 The case study is a very interesting and a very flexible research approach and it leaves a lot of choices for the researcher There could be just one case which is very interesting and very relevant and the researcher Finds out all about that one particular case or there could be Multiple cases where there is a theme running through those cases and the researcher's job is to find out what those themes are in Certain cases it may be generalizable in other cases. It may not be generalizable So there are a lot of questions about research design and how to do those case studies What are the evidence and how do we analyze those evidences? How do we interpret those evidences? So in today's presentation, I'm going to have a detailed discussion about all these things So before we start talking about case studies, it's important to talk about what a case is So case could be just an instance. It could be just an incident which has happened or it could be a Person and organization. It could be an event which has taken place. It could be a Decision which the executive has taken. It could be an action by some entity. It could be a location. It could be a neighborhood It could be a nation state So there is a lot of flexibility and variability in the kind of cases that we study in a case study research It could be located at the micro level at the individual level It could be located at the meso Which is between the micro and and the macro level So it could be at the organization or the or the institutional level or it could be at the macro level as As well, you know talking in terms of Societies or communities and it may as I said at the beginning It may involve just one actor or we could be dealing with multiple number of actors as cases and there are very many You know definitions of of case studies. So we'll just talk about some of the more Popular ones. So and it's very simplest Yin Describes case study as a study of a case or cases within a real life setting And within a contemporary context as well So the real life setting is important and the contemporary context is important here as well We'll improve on this definition and yin himself has improved on this definition later on. So we'll we'll talk about that as well So case study is not just by the methods that we're using but the edges and we talk about the Boundations we put around the case So whether we are talking about a particular place and how do we describe that particular place or it could be a time frame Between certain times or it could be around certain people. So what are the edges or what are the Boundaries we put across the cases that we are studying and that's a very important decision to make in case study research Another very important definition is by SRAM from 1971 and he suggests that the essence of a case study Is that it tries to illuminate a decision or set of decisions That means why those decisions were taken How they were implemented and what were the results of those decisions. So basically it tries to study those decisions Uh, it is also an in-depth study of a single unit or a relatively bounded phenomenon where the scholars aim is to Elucidate features of a larger class of seminal Phenomenon so this getting's definition is More in terms of generalizability. So when we study in a single unit in an in-depth manner and Where the foundations are described and the our job is to elucidate features of a larger class of a similar phenomenon Uh, so just to improve on the first definition The case study is an empirical method that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth within its real world context Especially when boundaries between phenomenon and context may not be clearly evident so this Phenomenon is related to the context and that relation might not be clearly evident. So the job of the researcher is to Kind of make these boundaries very clear or make this relation between the context and the phenomenon clear So before we get into the describing these research case studies, it's important to to realize that in common parlance we use the term case studies or case for for a lot of non-research methods or Non-research case studies, which may which do not follow a research method and may not be Concerned with conventional social science procedures So they could include a teaching practice case studies It could be about popular case studies, which we see in in in popular media and In in mainstream media or it could also be case records. So when we are talking of research case studies We are not talking about these non-research cases So, uh, again, there are two very important decisions We need to take and we'll we'll draw on Robert Steak's work, which is a very interesting begun case studies So, uh, either the intent could be intrinsic or instrumental In the intrinsic case, as I said, it's it's about one Individual case a unique case that has an unusual interest in it In itself and it needs to be described in a detailed manner So when the intent is intrinsic, we are just concentrating on that one single unique case, which has a certain unusual properties or which has certain unusual things to display and our job is to describe and Provide a detailed account of that particular case So the study is is about the particularity and the complexity of the case. So, so, uh, why Why is it different and and why is it why is it complex? So it's not sampling research as as we'll see It's not about finding out to to demonstrate about Other similar events, but it's our first obligation as a researcher is to understand this one single case We do not study a case primarily to understand other cases, but we are Providing a very rich understanding of a particular this single case. So as in in all qualitative research It's it's it's the richness of the understanding and the richness of the description that is more important So, uh, we have the descriptive case studies as an example where the research objective is to Provide a complete Detailed portrayal of some phenomenon And why do we do that so that we can get the story down for the possible benefit of the policymakers of Scholars in the field and other citizens at large So here the effort is not to engage with other existing scholarship either theoretical or empirical It's just to describe this particular case Drawing on the methods of a document review of participant observation of in-depth interviews and we'll talk of such Methods in in details in our presentation later on as well But the idea is to provide a detailed complete portrayal of this single phenomenon and the sometimes this emphasis on description it Uh involves only a single case So as we'll see it could be the life history of an individual or a particular event or an organization or some other group And other types when we are using multiple cases. We are trying to See the commonalities in those different cases and the description is in portraying those commonalities across these cases So, uh, often there are there are lots of things Concerning generalizability. So in many cases, we see that Typicality or trying to generalize is not the intent of the researcher in most cases. So in the single descriptive case, we are We may say it See it in some sense as typical or average, but that is not always the case We can also think of it as contributing to naturalistic generalization So we are providing a very rich description of an event. So based on people's own Experiences and on their own ideas. They may draw their own generalizations naturally So we are providing just an input in the generalization process Or we are also providing an input for an analytical generalization. So we are providing all the Uh things that are relevant and important about a particular case so that if people want to draw an analytic generalization So it helps in that so uh from not being generalizable to contributing to generalization the case uh research method has a lot of things to contribute And in the instrumental case as uh, this thing from the intrinsic case We just saw where we were just considering on one single case in the instrumental case the intent is to study A specific issue or a problem or a concern. So it could be like, you know Social media trolling for example, and we select cases to best understand the problem So we could be you know taking cases where where people are trolling or being trolled So we take all those relevant cases and we try to understand that particular problem. So uh instrumental is again one of the two very important intents in the case study research method And uh, there is an in-depth exploration from multiple perspectives in such a case About the complexity about the uniqueness of of these particular project. It could be a policy. It could be an institution It could be a program or our system in real life context. So the uh, the the the results are uh, Is are based on evidence or our inferences are based on Evidence and it is research based and it can include very many different methods and we'll see that Within the case study we can involve very many other different methods as well So we Find out what are the themes as we just saw that you know in the instrumental method We are looking for themes and then we look for specific cases to Look for such themes in these cases. So these themes could be specific situations and Defining of a case study involves description of the individual case and the themes that the researcher has uncovered in Studying that case. So we could be seeing a chronology kind of a thing across Different cases or we could be looking for similarities in the cases We could be looking for differences in the cases or we could be seeing these cases as contributing to a theoretical model So there are different Things that a particular case study would do So this instrumental case study could just involve a single case where we just focus on Issue or concern and then select one case to illustrate that issue So the it could be based on the research questions that we have identified or or as scholars have suggested a puzzlement that needs to be Solved or a need for a general understanding And the reason that we get that use that particular case is that we may get insight into these Questions or the answer to these puzzlements or or the requirement for this general understanding will be solved if we Study that one single instrumental case. So an instrumental case can also involve the use of just a single case Also, we might be using multiple Cases. So one issue or concern is is selected and then we select multiple case studies to illustrate the issue So we might be selecting several programs from several different research sites or multiple programs within a single site So so we purposefully select these multiple cases to show different perspectives on the same issue So the idea is to first identify these issues and then to look for cases either to To to justify justify a particular issue that we have identified or or to show it in opposition to those issues that have been identified so It's time now to talk about the case study research design and it constitutes these five different Uh, themes. So the first of all it is dependent on the research questions or what are the questions that this case study seeks to answer then the propositions it Constitutes for itself the cases the case whether it has to Think about a particular case or cases then we link the data to the propositions that we've identified And then we have to have a criteria for interpreting the findings So in the next few slides, we are going to talk about these five structures of the case study design So as we just suggested this is the You know, first of all, we have to Identify whether the research problem can be best examined using a case study approach And the researcher has to be very clear with this answer before he gets on with the case study method Then identify the intent and the case or the cases. So what is the intent? So whether the intent is intrinsic or instrumental as we just saw and whether we should select just a single case or multiple cases And even in multiple cases, is it from the same research site or is it from Different research sites then we develop procedures for conducting an extensive data collection So we draw on multiple data sources and we'll talk about what these data sources could be and then we Select an analysis approach that how do we analyze these cases? What are the themes on which we create these descriptions and contextual Information and then we report the interpreted meaning of the case Learned by using case assertions. So using Wignets and an assertion. We'll see that how we report these case studies So these are the five steps involved in this case study research method So first of all, we begin with the research question So we have to first be very clear about whether the research questions are relevant For such an approach. So whether The how or why and all such things are are are are right to Justify the use of a case study approach So we could be explaining some contemporary circumstances or why and how some some social phenomenon works so When when these questions require an extensive and in-depth description that also is a very good way of Deciding that this could the case study method could be an appropriate method for that We then have to decide on the intent of the case study and how do we select a case or cases? And we've already discussed about the intent It could be intrinsic where that a single case is represented of some important or relevant phenomenon Or whether we identify themes across different cases. So whether the intent is intrinsic or instrumental Whether we talk of just one single case or whether we see multiple cases To talk about certain themes or certain phenomenon And then we decide whether it will be a single case or whether it will be a collective case Whether it will be multiple site or whether it will be within site And that's where we look for possibilities of purposeful sampling. So it's it's generally we are looking for cases Which display or which will provide us with answers to these questions So we might have different perspectives. So we might select cases which show different perspectives on the same problem Or which show the same process So in cases in many situations, we might be just looking for ordinary cases Which represent the phenomenon or cases which are accessible or cases which are very unusual So we have to make these decisions before we continue with the research process So as we discussed the data collection is an important part of this case study research method and that data collection could include Documents so there could be lots and lots of documents that we will have to study It could be archival records. It could be interviews with people or group of people It could be a direct it could be direct observation where we where we just there as an Dispassionate observer or we could be present there as a Participant observer or we could be studying physical artifacts. It could be audio visual material or it could be Any other material relevant to the case. So there are different ways of data collection So it's not just interviews or it's not just only published documents, but there are very many As we identified at least six different kinds of data that we'll need to study for a case study research And the analysis comes instead of making a detailed description of the case So we'll have to as we suggested earlier as well The detailed description is important and the setting is extremely important. So so if you're using for example chronology, then we might have to provide the the multiple sources of data to determine Evidence for each step or phase in the evolution of the case So how how has it evolved from this point to this point? Using multiple sources of data and using multiple sources of evidence as well We might be looking for a categorical aggregation as far as interpretation is concerned So we might seek a collection of instances from the data and some issue relevant meanings will emerge out of that So we just aggregate the categories that we have identified in the You know six kinds of data that we've just Discussed or we could be just talking about the direct interpretation where the researcher looks at a single instance and draws meaning out of it or tries to establish pattern out of it and even looks for a Correspondence or some kind of an association between two or more categories As you can understand that there is a Quantitative approach here as well when we are talking of these interpretations So looking at associations between categories or looking for patterns in in those categories Or we could be using a cross case synthesis where A For example suggest that a word table can be created to display the data from from individual cases according to some uniform framework So we have this cross case synthesis where we try and see that what are these Elements in these different cases and we try and see whether we can build up some some uniform framework out of that And we also have naturalistic generalization from analyzing the data. So We provide the input for people to generalize from So the analysis approach it could be a holistic analysis of the entire case where we are providing a Holistic Description of the case it could be an embedded analysis of a few specific aspect of the cases So we are providing an embedded understanding of that it could be focusing on a few key issues So we might have identified those These key issues in in in the cases and we analyze those themes. So this is just a repetition of We have just discussed earlier So we identified issues within each case and look for common themes that transcend the cases So these common themes are present in all the cases that we are studying So for multiple cases, we have to have a detailed description of each case and themes within the case And which is it's called a within-case analysis and following that we have a cross-case analysis So we when we're using multiple cases first the within-case analysis Followed by a thematic analysis of the cases, which is a kind of a cross-case analysis the Case study approach presents a lot of writing challenges as well because as we've seen there are different kinds of evidences We just discussed six different kinds of data. So There's a Very different kind of a skill set required in weaving this evidence into a coherent narrative because there are so many different Data types. There are so many different kind of themes that we've understood and it might be going in different directions. So weaving this Evidence into a coherent narrative is a very important skill set required for a case study researcher At the same time, there is a need to maintain the focus and the direction Which have been determined by the specific research questions. They're all related to the research question. So that focus and that direction has to be there In the document prepared after the case study research. So these that have to I mean we these You know plotting of the successive revisions of the explanations or theories. So it's an iterative process at a certain stage So we could be using a realistic way of just providing direct matter-of-fact understanding of the case or the cases or we could be providing confessional tales about the Focusing on the field work rather than the case. So these are the different inputs that we provided to the writing process We could be providing these impressionist tales. So it could be personalized accounts of the field work Uh, we provide vignettes to illustrate aspects of the case and we'll we'll be talking about the assertions as well So these are the inputs that we provide in writing the case study research report So we uh, this again is suggested this theme is being uh, this kind of uh, uh, uh, theme is suggested by uh, Robert Stakes as we saw so the writer opens with a vignette. So the reader gets to uh, have a Vicarious experience or or a feel of the time and place of the study. So that is how you Start with a case then the researcher identifies the issue the purpose and the method of the study So that the reader can learn about how the study came to be and what are the important issues or what are the issues that the researcher considers important in that particular case study Then we provide or the writer the case study researcher provides the uh, Extensive description of the case without any analysis. So this is just a plain simple narration So if the reader were present in that place, you know, he would be seeing those kind of things So he provides an extensive description first. So starting with a vignette then then the uh, issue the purpose and the method and then the extensive description Uh, then after that extensive description, we go to the issues So issues are presented the few few key issues So the reader can understand the complexity of the case as we as we have repeated quite a few times today That qualitative research involves a rich understanding and a rich description So there there is an element of complexity there. So the key issues are presented first and then the complexity builds through references to other research or the writer's understanding of others cases or the researcher's understanding of other cases So that's how we build on the uh, uh, complexity and then the several of the issues are probed further So that is a deeper analysis of those issues and the writer brings in both confirming And disconfirming evidence. So it is not only one kind of evidence It's the other kind of evidence also that he sees in the cases. So as we can understand This is a very important or this is a very convenient linear way of writing down the case study research report So we present assertions on our own. So these are these are a summary of what we understand about the case and whether naturalistic generalizations are possible or whether conclusions arrived at are through the personal experience or or Through a vicarious experience for the reader So we the the researcher then finally ends with a closing vignette An experiential note to remind the reader that the report is is one person's encounter with a complex case or with complex cases. So this is how we complete the writing part of the case study research So, uh, this again it goes back to the design part of the case study research. So, uh, there are Different ways. So we could be doing an exploratory case study research We could be doing an explanatory case study research We could be even doing a descriptive So it depends on the questions. For example, very similar to an experiment method we could also be discussing about the how and why and Focusing on contemporary events and that's where we would be talking about an explanatory case study research method. So just like the survey method We could also be talking about who what where how many how much And again that will have to focus on the contemporary events It could be very similar to archival analysis as well or it could be like a Historical method. So the case study can involve many of these research questions in different perspectives in certain cases it might depend on Contemporary events and unlike experimental research it does not involve controlling For using a control group So, uh, this research design has to provide for for for safeguards Concerning construct validity concerning internal validity concerning external validity and concerning reliability So for construct validity, it's important to have multiple sources of evidence So not just one source of evidence so that whatever we say we are studying That that part is being justified through construct validity In the internal validity that is important to you know, do the pattern matching or do some explanation building or even providing rival explanation so that the the conclusions that we are drawing Makes sense internally. So that is this is how we Satisfy the internal validity requirements or we could also be looking at the external validity So we can be using theory in single case studies or using replication logic in multiple case studies So external validity is basically about the same study being replicated in in other cases And reliability if we use the same methods we should be getting the same results. So for that we use a Case study protocol so that next time, you know, all all these steps are there in a systematic form Or we could be creating a case study database or maintaining a chain of evidence So these are the ways in which we can satisfy the conditions of construct validity internal validity external and external validity and reliability as well Uh, so case study methods can be used for hypothesis generation. So When we using case studies for hypothesis generation and theory development, we Might be using different kinds of cases. We might be using extreme cases either to justify a theory Or to disprove a theory. We might be using the deviant cases So cases which deviate from from the theory that we are trying to propose it could be critical It could be with maximum variation. So case study method can be used for hypothesis generation and theory development as well We also have explanatory case studies, which look for common features and and the major dimensions of variations. So so we use both the confirming evidence and the Disconfirming evidence to to refine and The developing explanation. So we are providing these explanations Based on disconfirming evidence and on disconfirming evidence and we also use a process of process tracing and we have a comparative analysis qualitative comparative analysis as well So in the process tracing method, we develop a height hypothesis. We collect evidences That that these causal mechanisms took place to justify that these causal mechanisms are there or so as we suggest We are looking at the explanatory potential of case studies So we try and provide for alternative explanation for these effects also and then we collect evidence That these alternative evidence did not take place or they did not lead to the effect So when we have identified an effect and we are trying to use case study to use it as an explanation Then we have to follow these processes of first of all discovering what that causal processes are then collecting evidence to Support those causal explanations Case study can also Contribute to normative theory about what is and what should be valued. So it it can tell us About Where are we going who gains or loses is the development desirable? What if anything should we do about it? So case study can help contribute to Normative theories as well. So so we can do that as as As as as an anthropologist in a detached third person sense Or in a committed first person sense as ethicists do and this is being derived from thatcher Thank you so much for your participation in this discussion on case study research