 In recent decades the nature of conflict has become more urban and more complex. By 2030 about two-thirds of the world's population is expected to live in cities and as the human population has urbanized so has warfare. Conflict is increasingly urbanized and new technologies are also playing a role. Cyber opens up a whole list of options that are not available through other normal kinetic means. You can access systems and capabilities through cyber technology that you can't get in other ways. So as you think about the future battlefield, cyber operations are absolutely going to play a key role in that. If an attacker wants to take the power away from a military facility in order to shut down their command and control, that power generation may also serve critical infrastructure, may also serve any number of civilian population requirements. It's a military objective and if the proportionality analysis is done it may be that an attacker would deem that as a legitimate attack and the civilians of course would pay a heavy price for that, losing their own power, losing power to hospitals, to factories, to whatever else that power plant might serve. And that's particularly true in built-up areas because of course the concentration of civilians means that those infrastructure are much more prevalent, much more required and that the civilian population rely relies on them much more often. Some of the nano-enhanced weapons that could be used in the future are very closely linked to our understanding of the brain and human biology, much of our function in the human body occurs at the nanoscale. So whether it's modifying human functions, particular organs or particular cells, or even down to being able to remotely control emotions, so there's a lot of work in brain science, identifying specific brain cells that have specific effects, so causing increased aggression, removing emotion, if you think of these in a sinister way you can imagine how a military might want to instrumentalise these abilities. The reality is that these materials will most likely be used in an urban context and it's really important that those existing laws which may not have foreseen that urban context are complied with. I would say the importance of complying with them is even greater given the density of population and the potential impacts, particularly when you think about the merging technologies, not just the nanomaterials on their own. Human enhancement refers to the practice of using some kind of biomedical interventions, whether it is some drug or some device, some implanted wearable device for example, to make the human body perform better than well. So medical practitioners might be called upon to actually administer human enhancements. That creates something of a professional ethical dilemma for them in terms of what is their humanitarian role in an armed conflict, but also a legal problem if military medical practitioners who are ordinarily protected by international law actually engage in acts that can be seen as improving the military capacity of one side of the conflict, should they still be protected as a matter of the law of armed conflict. It's quite common to look at new military technologies as simply creating problems and the question is how do we prevent them from being misused, but new technologies and new developments in science also have particular benefits. In an urban context, autonomous weapons help in that soldiers often get deeply involved in the heat of battle and therefore make unethical or illegal decisions whereas a robot not being human doesn't suffer from the same level of emotion or any emotion in fact. Another benefit of autonomous weapon systems would be having them evacuate injured personnel or civilians or possibly even provide cover for civilians trying to seek shelter. Well although cyber operations raise a lot of concerns with respect to war in cities, they also present a lot of opportunities as well. For example, you can use cyber means to more correctly identify where the civilians might be. You can use cyber means to warn civilians of attacks in certain areas or to help direct them to areas of safety. The use of these, of cyber technologies and other new technologies really present a defender with lots of options of ways to protect the civilian population and with an attacker of lots of ways to be more discriminating in their attacks. So cyber is not, it's both sides of the coin. It's not just bad and not just opening more risks to civilians but it also if used properly presents a lot of ways that we can help protect civilians and make war in cities much more sterile with respect to the impact on the civilian population.