 Assalamu alaikum. Welcome to virtual university. In today's lesson, we are going to talk about making inferences. Now, you are familiar with the expression read between the lines to read between the lines, which means that you pick up ideas that are not directly stated in the material that you are reading. The writer is giving or making a suggestion, but he is not stating it directly. That is, he is implying something. These implied ideas are often important for a full understanding of what the writer means. And it is this discovering of ideas in writing that are not stated directly, that is called making inferences or drawing conclusions. Your aim is to help you not only become a better reader, but a strong thinker, a strong thinker, a person able not only to understand what he is reading or he is reading, but to analyze and evaluate it as well. In fact, reading and thinking are closely related skills and practice in thoughtful reading will also strengthen your ability to think clearly and logically. It is a higher level skill. Now in everyday life, we are constantly making inferences. Example, you go out in the street and you notice a large crowd, a large crowd gathered outside a shop and you also notice a lot of broken glass on the road. And as you grow and as you go closer, you hear loud talking. Before you even reach the shop, you have inferred all the fusses about and you say to yourself, there has been an accident. Now how did you arrive at these inferences? First, you use your experience, your experience of life and general knowledge of people. Second, you made informed guesses, guesses which were based on the facts that you observed. You observed broken glass, you observed a number of people you heard loud talking and you inferred that an accident had taken place. Now remember, not all your inferences will necessarily prove true. For example, it is possible that the crowd gathered outside that shop is not because of an accident, accident between cars or anything else, but because of a quarrel among some people who why fighting among themselves hit the glass windows of the shop and that turned out, turned into a nasty brawl in any case. The more evidence you have, the more solid inferences, the more solid your inferences are. Now remember, I talked about experience and I talked about your experience of life and general knowledge and on the basis of that, you made informed guesses. Those guesses are informed guesses that is that they were based on facts that you observed. Now I shall relate to incidents and you consider these incidents. Write down on a piece of paper what you might infer if you saw the following two occurrences. You go to a building and you know it is a school, it is a high school and the high school has policemen walking up and down its main hall. What would you infer? You would, I am sure infer that either the school has had some problems, some problems with discipline or there is some official function taking place or that there is an exam taking place because in some of our public exams we have to call out the police. Now in the second incident there is a dog, sitting in a room and you go up to the dog and you try to pat the dog and as you try to pat the dog it shrinks or cringes when you try to pat him. What would you infer? The inferences that you made are in the second situation of the dog. You inferred that the dog has previously been maltreated and is afraid of people which was a correct inference and in the first situation there is a public examination going on or that there is an important function taking place and some high ranking person is present as is the normal case in our society. Now on your screens you will see two pictures. Let us see what inferences you draw from those pictures. Now your inferences must be logically supported by the information given in the picture. Look at the picture, the first picture. Look at the first picture. What do you see? It is the inside of a bus. There are two people sitting there, a woman and a man. What is the man doing? The man is smoking and the woman is pointing at something. Now you have to infer from the picture what is she pointing at? Is the woman asking for something? Is the woman having problems seeing things because of the smoke or is the woman pointing to a no smoking sign? These are the three probable inferences. Now out of these three which one is supported, logically supported by the information given in the picture? Now if you look at the picture, if you look at the picture from the woman's face we can make out that she is not happy and she is trying to point out point two most probably a no smoking sign and the man seems pretty smug about it. Now shall we look at the next picture? What do you see in this picture? We see a man watching television and there is a boy most probably his son sitting in the corner reading a book and the man is wearing spectacles, he is wearing glasses. Now looking at that picture you can draw certain inferences but your inferences have to be based, have to be supported by the information that you can get from that picture. Now what is it that you can draw from that picture? Does the man have problem with his vision? He is wearing glasses. Number two, the boy is doing his homework. Number three, the man watches a lot of TV and number four, the man cannot read. Now out of those four, which one, which inference is correct and because it is supported by the picture? Number one, the man has a problem with his vision. This is supported by the information the picture gives. The man most probably the father, he is wearing glasses and he is sitting close to the TV set which means that he has problems with his vision otherwise he would not be sitting that close to the TV. Number two, the boy is doing his homework. How do we know he is doing his homework? Just because he has a book in his hand does not mean that he is doing his homework. It is not logical. Why? Because if he was doing his homework the artist would have given us some clue about you know that the boy was reading a school book. There could have been a school bag next to the boy and from that we could have drawn the inference that the boy is doing his homework. No, there is nothing of that sort. So number two, the inference that the boy is doing his homework is wrong. It is not logical. The artist, the information in the picture does not support that inference. Number two and number three, sorry, the third inference that the man watches a lot of TV. Yes, that is logical because if he had not been watching a lot of television he would not have problems with his vision. We can say that the man watches a lot of TV and number four that the inference that the father cannot read that is not supported by evidence. I mean there is no clue in the picture for you to draw the inference that the father cannot read. Just because he is watching television does not mean that he cannot read. Now these two pictures that you saw on your screen and we made you draw inferences was to give you practice in drawing conclusions and when you draw conclusions you should not jump. You should look at the evidence and your conclusion should be based on evidence. Now that was a non-linguistic. Now we will move on to drawing inferences in reading. Now we will move on to drawing inferences in reading. In reading also we make logical jumps from the information that is given you or stated directly to ideas that are not stated directly. That is we make statements or draw conclusions. About what is not known on the basis of what is known or given. So to draw conclusions or to draw inferences the reader uses all the clues provided by the writer and his own experience. The writer's own experience and logic do matter in drawing. Inferences. Now on your screen you will read a few sentences and put a tick mark by the inference that is most logically based on the information in the sentences. There is just one sentence. So he always sits in the last row of the classroom and you are given four choices. You have to choose the one which is inference which is based on the information given in the sentence. A. So he dislikes his college courses. B. So he is unprepared for his class. C. So he feels uncomfortable sitting in the classroom front row. And D. So Hale is far sighted. Now out of these four the given sentence does not tell us anything about how So Hale feels about his college courses. Not as it tell you how prepared he is or how well he sees. There is no clue. There is no clue. In the given sentence about So Hale's eye sight. So out of those four D and D they are possibilities. They are possibilities but none is directly suggested by the sentence. The correct answer is therefore number C which is So Hale feels uncomfortable sitting in the front row. The other three are possibilities but the sentence, the given sentence does not say anything about these possibilities. Now based on the information that we are given we can conclude that So Hale for some reason does not like sitting at the front in the front of the class. Now we are not given enough information to know why to know why he feels this way. Remember your inferences will be stronger if you do not jump to conclusions. If you do not jump to conclusions that are unsupported are only all. They are very weakly supported by the available information. Now you will have some more practice in drawing inferences. Read the given sentences and put a tick mark against the one that is most logically supported by the information given in the lead sentence. Number one, if you come across a sentence like the Arabic language contains numerous words describing different types of camels. The Arabic language contains numerous words describing different types of camels and four inferences, choices, possibilities are given you. Which one is most logically supported by the information given in the sentence? A, there is really only one kind of camel, there is only one kind of camel but they use different words. B, the Arabic language clearly has many times more words than the English language. C, the Arabic language probably has numerous words for different types of dates. D, the exact nature of camels is important to the desert way of life. Now if you look at those sentences which one is most logically supported? Number one, there is really only one kind of camel does your sentence say that? No, it says different types of camels. B, the Arabic language clearly has many times more words than the English language. Does the sentence compare? Does it imply in any way a comparison between two languages? No, the sentence just deals with the Arabic language. C, the Arabic language probably also has numerous words for different types of dates. Quite possible, quite possible. But does the sentence, the given sentence, does the given sentence say that? No, it does not. Now out of those four, number D is the correct inference. If you had number D there, if you selected number D, then you read that sentence correctly. The exact nature of camels is important to the desert way of life. You can infer that from that given sentence, that camels play an important role in the desert way of life. So that language has numerous words to describe different types of camels. Yes, a camel that has given birth to a she-baby camel has one name, has a particular type. There is a word to describe that camel. This is a extra bit of information. A camel that has given birth to two male baby camels has another name for it. So nowhere does the given sentence say anything about inference A, possibility B, possibility B, possibility C. It is only the correct inference that you can draw is that the nature of camels is important to the desert way of life. Sentence number two, a man enters his office building, marches past a group of fellow employees without returning their greetings and goes into his office slamming the door. A man enters his office building, marches past a group of fellow employees without returning their greetings and goes into his office slamming the door. Now what inference would you draw from that action? A, the man has just lost his job, possibility. But does the given statement say anything about it? B, the man has quarreled with his boss. Is there anything in the given statement to tell you about this? No? The man is in a bad mood. D, the man is angry with his wife. Alright, if he is angry with his wife, why is he banging the office doors? He should have banged the door at his home before he left his home. So out of those four it is number C which is if you have got number C, if you selected number C then you selected the correct choice, the correct statement. The man is in a bad mood. Yes, because he refuses to acknowledge his fellow employees' greetings and he doesn't say hello to anyone, he just goes into his office and slams the door. So it is C. Now we shall, you will see a passage on your screen. Read the passage and then check the four statements which are most logically supported by the information given. The passage is the elimination of jobs because of super automation is not limited to industrial factories. Offices are increasingly becoming electronic. Engineers and architects not only have now draw three dimensional designs, update them, test them and store them almost instantaneously in a computer. Agriculture employs robot fruit pickers, sheep sharers, computerized irrigation systems that use sensors to calculate water and fertilizer needs in different parts of a field and automated chicken houses. Retail stores, banks and brokerage houses use on transaction processing to obtain instant information and to conduct transactions. Laser scanning and barcodes are transforming the physical handling of codes by retailers and wholesale distributors. A final example of technological change affecting jobs is widespread use of televisions, telephones and personal computers for the purposes of home, of home banking and shopping. Now take some time. This is a difficult passage. It is very different from the earlier practice that you have had. Read that passage if need be once, twice even three times and then look at the choices that are given you. Does the passage say that computers will soon replace engineers and architects? Number one, computers will soon replace engineers and architects? No. Number two, there will be more jobs for people who run and repair electronic devices. Does the passage say that? Number three, one function of super automation is the handling and storage of information. Number four, restaurants cannot benefit from super automation. Number five, machines can help company employees accomplish more. And number six, super automation requires few adjustments from society. Now out of these six possible inferences, which, I know there is another one, number seven, super automation has advantages and disadvantages. And number eight, laser technology is limited to the business world. Now out of these eight, which ones, which four are logically supported by the information given in the text that you have read? Number one, does the text say computers will soon replace engineers and architects? No. The text never said that. It just says that engineers and architects are beginning to use computers. They are using more and more and more use of computers is taking place by these professionals. Number two, there will be more jobs for people who run and repair electronic devices. Yes, that you can draw that inference. And number three, one function of super automation is the handling and storage of information. Yes, that is implied. You can easily infer that from your reading of the text. Number four is not correct because it does not say that restaurants cannot benefit from super automation. Number five, that machines can help company employees accomplish more. That is, you can infer that. And number six is also not correct. Number seven is correct. You can draw that, you can infer that super automation has advantages and disadvantages. And number eight is not correct. Number two, three, five and seven were the correct inferences. Now that was a difficult passage. Now we will move on to drawing inferences and how to draw inferences in literature. Now if you are fond of reading novels, short stories, poetry, you will know that inference is very important in understanding and appreciating literature. While non-fiction writers usually state direct, direct and directly what they mean. Fiction or creative writers usually show what they mean. They do it by describing the scene or the situation. I shall illustrate this with an example. A non-fiction writer might write, Henry was angry at his wife. A creative writer or a fiction writer might say the same thing in this way. Henry's eyes narrowed when his wife spoke to him. He cut her off in the middle of the sentence with the words, I do not have time to argue with you. Now instead of simply stating that Henry was angry, the creative writer has through his description shown Henry's anger. Now I shall read a very short poem of four lines. It is written by an American poet, James Russell Lowell and it is called 68 Birthday. As life runs on, the road grows strange with faces new and near the end the milestones into headstones change, neath everyone a friend. As life runs on, the road grows strange with faces new and near the end the milestones into headstones change, neath everyone a friend. Now in case you do not know, milestone is a slab of stone set up in the ground to show the distance in miles on a road. In the old days they showed distance by putting stones on the road with the number showing the number of miles and a headstone is a stone which marks the top end of a grave where the person who is buried his name and date of the death or birth are written. It is a very sad poem. We infer that the speaker in the poem is 68 although the poem does not state that the speaker is 68. The title of the poem strongly implies this and that is the purpose of the title. And the poem compares life to a road with milestones. Lines 2 and 3 suggest that life runs on a road marked by long milestones along it. And as we move along the road we meet new faces of people we are not familiar with. And the poem also implies that birthdays are like milestones that are marked by the distance covered that is the number of years that you have lived. And a time comes when life's milestones turn into headstones. The markers set into graves meaning in other words that life ends in death. And the final line implies that as we get older more and more friends die they drop along the roads. And under all the headstones are your friends. It is a sad poem and in 4 lines the writer the poet is able to say so many things. You will see a short poem on your screen. It is titled Fog and it is by the American poet Carl Sandberg. Read the poem and answer the questions given at the end. The fog comes on little cat feet. It sits looking on harbour and city on silent haunches and then moves on. The fog comes on little cat feet. It sits looking on harbour and city on silent haunches and then moves on. Now put a tick mark against the answer that is based on the poem. Number one, the way the fog moves is compared to the movement in the harbour, movement in the city or the way a cat moves. It is sea. Number two, this comparison implies that the fog floats over the harbour, hangs over the city, moves silently and quickly. It is sea. It moves quickly and silently. It does not say so but it is implied from the poem. Number three, the comparison with the cat continues with the word harbour, haunches, city and it is be haunches. You know what haunches are? It is the way you sit. It is the way the cat sits, watching silently. And number four, the poem implies that the fog stays for a while and then leaves. Does it imply that it stays too long or does it imply that it never stays? It is A. And the last one, the poem shows fog as dangerous, quiet or full of movement. It is B. Now you read two poems and you saw how the poet says, implies things which he never states directly. In the same way, you will find that novelists put the indicate character through the words they put into their character's mouths. The readers have to read between the lines and in firm meanings which may not be directly stated. This you will find in novels and other types of literature. For instance, in drama. In drama, the playwright expect their audience to read between the lines of the dialogues and use inference to depict the diversity of their characterization. It is from the words that are put in their character's mouths that the readers and the audience, if it is a play, they infer the different types of characters. Now this is of course a very important element of the dramatist's art or the novelist's art of revealing his character through their speech. But other writers also use this device. Now you will see on your screen a short dialogue. It is taken from a novel by P. G. Woodhouse. It is called Thank You Jeeps. Just read the dialogue and see what you can make of the two characters. Jeeps, I said, do you know what? No, sir. No, sir. Do you know what I saw last night? No, sir. J. Washman Stoker and his daughter Pauline. Indeed, sir. Awkward. What do you know what? I can conceive that after what occurred in New York, it might be distressing for you to encounter mistokes, sir. But I fancy the contingency needs scarcely arise. I wade this. When you start talking about contingencies arising, Jeeps, the brain seems to flicker and I rather miss the gist. Do you mean I ought to be able to keep out of her way? Yes, sir. Avoid her? Yes, sir. Now if you look at Jeeps' answers, you will notice that they are very brief, economical. What can we deduce? What can we infer about the kind of person Jeeps is and his attitudes from his speech? One can infer that he is a servant and he is talking to his master. The master has many words. Jeeps, the servant, uses economy of speech, right? And we can learn what kind of a person he is and his attitude towards his master from this economy of speech and from what Jeeps actually says and what is implied. Now, in today's lesson, you had practice in reading between lines and words. First, we did it in cartoons, then in single statements, in non-fiction and factual writing and then we moved on to creative writing and we tried to give you practice in finding out meaning that is not stated directly. This is a skill that you can only acquire you can only get by reading extensively. And by extensive reading, I mean reading for pleasure, reading story books, reading novels, reading poems, reading biographies. When you read extensively, you read for pleasure and when you read for pleasure, you are not pushed for time. You do not have to read in a specific time. You read at your layer whenever you feel like, you can pick up from where you left off and you can finish a book or a story in days and sometimes even in weeks. And it is only by reading extensively that you will pick up skills of inference and other related skills so much for today. With that we come to the end of today's lesson. See you next time. Allah Hafiz.