 So, we would continue with our discussion on the contemporary development in France. What I was trying to emphasize was that it was actually the need of the contemporary society at that time to work towards the identification of towards the well-being of people who were considered as feeble minded or mentally retarded. And therefore, it was the intervention from the part at the part of the government that a commission was you know constituted the commission request Binet and Simon to be instrumental in developing a psychological tool. So, all I am trying to say is that had that need not been there in the contemporary society had the government not become proactive at that time probably this major milestone would not have reached psychology at that point in time. Now, we will continue with the Binet-Simon scale for some time. This landmark you know assessment tool was once again you know that in 1905 this came. In 1905 Binet-Simon when he came forward with his scale it had 30 tests. I am just giving you the sample items here. For example, the first one was follows a moving object with the eye. Second item grasps a small object which is touched. Item number 28 for example, reverses the hands of a clock. Item number 29 after paper folding and cutting draws the form of the resulting holes. Now, interestingly Binet-Simon scale did serve the purpose of assessment of severe mentally retarded to high level of gifted children. But an important thing needs to be looked at that Binet-Simon did not give the method of computing the total score. So, that is an interesting thing usually in psychological measures you finally have a total score. So, that was not provided. And just three years later 1908 Binet-Simon revised their scale. So, now instead of 30 the revised version had 58 tests. They also introduced the concept of mental level and of course, a scoring method was also proposed. So, that way it is again another milestone towards making psychology a scientific discipline. It is not only assessment. It is actually testing the mental level of the participant and it is also about the method of scoring a particular psychological tool. So, this is an interesting development in that way. In 1911, the third version of the Binet-Simon scale came and now instead of being useful only for children, now the scale was extended to the adult age range also. And a new method of scoring was introduced unfortunately Binet died in that year, so 1911. But then just the following year that is 1912, Stern suggested the concept of computation of IQ by dividing the mental age by the chronological age. And in 1916 Binet-Simon scale was further revised at Stanford University by German and his associates. And now the present formula was provided and this formula was what is being used now where you have M A upon C A into 100. So, that was the technique that came forward at that time. But what is interesting to know is 1905 Binet and Simon comes forward with his tests. And if you look at the revision that has taken place, the latest revision of the Stanford Binet test was done in 2003, so that is an interesting development you can see. Another development that took place in US, till now we were talking about how from France this whole test moved to the US. Another interesting development that took place in the US was that in 1906 the Vineland training school in New Jersey, they asked Goddard to study classification and education of feeble minded children. And Goddard, his reference point was the Binet and Simon scale that was developed in 1908, 1905 and then the first revision, so that was the reference point for Goddard. What was interesting was that to suit the need of the Vineland training school, the original French scale was translated into English. So translation and in 1910, when Goddard was further asked by the departments of immigration to examine the immigrants in the Ellis Island, this original French test which was translated into English was further translated into Yiddish, Hungarian, Italian, Russian and other languages. But what was very interesting to note was that you have a French test, the test is translated into English, the test is translated into few more languages to suit the need of the Ellis Island, but the reference that was used for interpretation, the norm that was still the French norm. So technically speaking, when you look at scales where you have certain norms on the basis of which you interpret your raw score, you realize that although in terms of development of scale, psychology had made a big jump. In terms of translation, yes, very big change had come into being, but in terms of adaptation of the test, this was still an issue and which norm to be used technically speaking was still a question where psychology was lagging behind. Now, let me make an attempt to connect the past to the present. Many psychologists felt the need for a non-verbal test and I am sure many of you must have seen the Swigin form board in your labs, where actually there were impressions, where 10 different blocks can be fitted on your screen you can see, different forms are there and these were the impressions where blocks can be fitted. Now, Swigin form board test was actually not developed as a test, rather it was simply developed to train people with mental retardation, the children with mental retardation. But then Goddard, who was actually working with the feeble mindedness, who had used a 1908 version of the B. N. Simon scale, who was also instrumental in translating it into multiple languages, because of the need of the immigrants at the Ellis Island, he now developed Swigin form board in the form of a test and then little later it was Sylvester, who standardized it in 1913. So, even non-verbal test, test of performance you realize that standardization of such test also started taking place in psychology. Now, Swigin form board test you will find in most of the labs, all schools uniformly even till date if you visit the special schools for the mental retardates children with autism children with CP, you would realize that these tests are being used. Interestingly, if you refer to the development in neuropsychology and if you look at the Halstead-Reiter neuropsychological battery, which actually makes an attempt to localize the neurological damage, you can identify using this test. Now, of the 10 sub test of the Halstead-Reiter neuropsychological battery, you find tactual performance test and on your screen you see how much resemblance is there between the Seguin form board test and the tactual performance test of Halstead-Reiter neuropsychological battery. So, you find that past and present they both exist together and the heavy influence of the past and the present. Now, after Godard's work in the Ellis Island, it was Knox, who developed several performance test for the Ellis Island immigrants. And of these tests, there were wooden puzzles and digit symbol substitution tests. Now, you find that these two things are still available when you look at the Weschler's adult intelligence scale. So, Weschler's intelligence scales, which is recent development in certain sense, that it is with all those revisions, it is one of the widely used tests in psychology. You can again relate it that Godard's work, Ellis Island form board, then wooden puzzles, digit substitution test and then how you can again link it to the Weschler's intelligence scales. Another interesting thing was that Pinter and Peterson, they developed a 15 performance test comprising of the form boards, puzzles and object assembly test. You all know course block design test. You also know that in psychology, we do use the maize tests. Now, Stanley Portiers, he did develop the maize test in 1915. Course block test was developed in 1920. Pinter and Peterson, they developed their 15 part performance test in 1917. And you find that course block test, the maize test, they are still available in psychology, they are still being used. The new test of course, in psychology that you find, they are always validated with respect to their correlation with these tests that we have referred to. And this way, you find a strong bond between the past and the present in terms of techniques, in terms of tools and in terms of standardization of their psychological tools. We go back to the US. Pile gets the credit for developing the first group test in 1913. Now, remember that 1905 when the first formal test came into being a big jump. It was supposed to be administered to a single individual and now comes in 1913, the group test. Now, the battery consisted of memory span, digit symbol, substitution and oral word association. Pintner revised Pile's battery and added the time cancellation test. If you go back to Europe, there was again an attempt in terms of developing projective approach towards psychological assessment and the famous word association test came into being. Again, word association test that we see is the contribution of Carl Gustav Jung. But then you can trace it back to Francis Galton who was instrumental giving this concept and then Wound and Cripplain who further evolved this very concept. And then Jung in Sweden finally came forward with it in 1910 and the same year the word association test was taken back to the US by Kent and Kosanov. But meanwhile, a big change took place in the history of humankind. In 1917, US interned World War I and they had 1.75 million recruits. One of the psychologist Robert Yerkes, he convinced the US government that they should administer intelligence test to all the recruits and the purpose was very simple that on the basis of their performance on the intelligence test, these recruits can be classified and they can be assigned certain specific tasks. The government was convinced and you would be amazed to know that Yerkes finally was included in the armed forces at the rank of colonel. So, he joined the armed forces and he constituted a committee and interestingly the members of his committee included Goddard and Terman. Both of them had already established their credentials by that time in psychological assessment. Now, the outcome of this exercise of Yerkes was the popularly called army alpha and army beta test. Now, army alpha had 8 verbal tests for average and high functional personnel, which included following oral directions, arithmetic reasoning, practical judgment, synonym, antonym pairs, disarranged sentences, number series completion, analogies and information. Whereas, army beta was a nonverbal test for illiterates and non-English speaking personals and it largely included visual perceptual test and motor test. Now, army alpha and army beta was a big jump in some sense in the area of test construction. By this time, psychologists had proven to various governments in France and in US, both the places, repeatedly psychologists succeeded convincing the society and the government that they can be of importance. They can serve the basic purpose that is actually needed at their time, contemporary need of the society, contemporary need of the government with all due scientific rigor, it can be achieved. So, this was that way a big jump. The end of the World War I saw interesting demand in the area of industry and education both. Now, group testing in the army influenced the National Research Council, which was a government organization of scientists to develop the national intelligence test. And interestingly, the national intelligence test was administered to 7 million children in the US during the 1920s. It also influenced the development of Bessler's intelligence scale, scholastic aptitude test and the popular graduate record exam, the GRE. For the purpose of testing, college applicants who were interested in getting admissions, college entrance examination board CEEB was also established. And CEEB was instrumental in the development, standardization and validation of the test that you see right now, such as the graduate record examination, the law school admission test and the peace cops entrance tests. Group testing in the army also influenced the development of Bessler's intelligence scale and the scholastic aptitude test. You find thrice Bessler intelligence scale has been referred. So, you can see how development is gradually influencing successive developments in the time frame. Now, interesting developments started taking place. In the 1930s, machine scoring was introduced, remember earlier you needed a psychologist to score. Now, you have machine scoring coming back as early as 1930s and the major change that took place in the allied domains was that all these contemporary developments in psychology started challenging the statisticians. So, many new techniques in the statistics developed and one of the major important developments that took place was the emergence of factor analysis as a technique. From US, we now again go back to Europe, where Herman Rosha in Sudan came forward with the inkblot test, which is what is now popularly called Rosha inkblot test and this test came back as early as 1920. Similarly, Morgan and Murray, they came forward with the popular test what is called as TAT, long back in 1935. Now, you go to any clinic, clinical psychology, psychiatrists and you would find Herman Rosha's inkblot test being used, invariably in many recruitment processes you find TAT being used. Not only for the civil purposes, even defense recruitment, the set of psychological test that they used for recruitment, there you find TAT being used. Another major milestone, I would say usually it is ignored when we talk about the history of psychology was that you need a formal platform, where you will have these psychological assessment tools being made available to others. And again, if you look back at the history, you would realize that in 1921, Cattail, Thondike and Woodworth, all three prominent psychologists, they founded the psychological corporation and this corporation was the first test publisher. Now, of course, you have a large number of test publishers, you also have large number of houses, which are involved into it. You remember in the beginning, I told you that although testing was a timid business, in the beginning it has become a big business now, but you can again test it back to 1921. We now come back to India and in this session, I am primarily trying to conclude now that although all these developments primarily were centered either in Europe or in the US, although we historically test it back to China, but the major developments took place only in Europe and US. But let me share with you the developments that took place in India, in 1922, remember 1905 was the time that we are saying that this is the major milestone in psychology, Vinay Simon skill coming into existence. 1922, Indian psychoanalytic society was founded by Green Shaker Bose and this society in 1924 got affiliated to the international psychoanalytic society. All this is pre-independence, so again of course, a big achievement in certain sense. This back as 1923, you find that in Indian Science Congress, psychology was included as a section. The first association that is the Indian Psychological Association was founded long back in 1924 and the first Indian Journal of Psychology came in 1925. So, these are interesting developments, year after year one significant change. Then 1938, Calcutta University started the Applied Psychology Wing and the same year, you find that Jung, Meyers and Spearman, all three of them came to India to attend the Silver Jubilee session of the Indian Science Congress. So, that way, India could get connected to the western world and in 1947, the year when India got independence was also the year when the second Journal of Psychology that is Samic Shah that was published. Now, post-independence, you find two, three interesting things that took place. 1947, we became independent, but independence was achieved at the cost of mass influx of refugee because of the communal riot. In 1950, the Ministry of Education hired the services of Gardiner Murphy to investigate the causes of these communal violences and several Indian collaborators were there. And finally, this work was published in the form of a book. In 1953, the book was titled in the Minds of Men. You will find long description of all this, right from Grinshaker Bose to the edited volume by Gardiner Murphy in the next talk, where Prof. Rajid Dalal would be talking about all these historical developments at length. In 1950, the Ahmedabad Textile Industry Research Association, ATIRA, that was established and very interestingly, you will find that Erikson and McClelland, they were the frequent visitors to this institute. So, initially, you found that Jung, Meyers and Spearman coming to India to attend the Silver Jubilee congregation of the Indian Science Congress and again Erikson and McClelland, you can find them in India, but one of the remarkable development that took place in India was this publication, The Psychology of Rumour, a study relating to the great Indian earthquake of 1934. Jajunath Prasad at Patna published this work in 1935 in the British Journal of Psychology volume 26, first issue and what he did was that he did the content analysis of the rumours that followed the major earthquake and he found that most of these rumours were actually anxiety inducing and this justified fear of the earthquake victims. What is very interesting to find that this very work of Jajunath Prasad actually inspired the whole conception of the idea of cognitive dissonance theory by Festinger. So, a very remarkable theory in psychology, the cognitive dissonance theory has its root in India and another interesting thing you will also find is that the communication that took place between Erikson and Mahatma Gandhi and later on Erikson came forward with this book, Gandhi's Truth. Primarily, you will find a rare piece why because you have the psychoanalysis of a stalwart, the father of the nation, Mahatma Gandhi and the socio-political process and one of the established schools of thought in psychology psychoanalysis. So, how psychoanalytic technique can be used to understand an individual and also a process. So, that is an interesting contribution that India has made to psychology at large. Of course, we do not have the history of development in India, the way we have talked about either in France, in England, in Germany, in Sweden and in the US, but of course, India has made certain progress in terms of developing these psychological tools. And as you can see on your screen now, you have the compilation of the psychological measures that are developed in India, the first handbook of psychological and social instruments. This is the title by Uday Parik and Venkateshwar Rao and then the second and the third handbooks by D. M. Pustanji. And here you find a large number of psychological tools that are being talked about and of course, you will have to look at each of them with certain pinch of salt because you would be looking at the standardization process, you would be looking at the norms, you would be looking at their reliability and validity scores, whether it is reported, whether it is not reported, how easily it is available and issues like that still remains. Then of course, if you read the five surveys of research in psychology that has come forward, there you have the important research contribution since the beginning of the last century. So, how research in psychology has progressed right from the beginning till now, you will find in these five surveys of research in psychology. And as I was telling you right in the beginning that although it was dull and dry in the beginning, 20 years back that I experienced, I really you know found it extremely fascinating and I found it very, very relevant and I thought you know I will put them together in a very brief period of time making a journey of 100 years of emerging of a particular discipline is extremely difficult, but I have tried in a small way, just to in a very, very compressed way, just to talk to you how you can look at the rigor, the process, certain jerks, acceptance, rejection that psychology has gone through. But once again remember that it is the practical need of the society either demanded by the society or stated through the government, which has you know asked, which has demanded, which has made the psychologist you know develop techniques, tools improvised on their techniques. And unless and until you know we look at the historical context, it is very difficult to understand, how strong the concept was, how you know sound a small experiment was, how robust development of a very, very small instrument was and what were the limitations. So, it is very important to look at these things in the historical context. In the following lectures by Professor Ajith Lal, by Professor Grishwar Mishra and by Professor G. V. P. Sinha, we would be further you know looking at historical development at the Indian front.