of agriculture and stock raising in the various crafts and in those professions for which the Negroes seem spitted. The South needs labor badly, but she cannot use her millions of Negroes effectively until they are turned into competent and dependable workers. The Negro appears to have little aptitude for mechanical work or for meal and factory employment. Diversified agriculture on a small scale seems to be the most promising industry for him and one in which he ought consistently to be encouraged. 257. The need for cooperation. No permanent solution of the Negro's difficulties can be attained without the friendly cooperation of all parties concerned. Most of our Negroes live in the South, but the Negro is no more a purely Southern question than Japanese immigration is purely a Californian problem. We are one nation and the problems of one section are the problems of the whole. The South must not be left alone either to neglect the Negro or to struggle with his difficulties as best she can. Generous aid must be extended her by the North, East and West before we can expect a solution of the Negro question. Furthermore, there must be cooperation between the leaders of the Negro and white races. Otherwise, energy will be wasted and interracial bitterness created. Very promising beginnings in this direction have recently been made in the South. Nevertheless, it is to be regretted that many leaders, both white and Negro, are still prone to propose remedies for the Negro problem which serve their own interests but which show little or no regard for the rights of the other group or for the welfare of the nation. Above all, there must be a firm resolve to work toward a fair solution and an earnest desire to be just and humane. Hard and unpleasant facts cannot be argued away, but at least they can be treated rationally. No solution can be reached except through law and order. Neither violence nor deceit can solve this or any other problem. Race riots and lynchings are proof that those who engage in them are unfit to carry on the work of American democracy. 258. The Promise of the Negro There is a good deal of discussion as to whether or not the Negro race is merely backward or whether it is an inferior race. Those contending that the Negro is only backward believe that ultimately he can be fitted into the fabric of American life. Those insisting that he is inferior declare that all attempts to adapt the Negro to American life will prove unavailing. Academic discussions of this sort are not to the point. As to whether or not the Negro is backward or inferior and as to precisely what each of these terms implies, there must always be a good deal of dispute. For practical purposes, it is enough to admit that the Negro cannot now do many of the things which the average white man can do and that insofar as this is true, the Negro is less effective as a citizen. At the same time, it should be frankly recognized that the Negro has shown himself capable of substantial progress. It will be more appropriate to discuss the inferiority of the Negro when he has failed to react to the most comprehensive, intelligent and consistent program which we are able to draw up. This we have not done yet and, until it is done, we shall have less cause to deny the Negro a capacity for civilization than the Negro will have cause to complain of our unhelpful attitude toward him. So far as we now know, there is no scientific justification for believing that the masses of American Negroes cannot ultimately be trained to a useful sphere in American life. End of Chapter 22. Chapter 23. The Family. 259. Significance of the Family. From whatever angle we approach society, the family is the ultimate unit and basis. The whole fabric of civilization, whether considered from an economic, a social or a political standpoint, depends upon the integrity of the family and upon the wholesomeness of the home life centering about the father, mother and children. The home is the nursery of our fundamental institutions. It is the origin of our physical and mental inheritance. It is the center of our training for private and public life. It is the moral and religious fount which nourishes the ideals and belief which fashion our lives and mold our character. A nation built upon decaying homes is bound to perish. A nation composed of normal, prosperous families is in a good way to perpetuate itself. It is of the very greatest importance, therefore, that we inquire into the character and tendencies of the American family. 260. The Family in the Middle Ages. Fully to appreciate the nature of the modern family, we must know something of the family as it existed in Europe and in the Middle Ages. Unity was the striking characteristic of the medieval family. Economically, it was very self-sufficing. That is to say, most of the food, clothing and other necessities consumed by it were prepared by the family members. Very little in the way of education and recreation existed beyond the family circle. In religious activities, the family played an important role, family worship under the leadership of the father being a common domestic function. The medieval family was stable, partly because legal and religious authority was concentrated in the hands of the father, partly because the family members were economically interdependent, and partly because the social and religious interests of the family members tended to coincide. Divorce was uncommon, and the children generally remained in the home until the majority had been attained. 261. The Family in Modern Times. We have already seen that since the close of the Middle Ages, and especially during the last two centuries, important economic, social and political changes have been going on in civilized society. In common with other social institutions, the family has been greatly influenced by these changes. The family, which we have described as the medieval type, has been either destroyed or greatly modified, and a new type is being developed. Probably this new type of family will present substantial gains over the family of the Middle Ages. Nevertheless, the period of transition is fraught with danger. A great problem of American democracy is to aid in the social readjustment of the family. In order that we may be competent to aid in this readjustment, let us discover in what ways the family has been modified by the economic, social and political changes referred to above. 262. The Industrial Revolution and the Family. We have examined somewhat in detail the effect of the Industrial Revolution upon our economic life. It remains to be pointed out that the same phenomenon has profoundly affected the character of our most vital social institution, the family. Directly or indirectly, the Industrial Revolution has affected family life among all classes of the population. To some extent, capitalism has given rise to a class of idle rich living upon the proceeds of permanent investments and resorting to extravagance and loose methods of living in order to occupy their time. This development is doubly unfortunate. In the first place, it renders difficult the maintenance of normal homes among the idle rich. In the second place, the tendency of certain types of individuals to imitate and envy the idle rich encourages fault standards and leads to a depraved moral sense. To those classes which furnish the majority of our professional men, the complex division of labor has brought a serious danger. So great is the need of specialized training among these groups that marriage is often delayed until after the age of 30. The individual is then in a better position to support a family, but often his habits are so firmly fixed that he finds it difficult to adapt himself to family life. Even more important, perhaps, have been the effects of the Industrial Revolution upon the masses of wage earners. Men earning low wages are often unable to marry, or if they assume that responsibility, they are unable properly to support their families. In spite of the fact that capitalism has greatly increased our material welfare, the dependence of large numbers of people upon day wages increases the hazards of family life. Industrial accidents, occupational diseases, or the interruption of earnings by strikes and unemployment, any one of these mishaps may work a hardship upon the wage earner's family. Poverty may induce child labor, deprive the family of proper food and other necessities, and retard the education of the children. Finally, it may so emphasize the elements of strain and worry that parents are unable to give proper attention to the training of their children. 263. The Factory System and the Home The Industrial Revolution has lessened the economic importance of the home. The typical modern family is no longer self-sufficing, but is dependent upon the factory system for many commodities formally prepared within the home circle. Spinning, weaving, tailoring, shoemaking, soap making, and other industries have moved out of the home and into the factory. Even the preparation of food is increasingly a function of agencies outside the home. Especially in cities, there has been a steady development of restaurants, delicatessen shops, and factories engaged in the large-scale preparation of bread, canned soups, and other products. There is thus less work to be done in the home than formally. At the same time, the development of our industrial life has notably increased the amount of work to be done outside the home. The outcome of these two complementary forces has been that not only the father, but often the mother, and the half-grown children as well, have been drawn into industry. As a result of this development, the economic interdependence of the family has been destroyed, and the way has been opened to the disintegration of the home. Social contracts between family members have decreased, while the specialized character of the individual's daily work has operated to break down the common interests which family members formally had outside the home. 264. Lack of Preparation for Homemaking The factory system has rendered more difficult the preparation of our boys and girls for homemaking, where boys go out to work at an early age and are deprived of home training during the adolescent period. Neither father nor mother has the opportunity properly to acquaint them with the nature and responsibilities of homemaking. Girls, very often, are reared without adequate knowledge of cooking, sewing, and other household arts. This is due, partly to the transfer of many of the domestic functions to specialists beyond the home, and partly to the fact that where girls go into industry, they spend most of their time outside the home. In the case of both boys and girls, the decreased amount of time spent in the home not only prevents proper training by the parents, but it stresses outside interests, which are too often opposed to domestic ideals. Many parents either allow or encourage their children to acquire frivolous habits. As the result of all these factors, both young men and young women frequently marry without having been properly prepared for the responsibilities of homemaking. 265. Difficulties of Homemaking in Crowded Cities With the development of manufacturing, a larger and larger proportion of our people have made their homes in large cities. To many, city life has brought increased opportunities for education and recreation. Nevertheless, it is difficult to maintain a normal life in a crowded city. Urban life is highly artificial. Simple and wholesome amusements are less common than expensive and injurious forms of recreation. The noise and jar of city life often result in strain and jaded nerves. The scarcity and high costs of house room is, for many city dwellers, an unavoidable evil. The poor are cramped into small, uncomfortable tenements, while even the well-to-do are frequently found in congested apartment houses. Under such circumstances, the home often becomes merely a lodging place. Social life is developed out of rather than in the home. For the children of the poor, there is often no yard and no adequate provision for recreation. Among the rich, conditions are somewhat better, though in fashionable apartment houses, children are frequently objected to by neighboring tenants or banned by landlords. 266. Economic Independence of Women Until very recently, a married woman was economically dependent upon her husband, but one of the effects of the Industrial Revolution has been to make many women economically independent. Women are entering the industrial field with great rapidity, and their presence there is now taken as a matter of course. Many women now avoid marriage, partly because domestic interests fail to attract them, and partly because they have become genuinely interested in industry. Where domesticicity is the ultimate aim, many women delay marriages because self-support renders them both able and desirous of retaining their independence for a considerable period. Domestic tranquility is sometimes disturbed by the fact that wives were formerly self-supporting girls. In most cases, wives are dependent upon their husbands in money matters. A situation which is apt to irritate women who were formerly self-supporting. The husband is often inclined to rate the generalized character of housework as being of less importance than his own highly specialized work. The wife's irritation at this may be increased by the fact that often she too believes that her domestic duties are less dignified and less valuable than her former work. Not only has the former independence of the wife made her less tolerant of domestic wrongs and slights, but the realization that she can support herself frequently encourages her to seek a divorce. The temptation to take the step is increased by the fact that public opinion now rarely frowns upon a divorced woman. This is in striking contrast to the situation 200 years ago when most divorced women were not only unable to support themselves but were socially ostracized. 267. Political Emancipation of Women Until very recently, women have been legally and politically subordinate to men. As recently as a century ago, women in the leading countries of the world were allowed neither to vote nor to contract debts in their own name. Nor to hold or will property. But within the last century, women have been emancipated politically. Property rights have been extended then. The growth of the woman's movement has resulted in the winning of female suffrage. Economic independence and social freedom have combined with political emancipation to emphasize the spirit of individualism among women. Politics and club work, half, in the eyes of many wives and mothers, become more attractive than domestic concerns, with a resultant neglect of the home. Higher education for women, including a wider knowledge of legal matters, has acquainted women with their legal rights and privileges, and has made them familiar with the steps necessary to secure a divorce. 268. Individualism May Be Exaggerated The American people are celebrated for their strongly individualistic character. This trait is closely related to the initiative and self-reliance, which may have helped toward our industrial success. On the other hand, individualism may be carried to the point of selfishness. It is desirable, of course, that both men and women maintain high standards of living, and that they cultivate their respective personalities. It should be noted, however, that marriage is often delayed or altogether avoided because of selfish ambition and the desire to live a carefree and self-centered life. The insistence which many young people place upon personal rights has encouraged the belief that marriage is intended for man's and woman's convenience, rather than for the building of normal homes and the development of community life. In too many marriages, the contracting parties selfishly refuse to make the mutual concessions necessary in married life, and so wreck their domestic happiness. 269. The Divorce Evil Family instability has been increased by the demoralizing influences which we have been discussing. A familiar symptom of family instability is the divorce rate. One out of every eight or nine marriages in the United States is dissolved by divorce. Not only do we have more divorces than all of the rest of the world together, but our divorce rate is increasing three times as fast as is our population. The value of these statistics is affected by two factors. In the first place, much domestic unhappiness does not express itself in the separation of husband and wife. Or where such separation does take place, it may not be through the divorce court. Among the city poor, for example, desertion is four times as common as is divorce. Thus, the divorce rate indicates only a share of family instability. The second modifying factor, however, lessens the force of our divorce statistics. A high divorce rate is to be interpreted with care. Our divorce rate is higher than that of European countries. But it should be remembered that in those countries where customs, laws, and religious beliefs are relatively conservative, families may be held together legally in spite of the fact that they have already disintegrated. Thus, family life may be as unstable in a country in which the divorce rate is low as in a country in which the divorce rate is high. 270. Laxity of Our Divorce Laws Although divorce may sometimes be necessary, it is clear that in many of the states of the Union, divorce laws are too lax. The practice of the states as regards divorce is divergent. In South Carolina, divorce is absolutely prohibited. In the remaining states, there is a variable number of grounds upon which divorce may be secured. Divorces are often rushed through in the courts, partly because of the overworked character of the divorce tribunals, and partly because public opinion tolerates the lax administration of divorce laws. In some states, divorces have been secured in 15 minutes, being granted without any attempt at solemnity, with no adequate investigation and with numerous opportunities for collusion between the parties involved. The effect of this laxness has been to encourage the dissolution of the home for trivial and improper causes. 271. The Question of Stricter Divorce Laws Uniform divorce laws among the several states are now being agitated. The essential provisions of such laws may be outlined as follows. It is desirable to have a court of domestic relations which shall carefully and wisely attempt a reconciliation of the husband and wife before divorce proceedings are resorted to. Applicants for divorce should be bona fide residents of the state in which the suit is filed, and should be required to reside in the state two years before a decree of absolute divorce is granted. In some states, at least, the number of grounds upon which divorce may be secured should be reduced. An adequate investigation should be undertaken both in order to determine the justice of the suit and to prevent collusion. The primary aim of the divorce laws should be to allow relief from a vicious and hopelessly wrecked union, but at the same time to prevent the misuse of the statutes by irresponsible and unscrupulous persons. 262. Laxity of our Marriage Laws The fact that unwise marriages are an immediate cause of divorce leads back to the question of our marriage laws. Marriage laws often permit the mating of couples unfit for homemaking. In some states, the authorities are not over-careful to prevent the marriage of persons who are mentally defective. There is, among the several states, no agreement as to the legal age of marriage, and no agreement as to the relationship within which marriage is forbidden. Hasty unions have been encouraged by the lack of solemnity, which characterizes civil marriage. Marriage is more and more a civil contract devoid of religious sanctions and spiritual associations. Many consider marriage as a civil relation, not radically different from any other contract. The effect of this changed attitude has been to encourage the enactment of loose marriage laws and the careless administration of sound marriage laws. 273. The question of stricter marriage laws Stricter marriage laws are being advocated in many states. We know far too little about eugenics to warrant prediction as to the type of individuals best fitted to normal homes, but it is clearly desirable to prohibit the marriage of all mental defectives. There are also good reasons for the restriction of the marriage of minors, of persons between whose ages there is a wide disparity, and of persons who are members of widely divergent races. It would probably check hasty marriages to increase the length of time elapsing between the issuance of the marriage license and the performance of the ceremony. If modern marriages were more distinctly upon a religious basis, it is likely that many persons who now rush thoughtlessly into marriage would be led seriously to reflect upon the significance of the step. 274. Law not the ultimate remedy for family instability The careful enactment and wise administration of sound laws on marriage and divorce will undoubtedly check the number of unhappy and unsuccessful marriages. Nevertheless, law is not the ultimate remedy for family instability. Unduly restrictive marriage laws may result in abnormal tendencies among certain classes of the population, while severe prohibitions upon divorce may prevent individuals from securing release from a hopelessly wrecked marriage. Divorce is only a symptom of deeper lying evils. Really, to remove the dangers which threaten the integrity of the family, we must go deeper than legislation. 275. Economic and social readjustment One fundamental method of safeguarding the family is to counteract the injurious effects of the Industrial Revolution. Poverty must be lessened or eliminated so that men will be enabled to marry and support families decently. The evils of overcrowding must be attacked in the interest of a normal home life. Mothers' pensions and social insurance are desirable methods of protecting the laborer's family against the risks of industry. The prohibition of child labor and the safeguarding of women in industry will also tend to keep the family intact and to permit proper home training. In short, any measures which will help individuals to adjust themselves to the economic and social changes of the present age will provide a more firm and solid foundation for a normal family life. 276. Education and the Family Far more fundamental than legislation on marriage and divorce is the training of young people toward a fuller appreciation of the responsibilities of homemaking. In the problem of family instability, laws reach symptoms while education attacks causes. By education is here meant not merely formal training in the school but character building of every type. This includes training in the home, in the school, and in the church. Only when boys and girls are accorded sound training by these various agencies will they be properly prepared to make homes. Our whole educational system ought to emphasize the importance of a pure and wholesome family life. The sanctity of the marriage bond, the seriousness of family responsibilities, and the duty to rear a normal healthy family ought to be impressed upon every boy and girl. Young people should be taught to consider adolescence as a period of preparation for home building. During this period, it is the duty of the boy to fit himself for the proper support of a family while the girl ought to feel obliged to become familiar with the tasks and duties of housekeeping. The choice of a husband or wife ought to be made not on the basis of passing fancy but with regard to a life of mutual service. Extreme individualism ought to be discouraged. Personal pleasure ought to be interrupted in the light of marriage as a partnership. Above all, marriage should be faced with the realization that it requires adaptation and concessions on the part of both husband and wife. Mutual consideration and respect must predominate in the future American family while the spirit of impatience and selfishness must be eliminated. End of Chapter 23 Chapter 24 of Problems in American Democracy This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. This reading by Allison Hester of Athens, Georgia, Problems in American Democracy by Times-Williamson. Chapter 24 Dependency, Its Relief and Prevention 277. The Medieval Neighborhood Throughout the earlier part of the medieval period, the majority of the common people of Western Europe lived in small agricultural communities. There was little in the way of trade or travel, for the area comprising the village or the feudal manner was relatively self-sufficing. The interests of the people centered almost wholly about the local neighborhood into which they had been born and in which they lived and died. Life was staple in the daily work of the peasants entailed few hazards. When, because of illness or accident, individuals were temporarily unable to support themselves, informal aid was extended them by neighbors and friends. In case of a more serious dependency, growing out of physical or mental defect, for example, the aid extended by neighbors might be supplemented by help from the feudal lord. The few strangers in the community found the monasteries always open to them regardless of the character of their need. 278. Breakdown of the Medieval Neighborhood During the latter half of the medieval period and during the earlier part of the modern period, a number of factors combined to break down this early type of neighborhood. The crusades, the decay of feudalism and the renaissance disrupted the stable, isolated and self-sufficing life of the medieval neighborhood. The discovery of America and the growth of towns and cities stimulated trade and travel. People moved about more, strangers came into the community, family contacts and friendships were broken, and community life became more impersonal. For many people, a change of habitation or of occupation increased the hazards of life, while the decline of the neighborhood spirit made informal aid by neighbors and friends less available. To meet the growing needs of the dependent classes, the church extended and improved its system of almsgiving. To a greater extent than ever before, the monasteries became havens of refuge for the helpless and friendless. The clergy not only themselves dispensed alms, but encouraged the wealthy laity to do likewise. Unfortunately, however, the aim of almsgiving in this period was not so much to help the dependent back to self-support as to increase the piety of the individual dispensing the alms. Paparism was looked upon as inevitable, and the moral effect upon the giver was generally of more importance than was the use that the needy made of the alms received. 279. Rise of the Urban Neighborhood The breakdown of the medieval neighborhood was completed by the Industrial Revolution. The factory system drew large numbers of countrymen to the cities. Here, they worked long hours in sanitary workshops and lived in crowded tenements, devoid of many improvements which we now regard as necessary to help and comfort. Home life was disrupted and neighborhood ties were broken in the process of adjusting agricultural laborers to the factory system. The medieval neighborhood began to be supplanted by a new type of neighborhood, one primarily urban and impersonal in character. This new type of neighborhood brought with it greater hazards for the poor and at the same time offered fewer opportunities for mutual aid between neighbors. Under such circumstances, the problem of dependency became increasingly serious. 280. Extent of Dependency in Modern Times One of the vital problems of American democracy is the proper care of those individuals who are unable either to support themselves or otherwise to protect themselves against the hazards of modern life. The extent to which individuals are dependent for help upon agencies outside their family circle is unknown. Statistics are meager, and the complex nature of dependency renders it difficult of measurement. Perhaps a reasonable estimate of dependency in the United States is that at some time during the year, about 5% of the population seeks charitable assistance. The total amount expended annually for the care of dependent classes in the United States is more than half a billion dollars. 281. Causes of Dependency The causes of dependency in a modern community are difficult to analyze. Generally, the applicant for charity is not in a state of dependency because of a single isolated cause, but because of a number of combined causes interlocking in a most confusing way. In the effort to throw light upon this tangled situation, let us briefly survey the problem from the economic, social, personal, and political viewpoint. From the economic viewpoint, much dependency is the result of maladjustments in industry. Most laborers have little or no savings so that when unemployment, strikes, industrial accidents, or crisis interrupt their earnings, they are soon forced to fall back upon charity. Economic causes figure in from 50 to 80% of charity cases, either as minor or major factors. In the majority of these cases, the unemployment or other handicap of the laborer is due to industrial maladjustments beyond his power to control. Closely connected with the economic causes of dependency are the social causes. The crowding of large numbers of workmen into cities leads to abnormal living conditions, which encourage ill health, disease, and vice. Among unskilled laborers, poverty and the large number of children often prevent the young from securing a helpful amount of education. The lack of wholesome and inexpensive recreation and the existence of costly and injurious forms of entertainment encourage unwise expenditure of savings and, to that extent, may influence dependency. Child labor and the employment of mothers in industry prevent a normal family life and may be intimately associated with illiteracy, low moral standards, and pauperism. Often indistinguishable from social causes are the personal causes of dependency. Laziness, irresponsibility, and thriftlessness figure in from 10 to 15% of charity cases. Pennyless old age is often the outcome of bad personal habits in youth and middle life. Idling, gambling, and other vicious habits are important causes of pauperism. Sickness is a factor in at least a third of charity cases, while disease figures in 75% of such cases. Physical or mental defect is of great importance in dependency, often accompanying bad personal habits as either cause or effect. The feeble-minded, the epileptic, and the insane constitute a serious burden upon the community. Defects in government have, in some cases, either encouraged dependency or have perpetuated it. Insofar as we have neglected legislation designed to reduce the force of industrial maladjustments, political factors may be said markedly to influence dependency. Our tardiness in protecting the labor of women and children is certainly responsible for a share of dependency. Our failure to adopt a comprehensive program of social insurance has added to the burden upon charity. Housing is receiving more and more attention in our cities, yet the living quarters in many districts continue to be sources of ill health advice. Probably, we shall eliminate a share of dependency when we shall have established a comprehensive system of state and federal employment bureaus. The wise restriction of immigration is also important, as is the matter of vocational education for the unskilled classes. 282. The giving of alms Until the period of the Reformation in Europe, the distribution of alms by the clergy and by Pius Lehmann was the chief method of dealing with the problem of dependency. Then the Reformation crippled the temporal power of the church and ecclesiastical almsgiving declined in importance. The place formerly held by the church was filled partly by public almshouses or workhouses and partly by indiscriminate or unorganized almsgiving on the part of kind-hearted individuals. Individuals distributed alms chiefly to dependents with whom they were personally acquainted and whose needs could be effectively met without their being removed to an institution. Wandering dependents and unfortunate whose needs were relatively serious and permanent were cared for in the almshouse. This latter institution developed very early in England and appeared in colonial America in the 17th century. Until about 1850, it was often the only institution in American communities which cared for the helpless adult dependent. The almshouse, as it existed in this country a few decades ago, has been described as a charitable catch-all into which were crowded paupers, the insane, the feeble-minded, the blind, the orphaned, and other types of dependents. 283. Almsgiving proves inadequate The attempt to meet the problem of modern dependency solely by the giving of alms illustrates the difficulty of employing an ancient and simple method of treatment for a disease which has become highly complex. Almsgiving by individuals very often pulporizes rather than helps the individual to help himself. When the dominant aim of the almsgiver is to satisfy himself as to his piety, it is only by accident that the alms really help the recipient. Very often what is needed is not money or material aid in other form but wise direction and friendly advice. There is still a great deal of unwise and indiscriminate almsgiving by individuals, but the spread of new ideals of social help is probably cutting down the amount. The almshouse, as it existed in the last century, was productive of much evil. Very often superintendents were allowed to run these institutions for personal profit, a practice which allowed the exploitation and neglect of the inmates. The practice of herding into this generalized institution, every variety of dependent, had great drawbacks. Specialized care and treatment were impossible, disease was transmitted, and vice was encouraged by the failure properly to segregate various types of dependents. Inmates were, in many cases, allowed to enter and lead the institution at will, a privilege which encouraged shiplessness and improvidence. 284. The Evolution of New Ideals After the middle of the last century, our attitude toward the dependent classes began to change rapidly. There was a gradual abandonment of almsgiving as the sole method of attacking dependency. Rising standards of conduct contributed to the development of new ideals, some of them now fairly well established, and some of them still in the formative process. The general content of these new ideals may be briefly described as follows. The primary aim of those who come in contact with the dependent classes should be to help those classes, rather than to satisfy pious aspirations or to indulge sentimental promptings. Rather than believing that alms are helpful because they are gratefully received, we should first discover what will help the dependent, and then train ourselves and him to take satisfaction in that which is helpful. Poverty is not to be taken for granted. It is neither inevitable nor irremedial. It is a social disease which we must attack with the aim of destroying. When individuals are found in an emergency, they should be given relief, regardless of personal merit. The extension of relief in case of fire, flood, or other accident is only an act of humanity. A different and more productive form of help is remedial work. This type of work often accompanies and follows relief work. It is corrective, for example, the finding of employment from a friendless man or from the medical treatment of a sick man is remedial work. A still higher form of social work is preventative. Hand in hand with the giving of work to friendless men and the curing of sick men, for example, we must undertake measures which will prevent a recurrence of unemployment on the one hand and illness on the other. Preventative work is often indirect, but ultimately it is the most important type of social work. Recently, there has been a reaction against almsgiving or pure charity and a distinct tendency to develop what may be called the concept of social service. Charity is too often concerned with the pauper class. Social service is a wider term and includes not only what was formerly known as charity, but also child welfare, settlement work, folk dancing, and other socializing activities which are helpful in a modern community but which have nothing to do with alms. Charity too often pauperizes and degrades. Social service encourages self-help and self-expression in the vital social relations. Formally, charity was almost exclusively the function of the pious and the sympathetic. The present tendency is for social service to become a distinct profession administered by highly trained specialists. 285. The Stage of Specialization One of the signs that we are recognizing the growing need of an individualized treatment of dependence is the degree to which our social service agencies are becoming specialized. The treatment of the dependent may take either an institutional or a non-institutional form. Let us briefly notice the specialization in each of these forms. The almshouse, almost universal a century ago, is being rapidly displaced by a series of specialized institutions. In most states, there are now separate institutions for the treatment of the pauperized, the diseased, the blind, the deaf, the insane, the feeble-minded, and the otherwise dependent. Inmates of these institutions are given special treatment by experts. When the defect has been remedied, the patient is released. In case remedy is impossible, the individual is segregated and accorded humane and sympathetic treatment during the rest of his life. This prevents the untold harm of releasing defective and irresponsible people into the community. Institutions of this character are largely under state control and are intended primarily for individuals who cannot be properly treated in their homes. Dependents who are only slightly or temporarily handicapped or who are not in need of special treatment may be best cared for in their homes and by private individuals or associations. In this non-institutional form of social service, there is also a high degree of specialization. The casual almsgiver has been succeeded by a whole series of social service agencies. Prisoners' aid societies, employment bureaus, immigrant aid societies, flower missions, Americanization clubs, recreation centers, housing clubs, community nursing clubs, and scores of other organizations have sprung up. Every large city in the United States has several hundred of these organizations, each attacking social problems of a special type. 286. Necessity of Coordination Specialization in social service has been followed by the development of means of coordinating the various specialized agencies. That there is urgent need of such coordination has been repeatedly called to our attention. It is still true that often the institutions for the dependent classes within a single state pursue different methods and so limit their separate fields that many types of dependence are inadequately cared for. Among the large number of private agencies, there has been a great waste of time and energy. The fact that each society is independent of its fellows has meant that in some fields of social service efforts were duplicated while other fields were neglected. Cases demanding treatment by several agencies could not be given adequate care because of the lack of correlation among such agencies. Beggars often imposed upon a number of different societies by assuming different names. Each society had its own periods of campaigning for funds, a practice which meant an excess of tag days and campaigns and a waste of time and energy on the part of social workers. 287. Coordination of Public Institutions The coordination of public institutions for the dependent and effective classes proceeded rapidly after 1880. At present, the situation in the various states is somewhat as follows. The actual administration of local institutions is generally in the hands of the town or county authorities. Large cities, however, often have a system of institutional relief separate from that of the county in which they are located. In many states, the local authorities are subject to some measure of central supervision by a state board, which is called by various names. In most cases, this is merely an advisory board with power to inspect state institutions and to make recommendations to the governor or state legislature. More recently, there is a tendency to go still further and to reorganize and consolidate the various state institutions so as to bring them directly under the control of a state board or commission. In several states, the board is already one of control. That is to say, it has the power not only to inspect the various institutions of the state, but also the power to appoint their superintendents and in general to administer the institutional relief of the state. Coordination of Private Agencies The movement to coordinate social service agencies of a private nature has been relatively slow and unsatisfactory. This has been due partly to the large number of societies involved and partly to the lack of any centralized authority to supervise such organizations. In some large cities, there has been a considerable degree of consolidation among societies which are purely charitable, but among the large number of social service organizations which are not purely charitable, the coordinating process has not gone beyond the functional stage. In this stage, the various social service agencies of a city remain separate and distinct, but may become members of a council or federation which serves to coordinate their various functions. Footnote In this functional coordination, the consolidated or united charities of the city generally appear as a single organization. And a footnote The aim of this functional coordination is to secure the greatest degree of cooperation possible without the actual amalgamation of the cooperating agencies. In position by beggars is unlikely because a clearinghouse of information keeps the various agencies informed as to the work of one another. By periodic reference to a centralized system of card indices, different societies may keep informed to what types of social work are being duplicated and as to which lines of effort are being neglected. Where the social service agencies of a city are thus coordinated, an applicant applies to the central agency and is then directed to the organization best suited to meet his needs. Such coordinating agencies stress the necessity of scientific work which will aid in the adjustment of personal relations and help secure the maximum result with the minimum of expenditure. 289. The Neighborhood of the Future The small, stable, and relatively unprogressive neighborhood of the early European period has disappeared before the important economic, social, and political changes of the last five centuries. The typical neighborhood of modern times is larger, more inclined to be made up of transient and dissimilar types of people, and more impersonal. It is more progressive, but more likely to hold hazards for the average individual. The whole period since the Industrial Revolution has been one of neighborhood readjustment, of which many aspects of the problem of crime, the family, and dependency are phases. The new type of neighborhood has probably come to stay, but there are indications that life in the community of the future will prove less and less hazardous. The development of professional and social service, growing out of the charity movement, but now embracing community work of every kind, will probably lessen the evils of the modern neighborhood and retain its desirable features. Chapter 24 Chapter 25 of Problems in American Democracy This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. This reading by Allison Hester of Athens, Georgia. Problems in American Democracy By Times Williamson Chapter 25 Rural Life The Significance of Rural Life Agriculture is our oldest and most basic industry. Almost half of our people are found in the rural districts, most of them subsisting directly upon the products of farm, forest, and range. Directly or indirectly, our cities are largely dependent upon the country. The foodstuffs consumed in cities, as well as the vast quantities of raw materials used by our manufacturing industries, come largely from the rural districts. To some extent, even our urban population is recruited from the ranks of the country folk. Altogether, American rural life is a matter of vital concern to the nation. Our civilization rests at bottom, Theodore Roosevelt once said. Upon the wholesomeness, the attractiveness, and the completeness, as well as the prosperity of life in the country. 291. Nature of the Rural Problem Contrary to popular belief, the rural problem arises not so much from the actual degeneration of rural society, as from the fact that many rural districts have failed to progress as rapidly as have urban communities. Compared with his predecessor of a century ago, the farmer of today is better fed, better clothed, better housed, and better able to secure adequate education and recreation. At the same time, the relatively greater advances which urban communities have made in economic and social activities render the improvement of rural life highly desirable. The specific problem of rural life is to develop in the country economic and social institutions which are especially adapted to the farmer's needs. Not until this is done, shall we be able to maintain our farms a class of people who can make the maximum contribution to American life in all of its phases. 292. The Rural Problem is of Recent Origin The most spectacular development in American economic life has been the introduction and growth of the factory system. Commerce and manufacturers were important during even the colonial period, and during the first half century of our national history, our dominant economic interest was the fostering of manufacturing, domestic trade, and transportation. With the development of manufacturing came the growth of the cities, and with the growth of the cities, added attention was called to immigration, crime, health, and related social problems. Farm life, so familiar and apparently so healthful, was not thought of as constituting a national problem until late in the 19th century. 293. The City Word Drift A half century ago, more than three-fourths of our population was rural. Today, less than half of the people of the United States live in the country. Both urban and rural districts have been steadily increasing in population since the opening of the 19th century, but since 1900, the city population has increased three times as fast as has the rural population. One reason for this more rapid growth of the cities is that since the 80s, the majority of our immigrants have flocked to the cities rather than to the rural districts. Another reason, however, is that the country people have been drifting to the towns and cities. This City Word Drift has an important bearing upon the character of rural life. 294. Reasons for the City Word Drift A number of factors explain the tendency of rural people to move to cities. The perfection and wider use of farm machinery have decreased the need for farm laborers, and the excess laborers have gone to the towns and cities. The fact that urban industries offer shorter hours, better pay and cleaner work than does farming has attracted many young country people. The isolation of farm life and its frequent lack of comforts have impaled many country dwellers to move to cities. Some country people have gone to the city in order to be near schools and churches, and in order to have access to competent doctors and well-equipped hospitals. The craving for a more fully developed social life than many rural districts afford has been an additional cause of the City Word Drift. Unfortunately, the glamour of urban life, with its spectacles and its artificial pleasures, have also been a factor in the movement away from the country. 295. Wherein the City Word Drift is desirable In some respects, the City Word Drift is a desirable development. When laborers who are no longer needed on the farms move City Word, the City Word Drift may have the beneficial effect of removing such laborers to where they can find employment. It should also be remembered that successful rural life requires qualities which may be lacking in many individuals born and raised in the country. Insofar as the City Word Drift is composed of such individuals, it may be a helpful movement, since individuals unsuited to rural life may find themselves adapted to some type of urban life. When unneeded and unhelpful individuals are removed from the country, the rural population may be more efficient and more prosperous, even though relatively more sparse. 296. Wherein the City Word Drift is undesirable Insofar as the City Word Drift brings to the city individuals unsuited to urban conditions, the movement away from the country may be undesirable. It is certainly undesirable when the individuals in question are really suited to rural life. The tendency of young people to move to the cities may ultimately deprive the country of its natural leaders. Certainly, the colleges and factories of the cities often drain the country of its most able and ambitious boys and girls. The City Word migration of such persons may strengthen the urban population, but it weakens rural society and retards the progress of rural institutions. 297. Status of the Back to the Land movement Some reformers have sought to offset the City Word Drift by an artificial Back to the Land movement. Insofar as it would bring to the country persons really able to contribute to rural life, this movement is a desirable one. Insofar as it would bring to the country persons unprepared or unable to adapt themselves to rural conditions, such a movement is injurious. On the basis of the data now available, we are warranted in concluding that the Back to the Land movement is founded upon sentiment and caprice rather than upon sound principles. It attacks the rural problem at the wrong end. If the natural leaders of the country are repelled by rural life and attracted to urban conditions, the remedy is not to create an artificial movement toward the country, but rather to make rural life so attractive that country boys and girls will prefer it to city life. The chief question before us is this. How can the country be made so attractive that individuals interested in and suited to rural life may be encouraged to lend themselves to its fullest development? Let us see what is being done toward answering this question. 298. How the federal government is helping to make rural life attractive The material prosperity of the American farmer is due, in considerable part, to the activities of the federal government. For more than half a century, the Department of Agriculture has systematically encouraged various phases of agricultural industry. The Department conducts investigations and experiments designed to give farmers helpful information concerning soils, grains, fruits, and livestock. It distributes seeds gratuitously and attempts to encourage scientific methods among farmers. The Department issues a yearbook, a monthly weather review, a crop reporter, and a series of farmer's bulletins. Among the more important subdivisions of the Department are the Bureau of Animal Industry, the Bureau of Soils, the Bureau of Markets, and the Office of Farm Management. The work of the Department of Agriculture is ably supplemented by the work of the Reclamation Bureau, which, under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, is increasing the productivity of waste and arid lands. 299. The Federal Farm Loan Act The growing need of credit facilities among farmers resulted in 1916 in the passage of the Federal Farm Loan Act. By the terms of this act, the United States is divided into 12 districts in each of which a federal land bank is established. A federal farm loan board has general charge of the entire system, but each farm loan bank is allowed a large measure of freedom in its own district in the organization of local farm loan associations. A local association is made up of a number of farm owners, or persons about to become owners who desire to borrow money. The bank will not deal with the individual farmer, except through the local association, but when a farmer has been vouched for by this association, he may receive from the bank of his district a loan at not more than 6 percent interest. The bank authorizes loans for the purchase or improvement of land for the purchase of livestock and for the erection of farm buildings. Loans must be secured by first mortgages, not exceeding an amount 50 percent of the assessed value of the land and 20 percent of the value of the improved, thereon pledged as security. Loans may run from 5 to 40 years, and provision is made for the gradual payment in small sums of both principal and interest. 300. Marketing Needs of the Farmer A problem vitally affecting not only the farmer, but the urban consumer as well has to do with the marketing of farm produce. The price of farm produce often doubles or trebles between the farm and the urban kitchen. This is largely because of a cumbersome marketing system and an overabundance of middlemen. Often the farmer gets entirely too little for his produce, while the city housewife pays too much for it. If the farmer is to secure a larger return for his labor, and if the cost of foodstuffs in cities is to be reduced, we must devise more efficient methods of marketing farm produce. There is a general agreement among experts that in the marketing of farm produce there ought to be some method of securing the cooperation of farmer, urban consumer and government. The further improvement of country roads, together with the development of trolleys, motor trucking and other means of farm to city transport, would reduce haulage charges. The number of public markets and cities should be increased, so that farm produce might be sold to consumers without the interference of unnecessary middlemen. The grading and standardization of farm products would also facilitate sale by making it unnecessary for prospective purchasers minutely to examine goods offered by the farmers. In some cases, the farmers might advantageously sell their produce directly to urban consumers. The cooperative marketing of farm produce also has the effect of reducing the number of middlemen. One of the most important phases of marketing reform is the regulation of commission dealers. Many farmers commonly ship their produce to commission dealers in the city. These dealers are supposed to sell this produce and to return to the farmer the money that's secured, minus a small commission. In many instances, these middlemen return to the farmers smaller sums than the market conditions entitled a farmer too. At the same time, commission dealers often add an excessive amount to the price, which they in turn ask of retailers and consumers. In a few states, commission dealers handling farm produce must now be licensed. They are obliged to keep records which will enable an inspector to tell whether or not they have made false returns to farmers concerning the condition of goods on arrival, the time at which sold, and the price secured. A dealer convicted of dishonest methods loses his license. The future should see an extension of this licensing system. 301. Other Economic Needs of the Farmer The economic position of the farmer has been materially strengthened within the last 40 years, yet much remains to be done before farming may be considered an altogether satisfactory and attractive occupation. Tenancy in rural districts needs to be studied carefully. Tenancy is not necessarily an evil, especially where it is a step toward ownership, but its rapid increase in this country has caused many serious problems to arise. From both the economic and the social point of view, it is desirable that farmers own their land. Tenants have no permanent interest in the upkeep of the farm or in the rural community. Where tenancy is widespread, land and buildings deteriorate, and the development of rural institutions is slow. Machinery is shortening the hours of labor for the farmer, and scientific farming is increasing his efficiency. Nevertheless, in most sections of the country, rural life still means long hours of hard labor for small returns. Many farmers still work 10 hours a day in winter, 12 in summer, and from 13 to 15 in the harvest season. Despite this sustained effort, the perishable character of his product, the uncertainty of weather conditions, and his dependence upon commission dealers too often jeopardize the returns to the farmer. 302. Rural Health We have noticed that in some cases, people have moved to the city because in the country, doctors tend to be both scarce and poorly trained, while frequently hospitals are inaccessible. Recently, a number of influences are counteracting this relative backwardness. The isolation of the rural dweller is disappearing before the automobile and the telephone. In many sections, able doctors are increasingly plentiful. In most rural districts, which are near large cities, there is now an efficient system of visiting nurses, free clinics, and health bulletins. Health campaigns are spreading the fundamental principles of sanitation into many of the outlying districts also, but these measures, while helpful, are only a beginning. In the more isolated rural sections, especially, ignorance of sanitary methods is still a serious evil. Many rural dwellers still rely upon traditional but ineffective remedies for common complaints. Quacks having nostrums and injurious patent medicines to sell often prey upon rural communities in which there is no adequate provision for doctors, nurses, and hospitals. Rural diet is often so heavy as to encourage stomach disorders. Farmhouses are, in many cases, poorly ventilated in summer and overheated in winter. Stables and stockpins are invariably so close to the farmhouse as to render difficult the protection of the dwelling against flies and mosquitoes. 303. The Rural School The chief educational institution in rural districts has long been the small district school, inadequately supported and often inefficiently conducted. But recently, rural education has shown many signs of improvement. In most sections of the country, the development of farm machinery has so reduced the amount of manual labor on the farm that rural children are unable to remain in school for a longer period than formerly. The district school is, in many cases, being supplanted by the consolidated school. Under the consolidation plan, a single large and well-equipped schoolhouse takes the place of a number of separate small schools indifferently equipped. When consolidation is accompanied by improved means of transporting children to school, the advantages of the plan are numerous. Because consolidation is a more economical arrangement than the old district plan, it allows larger salaries to be offered. This, in turn, allows the rural school to secure a higher grade of teacher. The trained educator is also attracted by the fact that the consolidation of rural schools allows curricula to be standardized and enlarged. Scientific agriculture and allied subjects are slowly finding their way into the rural grade school. The rural high school is beginning to appear. In some sections of the country, on the other hand, the rural school is still in an unsatisfactory condition. In a number of states, the rural school needs more intelligent and consistent support from the taxpayers in order that better teachers, more and better schoolhouses, and better working equipment may be provided. In many sections of the country, there is very little understanding of the advantages of school consolidation and the necessity of more adequate rural education. It is desirable that rural schools be more closely correlated with the admirable work being done by experiment stations and agricultural colleges. The agricultural press might well cooperate with the rural schools in attacking the problems of country life. Without doubt, the rural school curriculum should place more emphasis upon practical agriculture and other subjects which will demonstrate the dignity and attractiveness of rural life. Finally, it is desirable that an increasing use be made of the schoolhouse as a social center. 304. The Rural Church The rural church, though an older institution than the rural school, is advancing less rapidly. In many sections, the city where drift has drained the able ministers to the city, leaving inferior men to carry on the work of the rural church. Other rural sections have never had the benefit of an able clergy. In every part of the country, it often happens that country ministers are not only inadequately trained, but are uninterested in rural problems. One of the greatest needs of the American farming community, therefore, is for a vitalized church. In many places, rural districts are over-churched, and there is great need of some consolidation, as has been developed among rural schools. This development would so decrease the number of ministers needed that higher salaries could be offered. This, in turn, would attract more highly trained ministers to the country. It is also desirable that rural ministers be trained to a keener appreciation of the economic and social problems of the country, with a view of making religion a practical help in solving the problems of everyday life. An efficient and vitalized church could advantageously be used as a focal point for the development of every phase of rural community life. 305. Isolation, the Menace of Rural Life Isolation may be said to be the menace of rural life, as congestion is the menace of urban life. In many out-of-the-way rural districts, isolation has resulted in moral inertia and intellectual dullness. Isolation has weighed particularly hard upon the farmer's wife. Often she is called upon, not only to rear a large family, but to cook and keep house for hired men, raise poultry and garden stuff, and even to help in the fields during the harvest season. In spite of this deadening routine, she has had fewer chances than the farmer to go to town, to meet people, or otherwise to secure a share of social life. 306. Community Spirit in the Country In view of the injurious effects of rural isolation, it is encouraging to note the beginnings of a genuine community spirit in country districts. To a considerable extent, this development is the result of improved means of transportation and communication. The coming of the automobile, the telephone, and the trolley, the development of the rural free delivery, the parcel post, and the agricultural press. All these factors have been important. The farmer has been enabled to share more and more in the benefits of city life without leaving the farm. Even more important, perhaps, improved methods of transportation and communication have stimulated social intercourse among farmers. Cooperation in church and school work has been encouraged. Clubs and community centers are more practicable where farmers make use of the automobile and the telephone. The fair and the festive are also proving to be admirable methods of developing the cooperative spirit in rural life. The growing realization among students of rural life that a strong and constructive community spirit is not only desirable but possible, is encouraging an interest in rural problems. The development of such a spirit must ultimately stimulate a healthy social life in the country, with a resultant increase in health and prosperity, not only for the farmer, but for the nation as a whole. End of Chapter 25