 Assalamu alaikum. Welcome to virtual university. Today, we are going to have our fifth lesson and this is a lesson about link words. In our last lesson, you were introduced to these two terms references and connectives and if you remember just to recap what we did last time, sentences and paragraphs are not mere words put together. They express ideas which are connected to each other. In today's lesson, we will practice to recognize these references and connectives that is words and phrases that link ideas in sentences. These words, these references and connectives, they make the text smoother to read and a skilled reader is able to recognize these words and make the connection within sentences and between sentences. References are sometimes pronouns, sometimes demonstrative pronouns and at times they are adverbs and sometimes they are even substitutes for words that will either come later or have already appeared in the text. We will look at a number of sentences and we will look at the references within a text. You will find seven sentences on your screen. Some of the words in those sentences are in italics and some are underlined. You will have to make the connections between the italicized words and the underlined words. Which underlined word goes with which italicized word? Five of these sentences have been done for you. I shall go through them with you and show you, point out to you where the connection is. You can do the last two on your own. Read the text, text number one. The first sentence, Mr. Salman bought a new car. His children have not seen it yet. Now in this sentence, you find the word Mr. Salman in italics and the word a new car in italics. In the second sentence, it is his that is underlined and the word it that is underlined. Now in a good sentence you do not, the writer does not repeat. He could have written Mr. Salman bought a new car, Mr. Salman's children have not seen the new car yet. Now that would have sounded very monotonous. So instead of repeating Mr. Salman and a new car again and again, the writer chose to use a pronoun, the word his, the word it. Now Mr. Salman, the pronoun his refers back to Mr. Salman and the word it refers back to the word a new car and by using these two words, these two references, it makes the text easier to read. Mr. Salman bought a new car. His children have not seen it yet. Now you as a skillful reader know what it refers to and who his is referring to. Now shall we look at the next sentence? Our neighbors old car did not work but the new one is fine. The same thing is repeated in this sentence. Our neighbors is in italics and the word car is also in italics. The word there and the word one are underlined. Now our neighbors is referring to the word there. It is in plural. Our neighbors, so there is also in the plural form. Car refers to one. Instead of saying their new car, the writer has used the word their new one and one is referring to car. Let us look at sentence three. Sentence three, everyone seems to think the chairman is guilty. If so, he will probably resign. If not, we should apologize to him. These are three sentences. The first one has the word the chairman and guilty in italics and in the second half we have the three words so, not and him underlined. Him refers to the chairman and the word guilty has two words in the second and the third sentences. So if so, so refers to guilty and if not, not also refers to guilty. Now just for a minute substitute the word guilty for the underlined words. Everyone seems to think the chairman is guilty. If he is guilty, he will probably resign. If he is not guilty, we should apologize to him. Now that would make the reading of this sentence very clumsy. If it was to be read aloud, even then it would be clumsy and if it was just read silently, it would again be confusing. So I hope you understood the use of references. It makes the text smoother to read and quicker to comprehend. Everyone seems to think the chairman is guilty. If so, he will probably resign. If not, we should apologize to him. Sentence 4 Mrs. Mahmood thought the new curtains were a waste of money and Saima, her daughter in law, thought the same. Now here, the new curtains were a waste of money. These are in italics and the word the same is underlined. Instead of using the phrase, the new curtains were a waste of money, the writer has substituted the word the same, the phrase the same instead of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. 8 words, instead of using those 8 words, the words that are underlined, 2 words have been substituted. Mrs. Mahmood thought the new curtains were a waste of money and Saima, her daughter in law, thought the same. That is, she also thought the new curtains were a waste of money. Sentence 5 Although the new hostile warden does not seem to trust the guard, everyone else did. The word did in the second half of the sentence refers back to trusting the guard. I hope you have been able to make the connections between the italicized words and the underlined words. Let us look at sentence 6 and 7. Saima liked the brown sofa, but her husband Salman preferred the red. Number 7 The chair was so well made that Mrs. Gul decided to buy 2 and the word 2 and chair, you have to make the connections between the two. Now, we were looking at references. Now, we shall look at connectives. This is another kind of link. This is a link which is made by conjunctions that join ideas into some kind of relationship within the text. Now, these words or phrases are also known as transitional markers, transitional that is something that comes between two points, something that links this with this point. And these markers, they indicate seven things. The first is result, second is contrast, third is comparison, fourth is illustration or example, fifth cause and effect, sixth a series of stages or series of events, time sequence. And number 7 is addition. Let us look at signals that show result. On your screen you will see six words for our phrases and if you look at them carefully you will notice that they are markers that signal results. When you are reading a text whether it is two sentences or three sentences or a whole paragraph, these words will tell you that one part of the sentence and this other part of the sentence they are connected and the connection is a connection of results. You look at the examples given there and the example is the first example. There were no reasons for Mavish to stay, so she returned to her home. The word so tells you the result because there were no reasons for her to stay, so she returned to her home. The second example, the people objected to the new taxes, therefore they were angry when the government passed the tax bill. Now the word therefore tells you the result, the result of their objection, they were angry. In the same way you will find that the other words in that little word bank given on your screen, all those words also signal result. The word thus, the word hence, the word accordingly, the word consequently, the phrase as a consequence. These are all signals telling the reader that one part of the sentence is connected to the other part and it shows the connection of result. Now we will look at another example and that is words that signal contrast, contrast between two things, may be more than two things and the words are you are all familiar with them with their very common words, words like but, however, yet although on the contrary in contrast instead still despite conversely nevertheless even though on the other hand in spite of the first example says although he works late at night, yet he appears fresh in the morning. There are two signals over there although and yet the second one the second example despite the fierce snowstorm the caravan of Afghan refugees kept moving on and the word despite signals to you the contrast the difference although there was a fierce storm snowstorm and the caravan kept moving and in the same way all the other words in that word bank can be used to show contrast. Let us look at a third one, a third connective which shows comparison and the words are very familiar, very familiar common words the word like likewise as well just as just like similarly in a similar fashion equally in like manner as in the same way. Take the first example driving a motor car is a skill we learn through practice similarly cooking is a skill we learn through hands on experience here two things in this sentence two things are being talked about one is the driving a motor car and the other is cooking and you are told that both are skills and the word similarly tells you that just like driving a notice that in the second sentence we do not have the word driving a motor car the word similarly tells you that it relates to driving a motor car just as driving a motor car is a skill cooking is also a skill which we learn through experience through practice and the word similarly compares the two skills. The second example when family members communicate they are more likely to solve their problems in a similar fashion countries can best solve their problems through communication and you find that two situations are being compared a family and countries and the phrase in a similar fashion connects the two ideas the two family and countries their problems are put together they are compared and the word the phrase that tells you that they are being compared is in a similar fashion the fourth connective or the link word or words are words that show illustration or example words that are used to illustrate what is being said and the words are for example in a sentence for instance sorry to illustrate once such as including and the examples are our history treacher is very absent minded last week for instance he went to work on Sunday now the word the two the phrase for instance he is illustrating what he said in the first part of the sentence in the first part of the sentence it is our history teacher is very absent minded alright he is absent minded how do we know to illustrate the point that is made in the first part he says for last week for instance for instance means example last week for example he went to work on Sunday and that illustrates what is said in the first part of the sentence look at the second example very illustrative the second example is my grandmother does not hear very well for example whenever I say salam nani she answers alamdulillah and the word for example is the same as for instance you can substitute these words you can use one for the other not much difference but it means the same having said my grandmother is does not hear very well to illustrate what was said in the first part he gives you an example for example he illustrates what was said in the first half right now let us look at another link word the link words in number five they all show cause and effect these are words like thus consequently therefore if dash dash dash then because since accordingly so because of result as a result if it gets too humid then our wooden doors swell up and become hard to operate the word if and then tell you that there is a cause and there is an effect if it gets too humid that is the cause part the cause of humidity it has an effect humidity has an effect and what is the effect that the wooden doors swell up and become hard to operate a good reader one glance the word if and then he knows that in this sentence the writer is talking about cause and effect and these are the two link words these are the clues if and then look at the second example because the varnish of the table fungus has begun to grow on it again the word because signals cause an effect the cause is that the varnish has worn off the cause for the growth of fungus is the varnish wearing off the table number six and these are words that show a series of events or a process or time very familiar words words like one two three since first second third lastly then while at last next before after soon afterward soon often during as now until previously finally immediately frequently these are all words that show some connection the first example first I skim the newspaper to see what films are on then I circle the ones I want to record on my VCR now the words first and the word then show you the sequence of time the sequence of events first you pick up the newspaper and you skim through it you flip through the pages and then the next thing you do is that you circle the names of films you want to video on your cassette recorder so the words first then first second next afterwards and then finally these are all words that show the link in time or a link in a series of things that you are doing first you did this then you did that afterwards you did that and a good reader does not waste much time over these things he he he is practiced enough to know that alright these are signals these are signals that tell me first this is done then next then next then next look at the second example previously the two countries got along now previously sorry the two countries didn't get along now they have resumed diplomatic relations and now are two words that show time sometime in the past they were not friendly the two countries didn't get along now they have resumed diplomatic relations and previously and now are signals showing passage of time now the last category is of words that show addition something is being added on and the words are and besides first of all second secondly third thirdly and also being also another and two further more next as well as in addition secondly finally and moreover all these words are used to show that something else is being added on to what has been said previously the two examples Kamran Ali smokes too much furthermore he drops ash all over the floor Kamran Ali does two things he smokes a lot not only that he is dropping ash all over the floor the word furthermore is adding on to the act of smoking in the same way if you look at example two my mother can read and write Pashto as well as speak and understand Cindy a real linguist as well as the phrase as well as is adding on to my mother's ability of reading and writing Pashto and instead of saying my mother can read and write Pashto as well as just adds on I mean you can also use the word and my mother can read and write Pashto and speak and understand Cindy so these words phrases like as well as in addition to moreover these are all words that writers use now I must point out something to you that writers do not like to repeat the same words again and again in every word bank that you saw for every category you notice that there were a number of words and writers when they are writing like to vary their sentences otherwise it would become very very dull to read a piece of writing which repeats the same words so sometimes you will find writers using the word moreover and sometimes you will find them using the word furthermore and sometimes you will find the writers using in addition they all mean the same it is just that the writer it is up to him he likes to use a variety of words the writer likes to play with words and I hope you have learnt link words how link words are used how references are used these are all ways to make your writing smoother your reading smoother now we will look at two more paragraphs two sample paragraphs look at sample one very interesting some few of course still believe that Shakespeare could not have written the plays attributed to him but they have difficulty explaining the fact that many contemporaries of Shakespeare who knew and worked with him considered him first as the actual author and second a very fine author indeed Ben Johnson for example never doubted the authenticity of the plays William Green also referred to Shakespeare as a very fine playwright these are only two of the many contemporary references that leave little doubt that Shakespeare wrote the plays that Shakespeare wrote the plays of William Shakespeare now if you look at the paragraph you will notice there are certain words that are in rectangular boxes and there are certain words that are circled now I shall go through this paragraph with you and point out to you how they are connected look at the word the word him the first circled word what does him refer to who does him refer to you will notice if you read carefully the word him refers back to Shakespeare and the word they the next circled word who does they refer to but they have difficulty explaining the fact who are they if you read go back and read some few so the second word that is circled that is they they refers to those some few look at the word who who does the word who refers to who knew who are these the contemporaries of Shakespeare and worked with him him again of course refers to Shakespeare said it him first and let us look at the next circled word and that is these in the last sentence these are only two of the many contemporary references now who do you think these refers to these refer to Ben Johnson and William green these are only two of the many contemporary references and the two contemporary references are one is Ben Johnson and the other is William green now we will look at the words that were in boxes these are the connectives and there are six connectives in this passage and you will notice that these connectives belong to different categories the first one the first box phrase is of course and you will notice that this is an example of illustration the past the words of course illustrate or let us say confirm that some believe that Shakespeare could not have written those place the second connective is butch and it is a connective showing contrast it shows the contrast between in those people who on the one hand they believe and on the other hand they have difficulty in explaining why Shakespeare's contemporaries considered him a good playwright and the third and fourth connectives are for the word first and the word second notice the word first and the word second are boxed they are both connectives of addition they are adding on to what has been said earlier and what has been said earlier what has been said earlier is that these people have difficulties the people who believe that Shakespeare could not have written those place they have two difficulties difficulties first to explain why he was as an author and second as a fine playwright the fifth connective is the word is the phrase for example now for example you know is an illustration the author illustrates what he has said before he gives an example and the example is of Ben Johnson Ben Johnson is an example of a contemporary of Shakespeare right and the last one is the word also the word also is again an addition it is a word that adds on to what has been said earlier and the example of another contemporary of Shakespeare's that is William Green the first was Ben Johnson and then he uses the word also also refers to William Green now this was an exercise to show you a sample to show you how a paragraph is made up of connectives and references now we will show we will look at another example and this is an example drawn from computers an area that you are studying an area that should be familiar to you read the passage in fact I will read it for you a computer like any other machine is used because it does certain jobs better and more efficiently than humans it can receive more information and process it faster than any human the speed at which a computer works can replace weeks or even months of pencil and paper work therefore computers are used when the time saved offsets their cost which is one of the many reasons they are used so much in business industry and research now you will notice that in this paragraph again there are certain words that are boxed and certain words that are in that have been circled now notice the first it what does it refer to it refers to the word computer the second it it refers to the phrase like any other machine is used because the second it refused to the goes back and refers to the word to the phrase like any other machine now the third it refers to the word information the word there it refers to computers the fixed the fifth word which is circled is which and which refers to the time saved offsets their cost and the last circle word is they and they refers back to computers now I want you to notice it is very easy wherever the word it it referred to a computer and the word they it is in the plural it refers to the word computers in the last sentence a very easy hint for you where it is computer it is hit it it and where it is computers the word is they now you will do an exercise I shall read out three paragraphs after every paragraph you will draw a box round the word you will find in this paragraph in the paragraphs that I read there are there will be certain words that are circled you have to draw a box round the word that the circled words refer to do you understand in the paragraphs that I am going to read there will be certain words that are circled you have to draw a box round the word that the circled word refers to I shall read the first paragraph computers are electronic machines that process information they are capable of communicating with the user of doing different kinds of arithmetic operations and of making three kinds of decisions however they are incapable of thinking they accept data and instructions as input and after processing it they output the results now the words that have been circled over here in this paragraph are that they the beginning of the second sentence and then the word they in the third sentence and they in the last sentence there is another word it in the last sentence so total there are five words that are circled that they they it and they take a minute and think which words are being referred to computers are electronic machines that process information now the word that what does that refer to it refers to machines so you put a box make a little rectangle around the word machine now do you realize that the word that it is a connective it is you it is referring back to the word machine next and next word they they what is they refer to it is talking about computers and then in the third sentence they however they are incapable of thinking now here again the word they refers to computers and in the last sentence the word it what is it referring to they accept data instructions as input and after processing it that is input the word it is referring to the word input it is referring back to the word input and in the last word they it is computers all the words that were circled the days referred to the word computers now the second paragraph when talking about computers both hardware and software need to be considered the former refers to the actual machinery whereas the latter refers to the programs which control and coordinate the activities of the hardware while processing the data in this paragraph two words have been circled and the words are former and the word which now the word former what does former refer to you go back to the first sentence and it refers to the word hardware the word which what does the word which refer to it refers to the word programs paragraph three the first computer was built in 1930 but since then computer technology has evolved a great deal there are three kinds of computers in use today the main frame the mini computer and the micro computer these all have one thing in common they operate quickly and accurately in solving problems two words have been circled in this paragraph and those words are these and they the word these refers to this to the phrase in the second sentence the phrase the main frame the mini computer and the micro micro computer these all have one thing in common what does these refer to these is talking about the main frame the mini computer and the micro computer they operate quickly and accurately in solving problems what does they refer to again they refers to the same phrase the main frame the mini computer and the micro computer now we shall look at another exercise this is an exercise in which you have to choose the correct connectives a small word bank is given you there are five or six words in a box you have to choose one of those words you may repeat you will find that some of these words can be used more than once I shall read out the sentences and I shall give you some time to fill in the correct connective floppies are very cheap dash the gap you have to fill in this gap I shall use the word dash floppies are very cheap dash they are slow and have a limited capacity now out of those five or six words in the word bank you have to choose the right one which one which connective do you think would be suitable over here it is the word but because we are contrasting two things that floppies are very cheap but they are slow and have a limited capacity hard disks are fast and can store large amounts of data dash they are fixed inside the computer dash you cannot use them to transfer data what words would be suitable over here the words that would be suitable would be however and so hard disks are fast and can store large amounts of data however they are fixed inside the computer so so you cannot use them to transfer data you can transfer data with removable hard disks but they are expensive CD ROM disks can hold quite large amounts of data dash they are usually read only dash you cannot change the information on them CD ROM disks can hold quite large amounts of data however they are usually read only for this reason you cannot change the information on them in the last sentence magneto optical disks are like CD ROMs dash you can write data onto them magneto optical disks are like CD ROMs but you can write data onto them they are removable and have large capacities dash they are expensive and do not conform to a standard they are removable and have large capacities however they are expensive and do not conform to a standard dash they are not very common the suitable word would be therefore they are not very common magnetic tape is cheap and has a large capacity dash it does not allow random access and drives are slow dash it is only suitable for backups now the first dash I have already supplied you with the word the word is because because it does not allow a random access and drives are slow dash it is only suitable for backups the correct word would be therefore it is only suitable for backups now with that we come to the end of today's lesson in today's lesson we had practice in recognizing link words connectives references these were skills that you practiced for improving your reading speed and comprehension if you can do all this your reading speed will definitely increase so till next time Allah Hafiz