 Chapter 13 of The Famous Men of Rome This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recorded by Alec Datesman. Famous Men of Rome by John H. Haran and A. B. Poland. Chapter 13. Apias Claudius Caesus 1. Soon after the defeat of the Gauls, there lived in Rome a great man named Apius Claudius. He belonged to one of the highest families of the city. He was consul for two years and for several years he held the office of censor from 312 to 308 B.C. The censor was a very high and important officer. He was not only head of the department for taking the census, but he had charge of the collecting of the taxes, the erecting of public buildings, and the making of roads and streets. Apius Claudius was a great soldier. Every Roman citizen had to be a soldier and every man who was consul had to be able to lead armies and to fight and win battles. But Apius Claudius was chiefly famous for the great public works he planned and directed in Rome, which at that time was a city with a population of about 300,000. One of these works was an aqueduct which brought water to the city from a lake 8 miles distant. The Roman aqueducts were the best in the world. Some of them that were built over 2,000 years ago are still in use. But the greatest work of Apius Claudius was the making of a road from Rome to Capua, a distance of 120 miles. This road was called the Appian Way in honor of Apius. It was also called the Queen of Roads because it was so well built. Parts of it are still in existence. The Romans had good roads as well as good aqueducts. They were the best road builders in the world. While he was censor, Apius Claudius very much improved Rome. He was called the greatest of his countrymen in the works of peace. Even after he retired from office, he had great influence in public affairs. His advice was asked by both plebeians and nobles. Once during the first war which the Romans had with the Greeks, the advice of Apius was of great benefit to Rome. At that time there were many Greek settlements in the south of Italy. One of the Greek towns was called Tarantum. It was built close to the sea and had a very good harbor. Many of the people of this town were well educated. In those days the Greeks were mostly an educated people. They were fond of learning and of art. They called the Romans barbarians and were not friendly to them. Once when a Roman fleet entered the bay of Tarantum, the people of the town attacked it and after taking five of the ships put the cruise to death. Because of this outrage reached Rome, the Senate sent ambassadors to demand satisfaction. One of the ambassadors was a man named Lucius Postumius. When they arrived at Tarantum, they were met by a noisy crowd of people of the town who made fun of their dress. The Romans wore an outer dress called a toga. It was a large white woolen cloth in the shape of a half circle, four or five yards long and of nearly the same width. In putting on this garment, they doubled it lengthwise, then passed one end over the left shoulder and under the opposite arm and again over the left shoulder, the other end reaching nearly to the ground in front. The Tarantines laughed at the toga of the Roman ambassadors. They said it was a dress fit only for savages. In a short time, the ambassadors were taken to the public theater where the people had assembled to hear the message from Rome. Postumius spoke to them in Greek, but as this was not his own language, he pronounced many of the words in a peculiar way and the Tarantines laughed. The Roman went on, however, in a dignified manner and finished his speech as if he had not noticed the insult. Just then a Tarantine moved forward to the place where Postumius stood and threw some dirt on his white toga. The ambassador held up the soiled garment with his hand and said that Tarantum would be made to suffer for the outrage. Then the theater rang with laughter and offensive cries. Laugh on said Postumius. You may laugh now, but you shall weep hereafter. The stain on this toga shall be washed out in your blood. Then the ambassadors left the theater and at once set out for Rome. When they appeared before the Senate, Postumius showed the stain on his toga as proof of the insult offered to Rome by the Tarantines. The Senate at once declared war on Tarantum and sent a powerful army to attack it. 2. At this time the Tarantines had no general they thought would be able to fight the Romans, so they sent across the sea to a pyrus in Greece for the king of that country to come and help them. The name of this king was Pyrus. He was a great soldier and commander and was nearly always engaged in war. He consented to help the Tarantines and crossed over to Italy with a great army in which there was a number of fighting elephants. When Pyrus entered Tarantum, he made himself master of the city. The Tarantines were very fond of plays and amusements of all kinds. Pyrus closed the theaters, stopped all the amusements and made the people drill at soldiers all day long. As soon as he was ready to fight, he marched out with his army of Greeks and Tarantines against the Romans and there was a great battle near the city of Heraclea. Both sides fought well for hours but the Greeks at last began to fall back. They could not stand against the steady fierce attacks made by the Romans. Then Pyrus brought his elephants upon the field. He had 70 of them and they were thoroughly trained to fight. They would run into the ranks of the enemy, knock the soldiers down and trample them to death or lay hold of them with their trunks and throw them high into the air. As the elephants stood in line waiting for the order to charge, the Romans looked at them with wonder and fear. They knew nothing about elephants for they had never seen any before and when the huge beasts came charging furiously across the field making strange noises, many of the Roman soldiers were terribly frightened and began to run away. The elephants killed hundreds of them and in a few minutes the Roman army was put to flight. It was saved from entire destruction by only one thing. A Roman soldier was brave enough to rush at an elephant while it was charging and cut off a part of its trunk with his sword. The animal, wild with pain, turned and ran back to the Greek lines, trampling down the soldiers and causing a great deal of confusion. In the excitement the Romans managed to escape across the river to a friendly city where they were safe. Pyrrhus won the victory but he lost thousands of men. When he saw the great number of his soldiers that lay dead on the field, he exclaimed, a few more such victories and I must return to Epirus alone. 3. Shortly after the battle, Pyrrhus sent his friend and favorite minister, Cineus, to Rome to offer terms of peace to the Senate. Cineus was a very eloquent man. Often when Pyrrhus could not conquer people in battle, Cineus by his clever speeches induced them to submit to the king and be his friends. This was why the Greeks used to say, the tongue of Cineus wins more cities than the sword of Pyrrhus. Cineus proposed to the Roman Senate that the Romans should not make war any longer on the Tarantines, nor on any of the Italian tribes that had helped them and that all the lands Rome had taken from these tribes in past years should be given back. If the Romans would agree to these terms, then Pyrrhus would be their true friend. The terms were not so good for Rome but Cineus was so smooth-spoken and so pleasant in proposing them that many of the senators were inclined to accept them. One day while they were discussing the matter in the Senate, a thrilling scene occurred. Appius Claudius was still living in Rome. He was very old and had become blind. For this reason he got the name Casus, a word which is Latin for blind. But his mind was remarkably clear and he had not lost interest in public affairs. When he heard that the Senate was going to accept the terms offered by Pyrrhus, he rose from his bed declaring that he would go and speak against the proposal. So he was carried by his slaves to the Senate house and his sons led the aged man to his seat. He began his speech amidst the deepest silence. His youth seemed to come back to him. Once more he was the bold censor of thirty years before. In fiery words he spoke against the plan for peace, saying it would be base and cowardly to yield to the Greek king. Let us fight on, he said. As long as we have soldiers, shall we submit to this Greek invader merely because we have lost one battle? Never, never I say. Better to lose all that we have than to disgrace ourselves by submitting. The patriotic old man went on speaking in this way until his strength failed him and he sank exhausted into his seat. His speech had so much effect on the senators that they immediately voted against the proposal of Pyrrhus and ordered Cinius to depart from Rome. Then the war was carrying on vigorously. A great battle was fought at Ascolum and again the Romans were defeated by the Greeks, but they were not discouraged. The consul Curius Dintatus fought another battle against Pyrrhus at Beneventum and won a glorious victory. The Greeks were utterly defeated and Pyrrhus soon afterwards left Italy and returned to his own country. Then the Romans speedily took possession of Tarantum and made its people pay well for their insult to the Roman ambassadors. And of Chapter 13, recorded by Alec Datesman, Brooklyn, New York. Chapter 14 of Famous Men of Rome. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recorded by Alec Datesman. Famous Men of Rome by John H. Haran and A. B. Poland. Chapter 14 Regulus 1 The next great war the Romans engaged in was with Carthage. It was about the possession of the island of Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea. It began not long after Pyrrhus left Italy and was the first of three wars called the Punic Wars. Punic means Phoenician and the people who founded Carthage came from Phoenicia so Carthage was called a Punic or Phoenician colony. When the first Punic War began both Rome and Carthage were very rich and powerful. Rome had great armies and great generals. Its common soldiers too were remarkably brave and patriotic. It was very successful in its wars. Before it began to fight Carthage it had conquered nearly all Italy. Carthage also had fine armies but its greatest strength was in its navy. No other country in the world at that time had so many ships of war and trading ships. The ships of the Carthaginians went everywhere in the Mediterranean. Some of them even went past the pillars of Hercules as the rocky capes at the Strait of Gibraltar were then called and sailed for some distance on the Atlantic Ocean. The Carthaginian ships were small but they were very strong. The warships were built to carry a good many soldiers as well as sailors and oarsmen. They had great rounded iron prows which could do much damage to an enemy's ships when run up against them. Each ship had a mast and a large sail but it was also rowed with oars by many oarsmen who sat on long benches placed one above the other. With the sail and the oars the ship could be made to go very fast through the water. Carthage was in North Africa in the country now called Tunis. It stood at the head of a beautiful bay of the Mediterranean. It was a large and handsome city and had a great commerce. Many years before the beginning of the First Punic War Carthage conquered a great part of Sicily and made it a Carthaginian colony. But the Romans wanted the island and so under the pretense of protecting an Italian tribe that had settled there they sent an army into Sicily. This was how the First Punic War began. Both Rome and Carthage fought fiercely and for a long time neither had much advantage over the other. At first the Romans had no warships. Up to that time they did not need any for all their fighting was on land. But when they began war with the Carthaginians they found that they must have ships to carry their soldiers to Sicily and to fight the Carthaginians at sea. So the Romans set to work to build ships and to train men to row them and in a short time they had a great navy. In the ninth year of the war the armies and fleets of Rome were put under the command of a general named Marcus Attilius Regulus. He was a great hero and patriot. He had been a general before the Punic War and had often led the Romans to victory. After years of good service, fighting and winning battles for his country, he went to live on his little farm and, like Cincinnati's, he cultivated it with his own hands. A story is told of him well which illustrates ancient Roman honor and patriotism. Until Regulus took command, the Punic War was carried on only in Sicily and on the Mediterranean. But he thought that Rome should fight the Carthaginians in their own country and so he organized an immense army and navy to invade Carthage. He had 330 warships of the largest size and about 60,000 soldiers. In those times, in fights at sea, they had an engine called a boarding bridge. On one end it was fixed to the deck of the ship. The other end, which was free, could be swung round and onto an enemy's ship and it had a heavy iron spike underneath so that when it fell on the deck it would sink into it and thus hold the enemy's vessel for the attacking party to board it. When everything was ready, Regulus set sail for Africa. Soon after starting he met a large Carthaginian fleet and in a short battle he destroyed it. Then he sailed on and after landing in Africa began a march toward Carthage. On his way he captured several towns and he met and defeated a Carthaginian army. He then continued his march until he met another army of Carthaginians. This army was commanded by Xanthippus, a famous general of Sparta, in Greece who happened to be in Carthage at that time. In the battle that followed, the Romans were defeated and Regulus was made prisoner and taken off to Carthage. But the Romans had other generals and other armies and they carried on the war and defeated the Carthaginians in many battles. At last the Carthaginians thought it better to try to make peace and so they sent ambassadors to Rome to propose that the war should be stopped on certain terms which they were ready to offer. They sent Regulus with the ambassadors but they made him swear that he would return to Carthage if the Roman senate should refuse to agree to their terms. They thought that in order to gain his own freedom Regulus would try to get the senate to accept their proposals. Regulus agreed to go and made the promise required. I will give you my word of honor, said he, that I will return if your terms are not accepted. Then he set out for Rome with the ambassadors. As he approached the gates of the city thousands of people came forth to welcome him and to escort him through the streets but he refused to enter. I cannot enter Rome, said he. I am no longer a Roman officer but a prisoner of Carthage. Do not urge me to enter the gates. I am not even worth exchanging for a Carthaginian prisoner. The people however insisted that he should enter the city and so amid shouts and shears he was escorted to the senate house. In a little while the Carthaginian ambassadors presented their proposals and the senate began to consider them. After some discussion Regulus was asked to give his opinion whether the terms ought to be accepted or not. Regulus at first was unwilling to speak in the senate. He said that by becoming a prisoner he had lost the honor of being a senator. I am no longer a Roman senator, said he. I am a prisoner of Carthage. The senate however insisted that he should speak. Then Regulus said that the senate ought not to accept the terms of peace offered by Carthage. He thought that they were not good terms for Rome and he advised the senate not to agree to them. The senate was inclined to accept the terms for the sake of Regulus himself. If peace were not made he would have to go back and remain a prisoner in Carthage or perhaps he would be put to death. Therefore the senate was for agreeing to the Carthaginian terms but Regulus again spoke strongly against them and at last the senate decided to reject the Carthaginian proposals. Regulus now prepared to return to Carthage but his family and friends clung to him saying, You must not go! You must not go! To all their appeals he made but one answer. I have given my word of honor to return and I cannot break it. So Regulus returned to Carthage with the ambassadors. When the people of that city heard that by his advice their terms had been rejected they were very angry. They had wished very much to make peace with Rome or the long war had cost them a great many lives and a great deal of money and they wanted to stop it. Therefore they were enraged against Regulus and they put him to death in a very cruel way. The war between Rome and Carthage continued for some years more but at last the Carthaginians were defeated in a great sea battle near the coast of Sicily. They were then obliged to give up Sicily and pay a large sum of money to the Romans as a fine. This was the end of the first Punic war, 241 BC. End of Chapter 14, recorded by Alec Datesman, Brooklyn, New York. Chapter 15, Scipio, Africanus But peace did not last long between Rome and Carthage. Some years after the end of the first Punic war the Carthaginians attacked and took possession of a town in Spain the people of which were friends and allies of Rome. This caused the second Punic war which began in BC 218. One of the great soldiers of this war was Publius Cornelius Scipio. In the latter part of his life he was called Scipio Africanus on account of the great victories which he won in Africa. Scipio was a brave soldier from his youth. When only 17 years old he fought in a battle and saved his father's life. He was always gallant and heroic in war so he soon became noted in the Roman army and rose to high rank. And although he was a member of a noble family he was well liked by the plebeians and they elected him Ideal. The Ideals were magistrates or judges. There were also superintendents of public buildings and of games and shows of which the Roman people were so fond. When Scipio was about 27 years of age he was appointed to command the Roman army that was fighting the Carthaginians in Spain. Carthage had conquered some parts of Spain and Rome had conquered other parts and the two nations were often at war about places in that country. When Scipio went to Spain many of the people there were against him but they soon became his friends. Whenever he took a city he allowed the chiefs who were captured to go free. He gave presence to many of them. He always showed great respect to women and children who were taken prisoners. In those times it was the cruel custom to make slaves of women who were found in towns that had been taken in war but Scipio never did this in Spain. He always let the women go free. One day a beautiful Spanish girl who had been taken prisoner was brought before him. She seemed very much frightened but Scipio spoke kindly to her and told her that no one should harm her. While speaking with her he learned that a young man who was her lover had also been taken prisoner by the Roman soldiers. He sent for the young man and said to him, Take your sweet heart and go. I set you both free. Go and be happy. And in future be friends of Rome. And so by many acts of kindness Scipio gained the friendship of the Spaniards. After a while they began to join the Romans and gave them great help in their war against the Carthaginians. When his services were no longer needed in Spain Scipio returned to Rome. He got a great reception in the city. There was a grand parade in his honour. He brought home an immense quantity of silver which he obtained from the rich Spanish minds and from the cities he had taken. The silver was put into the Roman treasury to pay the expenses of the war. Soon after he returned from Spain Scipio was elected consul. The Carthaginian general Hannibal was then in Italy with a large army. This Hannibal was one of the greatest generals of ancient times. When he was but nine years old his father who was also a great general made him take an oath that he would hate Rome and the Romans forever. He took the boy with him to Spain and gave him a thorough training as a soldier. When his father died Hannibal became commander of the Carthaginian army in Spain. He was then little more than twenty-one years old. He fought well in Spain for some time and was well liked by his soldiers. Suddenly he resolved to make war in the Romans in their own country and go by land to Italy. So he got ready an immense army and set out on his march. In passing through France he had to cross the broad river Rhône. This was not easy to do for there was no bridge. He got his men over in boats but he had a number of elephants in his army and they were too big and heavy to be taken across in that way. The boats were small and the elephants were afraid to go into them. Hannibal therefore got rafts or floats made of trunks of trees tied together and in these the elephants were carried over. Crossing the Rhône Hannibal marched over the Alps into Italy. He and his army suffered many hardships in taking their way over those snow covered mountains. He had often to fight fierce tribes that came to oppose him but he defeated them all. And after being defeated many of them joined his army and brought him provisions for his soldiers. Very soon Roman armies were sent against Hannibal but he defeated them in many battles. Once his army got into a place near high hills where he could not march further except through one narrow pass between the hills. The Roman general Quintus Fabius sent 400 of his troops to take possession of this pass and he posted the rest of his army and the hills close by. Hannibal saw that he was in a trap but he found a way of escaping. He caused vine branches to be tied to horns of a large number of the oxen that were with his army. Then he ordered his men to set the branches on fire in the middle of the night and to drive the oxen up the hills. As soon as the animals felt the pain they rushed madly about and set fire to the shrubs and bushes they met on the way. The Romans at the pass thought that the Carthaginians were escaping by torchlight so they hastily quit their posts and hurried towards the hills to help their comrades. Then Hannibal seeing the pass free marched his army out and so escaped from the trap. Quintus Fabius was very slow and cautious in his movements. The Romans had been defeated so often that he thought the best plan was to harass Hannibal in every possible way, but not to venture to fight him in a great battle until he should be sure of winning. For this reason the Romans gave Fabius the name of contactor which means delayer and so the plan of extreme delay or caution in any undertaking is often called a Fabian policy. But in spite of the caution of Fabius Hannibal gained many great victories. His greatest victory was at the battle of Cannae in the south of Italy. Here he defeated and destroyed a Roman army of 7,000 men and for several years after this battle Hannibal remained in Italy doing the Romans all the harm he could. At last Scipio taught it was time to follow the plan of Rigolas so he set to the Senate. We have acted too long as if we were afraid of Hannibal and Carthage. We defend ourselves bravely when we are attacked and so far we have saved Rome from destruction but we do not make any attacks of our own. We certainly ought to do this for our armies are strong and fully ready to meet the Carthaginians. Scipio then proposed that an army led by himself should go to Africa and carry on war there. He believed that if this were done Hannibal would have to go to Africa to defend Carthage. Perhaps an account of what had happened to Rigolas the Senate did not like Scipio's plan. Nevertheless it gave him permission to go to Africa but would not give him an army. Scipio then raised a splendid army of volunteers and sailed across the Mediterranean Sea to Africa. Scipio tried for some time to obtain the aid of Syphax a powerful king of Numibia in Africa. But Syphax decided to join the Carthaginians so Scipio found two great armies ready to fight him. One was the army of Carthage with 33,000 men commanded by Hasdrubal Gisco and the other was the army of Numibia with 60,000 men commanded by King Syphax. But Scipio found in Africa one strong friend and that was a Numibian prince named Massinissa. This prince had a host of supporters among his countrymen and was therefore able to bring a large force of good soldiers to the aid of the Romans. He was of great service to Scipio in many ways. When everything was ready the Roman army with Massinissa's force encamped about six miles from the camps of the enemy. Scipio sent spies among the Carthaginians and the soldiers of King Syphax. From then he learned that both armies were lodged in huts made of stakes and covered with reeds and dried leaves. He resolved to set those huts on fire. So one very dark night the Roman army left its camp and marched silently to the plain occupied by the army. Then a division of the Romans went to the encampment of the Numimians and the soldier crept cautiously from the Roman lines and set one of the huts on fire. The fire spread rapidly and in a few minutes the whole camp was in flames. The Numibian soldiers suddenly awakened by the fire fled from the burning huts without their weapons and made frantic efforts to escape from the camp. Hundreds of them were knocked down and trampled to death in the rush and confusion. Hundreds more lost their lives in the fire. Those who got to the open country were attacked by the Romans and killed. The ground was covered with bodies of the slain. King Syphax and a few horsemen managed to escape but the rest of the vast Numibian army was destroyed. In the meantime the Carthaginians had been aroused by the noise in the camp of the Numibians. They thought that the fire had been caused by an accident and some of them ran forward to assist the Numibians but the greater numbers stood in a confused throng without their arms outside their camp looking at the fire with terror. While they were in this helpless state the Carthaginians were suddenly attacked by the Romans with Scipio at their lead. Many were killed and the others were driven back into their camp which was immediately set on fire in a number of places. Then there was a frightful scene. Thousands of Carthaginians struggling to escape the fire were slain by the Romans while thousands more perished in the flames. Hasdrubal Gisco the commander and some of his officers escaped but only a few of the others. In less than an hour there was little left of the Carthaginian army. Scipio now began to march towards the great rich city of Carthage. He captured a number of towns and a great deal of treasure. In a few weeks however the Carthaginians were able to form another army of 30,000 men and they came boldly forward to meet Scipio. A fierce battle followed. The Romans were driven back for a time but with wonderful courage they charged the Carthaginians again and again and at last totally defeated them. The Carthaginians now sent a message to Italy requesting Hannibal to come to the relief of his country. The renowned general did not want to leave Italy for he hoped to be able to take Rome but he thought it best to obey the call of Carthage so he sailed for Africa with his army. After arriving in Africa Hannibal led his army to a wide plain near Zama, a town not far from Carthage. Here he awaited the Romans. Hannibal had great admiration for Scipio and he desired to see him before engaging in battle so he sent a messenger to Scipio requesting an interview. The request was granted and the two generals met. They greeted each other cordially and each complimented the other on his victories and greatness as a soldier then Hannibal proposed terms of peace to Scipio. We will give Spain and the islands of Sicily and Sardinia to Rome then we will divide the sea with you. What more could you have? Rome and Carthage would then be the two great nations of the world. Scipio thought it was too late to take terms. We must fight it out he said, until one side or the other is vanquished. The generals then parted and the next day the two armies were drawn up in battle array. On each side there were about 30,000 men but Hannibal had a herd of fighting elephants. The battle was long and severe but armies fought heroically and there was terrible slaughter. But Hannibal's elephants were of little use to him as the Romans frightened them by throwing trumpets and hurling balls of fire at them. At a moment when the lines of the Carthaginians were breaking a strong force of Roman horsemen came up suddenly in the rear and overpowered all before it. This won the battle for the Romans. When Hannibal saw that the battle was lost he fled from the field with a few friends. Scipio was now master of Carthage. He compelled the Carthaginians to pay him a vast amount of gold and silver and to give up some of their towns and land. He also compelled them to destroy their great fleet of warships and to promise not to make war in future upon any people without the permission of the Romans. When Scipio returned to Rome he entered the city at the head of a grand procession. The greatest honors were paid to him and he was called Scipio Africanus. Some years afterwards Scipio met Hannibal at the court of the king of Syria. The two generals had a friendly conversation and Scipio asked Hannibal who he thought was the greatest general that ever lived. Hannibal answered. Alexander the Great. Who was the second asked Scipio? Pyrrhus replied Hannibal. Who the third? Myself answered Hannibal. But what would you have said if you had conquered me? I should then have said, replied Hannibal, that I was greater than Alexander, greater than Pyrrhus and greater than all other generals. End of Chapter 15 Chapter 16 of The Famous Men of Rome. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Chanel Jackson. Famous Men of Rome by John H. Haran and A. B. Poland. Chapter 16 Cato the Sensor. On a farm near Tuscalum, a little town about 15 miles from Rome, there once lived a boy named Marcus Porceus Cato. His father and his grandfather before him had been farmers and he too expected to be one. When he was about 17 Hannibal's army crossed the Alps into Italy and young Cato became a Roman soldier. When the war ended the country boy had become a man, stern and forceful. He attracted the attention of a neighbor, a rich man who persuaded him to go to Rome and practice law. In time he was elected to office and he did his duty so well that he rose higher and higher until he became one of the consuls. That same year a rebellion arose in Spain and Cato led an army against the Spaniards. It is said that in 400 days he captured 400 villages. On his return to Rome he was honored with a triumph. Shortly after this he was sent to Greece where Antiochus was attacking Greek cities that were friendly to Rome. He defeated Antiochus in the past of Thermopylae and won great fame as a soldier. Cato was a very hard man, hardened himself, hardened his friends and although he was rich and held office in a great city he lived a hard life, taking no pleasures and saving his money. He ate the plainest food and drank the same cheap wine that he bought for his slaves. He thought that the luxury and extravagance of the rich were taking away the strength of Rome. In order to put a stop to these things Cato asked the people of Rome to elect him censor. The patricians opposed him bitterly but he was elected by a large majority. One of the first things he did was to expel from the senate several senators who were leading improper lives. He had a heavy tax put on carriages so that as to compel people to walk he also placed a tax on jewels, handsome dresses, carpets and fine furniture. So well did he do his work that he is always known in history as Cato the censor just as if he were the only man who ever held the office. A statue erected in his honor says nothing about his victories in Spain or at Thermopylae but only that. When the Roman Republic was degenerating Cato restored it by strict discipline. In the later years of his life Cato was sent to Carthage to look into a certain matter for Rome. The trouble was this. You will remember that Carthage had agreed to make war upon no nation without the consent of the Roman senate. A few years later Massenissa who was a friend of Rome attacked the Carthaginians and they appealed to Rome for protection. This was refused and the people of Carthage took up arms to defend themselves against Massenissa. Cato was sent to Carthage to find out who was to blame. When he arrived in the city he was surprised to find it large and strong and flourishing. Only 26 years had passed since Scipio Africanus had conquered Carthage and yet Cato saw crowds of men on the streets. Stack of arms in the arsenals and a forest of mass in the harbor the city itself was rich and prosperous. Cato returned to Rome and warned his countrymen that Carthage must be destroyed. From that time forward whenever he made a speech in the senate no matter upon what subject he always entered it by saying. And my opinion is that Carthage must be destroyed. In time the words of Cato had their effect and war was declared against Carthage. The troops had already embarked when envoys from Carthage reached Rome and offered to do whatever might be asked. The Roman senate promised that the laws and liberties of Carthage should not be touched but demanded hostages. So 300 children of the leading families of Carthage were sent to Rome. When the Roman army reached Carthage the consuls insisted that the Carthaginians should give up their arms. This was done and the Carthaginians asked if the Romans required anything more. Then one of the consuls said your city must be destroyed and you must move 10 miles inland from the sea. The Carthaginians now saw that they had been deceived. They closed their gates and determined to defend themselves to the last. They asked an armitus of 30 days so that an embassy might go to Rome. It was granted and thus a month of time was gained. During this time men women and children went to work to make arms to defend their homes. The women even cut their hair to furnish strings for the bows of the war machines with which stones were hurled at the enemy. The embassy failed in its mission to Rome and the siege of Carthage began. It lasted three years. The son of Paulus, Amilius, had been adopted by the son of Scipio Africanus and had taken the name Scipio. He was sent to Carthage and about a year after his arrival forced an entrance into the city and captured it. The walls were torn down and the buildings set on fire. Cato, who was so largely responsible for the war, did not live to see its end. He died almost two years before the city was destroyed. The Senate honored Scipio with the title Africanus, which the older conqueror of Carthage had borne. The young Scipio won fame not only in Africa but also in Spain where he was sent against the new mansions. These brave people had defeated two Roman armies but Scipio soon succeeded in shutting them within the walls of New Mancha. Around its walls he built walls of his own behind which his soldiers were safe from attack. Food soon became scarce in New Mancha. At the end of fifteen months the citizens were starving. They were willing to lose their lives but Scipio stayed behind his own walls and refused to fight rather than trust the mercy of Rome the new mansions killed themselves. In time all Spain was forced to submit and became a Roman province. End of Chapter 16 Cato the Sensor Chapter 17 of The Famous Men of Rome This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org Recording by Chanel Jackson Famous Men of Rome by John H. Haran and A. B. Poland Chapter 17 The Gratchy Between the Second and Third Punic Wars there lived in Rome two brothers named Tiberius and Chius Gratchus, commonly known as the Gratchy. They were very good men and great friends with the common people. The mother of the Gratchy was Cornelia, a daughter of Scipio Africanus. She was an excellent woman and she was very proud of her two sons. She taught them to be brave and manly and always to stand up for the people. One day a rich lady, while on a visit to Cornelia, showed her some magnificent jewels. When they had looked them over the lady said, These jewels are my jewels. Now let me see yours. Just at that moment Tiberius and Chius, who were then boys, came into the room. As soon as she saw them Cornelia called them to her and putting her arms around them said, These jewels are my jewels. When Tiberius and Chius grew up to be men, they took the side of the people in a quarrel that had been going on for a long time between the plebeians and the nobles. The quarrel was about land. Whenever the Romans conquered a country in war, they took possession of a portion of the land of the conquered country. Such land was called public land and for many years after the fumbling of the city, the custom of dividing parts of the public lands among all the citizens was strictly observed. But in later times this custom was changed. Instead of part of the public land being divided among all the citizens, it was divided among only the nobles and the plebeians got none at all. The lands were tilled by slaves and all that was raised went to the nobles. So the poor soldiers who won the lands by hard fighting were without farms to till and some of them even without homes. They continually demanded that the old law for a fair division of lands among all the citizens should be carried out. The nobles laughed at the demand. But Tiberius Grachus came forward boldly as the champion of the poor. He declared that the nobles should give up the land they had unjustly taken and that the people should have their fair share. His words made the nobles very angry and they became his bitter enemies. But the people honored Tiberius and made him one of their tribunes. The tribunes were supposed to look after the people's interests but sometimes they were not faithful to their duty. As we have already said they had a great deal of power. They could sit at the door of the Roman senate and when a law was proposed that they did not like they could say we veto it and then the law could not be passed. Whenever the tribunes wanted a law passed they proposed it at the meeting of all the people in what was called the assembly of tribes. The common people had a great deal of power in this assembly and any law proposed by the tribune was generally passed. Then the tribunes had the power to compel the consuls to carry out the law. Not long after Tiberius Grachus became tribune he proposed a law that each noble might have 500 acres of the public land for his own use and 250 more for each son and that the remainder of the lands should be equally divided among the poor citizens. This law was passed and then the nobles had to give up a large part of the lands they had seized so the poor citizens got good farms. About this time at Talas the king of Pargamus a country of Asia died leaving all his money to the Romans. The nobles tried to get this money for themselves but Tiberius had it divided among the poor citizens. Of course this made the nobles still more angry with Tiberius and they resolved to get rid of him if they could. So on election day when the people were voting to make Tiberius tribune for a second term some nobles went to the voting place and raised the disturbance but the friends of Tiberius drove them away. Then the nobles started to report that Tiberius was trying to induce the people to make him king. Afterwards they gathered their friends and slaves and began fighting with the people. No arms were used but stones were thrown and sticks broken benches and other things hastily caught up served as weapons. There was a dreadful tumult for a while and many persons were killed. Tiberius was in the midst of his friends bravely defending himself against an attack by a party of nobles when suddenly he stumbled and fell to the ground. In a moment the nobles rushed upon him one of them struck him on the head with a piece of wood and killed him. Then they took his body and threw it into the Tiber. Tiberius was now out of the way and the nobles began to seize the lands that had been divided among the people. But Caius Gratchis suddenly appeared in Rome and declared that he had come to take his brother's place as the friend of the people. He had been with the Roman army in Spain when Tiberius was killed. The people now elected him tribune and he began to carry out his brother's plans. For this reason the nobles hated him as much as they had hated his brother. They said that he was a dangerous man and was planning to make himself king. One day as he was passing through the forum a strange man said to him, I hope you will spare the Republic. The friends of Caius were angry at these words and they fell on the man and killed him. The nobles and their followers then armed themselves. The plebeians also gathered in great numbers ready for a fight. Caius was asked to lead them but refused. He did not want them to fight with the nobles. He knew that the nobles would be satisfied with his own death so he ordered a slave to stab him to the heart. The order was obeyed and thus perished the last of the Gratchi. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by James Christopher. Famous Men of Rome by John H. Herron and A. B. Poland Chapter 18. Marius. 1. At the time of the death of Gaius Gracchus there was in Rome a great man named Gaius Marius. This man came forward and said to the people that if they would elect him Tribune he would get them their rights. The people elected him Tribune and, true to his word, he did everything he could to improve their condition. He was afterwards elected consul seven times and for a long while he was the greatest man in Rome. Marius was a tall and very powerful man and had a strong will. When he said he would do anything he would do it in spite of all difficulties. He was a very great soldier. Many people thought him the best of the Roman generals. He succeeded in a war against Jagertha, king of Numidia, after other generals had failed. He took many cities from Jagertha and at last captured the king himself and all his treasure. Jagertha was brought to Rome and compelled to walk behind the chariot of Marius and a grand triumphal procession. He was afterwards put into a foul dungeon and left there to die. The nobles did not like Marius. He was the son of plebeian parents and he had taken the side of the plebeians against the nobles. Therefore the nobles hated him and they would have done everything they could against him only that they needed his help to protect Rome from very dangerous enemies. A host of barbarian people called Cymbry, Tutones and Ambrones had left their homes on the shores of the Baltic Sea and invaded the southern lands. They were strong fierce men and they laid waste every country they passed through. They defeated several Roman armies that were sent against them. Some of the tribes of Alvedia, the country now called Switzerland, joined them and one of those tribes defeated and killed a Roman council and made his army pass under the yoke. The Romans were therefore very much frightened. They thought that the barbarians would soon be in Italy so Marius was appointed to go against them with a great army. He was a Mediterranean integral and met the Tutones and Ambrones near the city of Arles on the river Rhone. The Cymbry had already gone to Italy. Marius first made a strong and trench camp. He wanted to give his men time to get accustomed to the manners of the strange enemy before attempting to fight them. The Roman soldiers had shown fear at the sight of the barbarians. They had never before seen such people. The Tutones were like giants. They had large, wild, staring eyes and long hair and they made terrible war cries. The Ambrones in the Cymbry were as savage in appearance. The king of the Tutones was very tall and so active that he could leap over six horses placed abreast. When the barbarians saw that the Romans would not fight they began to taunt and insult them. They walked up and down in front of the Roman camp day after day calling the soldiers cowards. Why won't you come out and fight us like men they cried? Are you afraid? Come out. Come out. We are in a hurry. We are going to Rome after we kill you. Marius had hard work to keep his men from rushing out upon the barbarians. He did not yet want to fight, but he said to his soldiers, when the proper time comes we will give these savages all the fighting they want. One day a gigantic Tuton chief with a long shield and spear came up to the very entrance of the Roman camp and called loudly from Marius himself to come out and fight. The great general laughed heartily at the impudence of the barbarians and he sent out a gladiator to fight with him in order to give sport to the Romans. Gladiators were men who fought one another in the shows at Rome for the amusement of the people. They were usually slaves and were very strong, active and well-trained fighters. It did not take the gladiator long to defeat the Tuton. In a few minutes he laid the savage giant low and the Romans shouted with joy at the site. After the Tuton was killed the Romans still remained in their camp. Marius was not yet prepared to fight. At last the barbarians got tired waiting and they started off to march to Italy. Two. So great was the number of the barbarians that it took them six whole days to march past the Roman camp. When all had passed Marius left his camp and followed them by slow marches. Before long the two armies arrived at the city of Axe on the south coast of Gaul. Marius thought it was now time to fight so he let out his fine army against the enemy. The first battle was fought with the Ambronis. They astonished the Romans with their war cry. They held their shields upright and at a little distance from their mouths and shouted, Ambronis, Ambronis, as if to terrify the Romans by letting them know who they were. Then they rushed furiously across the field. The Romans met the charge with wonderful courage. Their lines were scarcely broken. Three times they drove back the enemy and then they themselves moved steadily forward with their whole force. They cut down the Ambronis by thousands, took many prisoners and sent the others fleeing away in terror. Next day there was another battle. The two tones and Ambronis together attacked the Romans but the Romans were again victorious. When the battle was over it was found that more than a hundred thousand barbarians had been killed or taken prisoners. Marius now turned his attention to the Simbri who had gone to Italy. They had encamped on a beautiful fertile plain near the river Poe and were enjoying the warm Italian sun and the sweet fruits of the country. But Marius was not very long in reaching the same place with his victorious army. When the Simbri saw the Romans marching on to the plain where they were encamped they were astonished. To gain time they sent a messenger to Marius to ask him to give them lands to live on in Italy. Give us, said the messenger, lands in Italy for ourselves and for our friends, the two tones and Ambronis, and we will all live in peace. Never mind the two tones and Ambronis, said Marius. They have lands already. We have given them some which they will keep forever. We will give you the same. Then a battle began between the two great armies. The foot soldiers of the Simbri were formed into an immense square and the men in the front ranks were chained to one another by iron chains so that they could not run away. There were fifteen thousand horsemen wearing on their helmets the heads of wild beasts. The battle was a hard one for a while but it did not continue long. Time after time the Simbri were driven back and at last they were put to flight. Thousands of them were killed and thousands made prisoners. When Marius and his soldiers returned to Rome they got a splendid reception. There was a parade through the streets and a great feast was given to the people. A large sum of money was divided among the soldiers to reward them for their brave conduct. Marius was now in high favor at Rome. The nobles did not dare to speak a word against him. He was elected consul seven times so that he was master of the Republic for a long time. In the sixth year that Marius was consul the war called the Social War broke out. It lasted for three years. It was a war with some of the nations of Italy which Rome had formerly conquered. The people of those nations did not want to separate from Rome but they wanted to have the right of voting as the Romans themselves had. Rome refused to give them this right and at last they resolved to go to war. All the greatest Roman generals of the time took part in this war. One of them was a young noble named Sulla. He was a very successful soldier and won a number of great victories. The nations were defeated in the war but Rome soon granted them most of the rights they had asked for. The nobles gave great praise to Sulla for his victories in the Social War. They declared that he was a better general than Marius. So many fine things were said about the young noble that Marius became jealous and did a very foolish thing. He suddenly left his army in the field and came back to Rome. He complained that he was nervous and he shut himself up in his house and refused to see any of his friends for weeks. The nobles then started a story that Marius was getting silly and weak-minded from old age. He was about 70 at this time and the nobles said he ought to retire from the army. This made the old hero angry and he declared that he was as strong in mind and body as any of the young Romans. One morning he went to the place where the young men of Rome used to practice athletic sports and for two or three hours he wrestled and ran and leaped with as much skill and strength as anyone. Some of the nobles who happened to pass by saw him and were very much amused. About this time Sulla was elected consul on account of his victories in the Social War. Shortly afterwards Rome declared war on Mithridates king of Pontus in Asia Minor who had cruelly put to death a number of the citizens of a Roman province in Asia. The Senate appointed Sulla to command the Roman army in this war but as soon as he left Rome with his army one of the tribunes proposed at an assembly of the people that the command should be taken from him and given to Marius. The assembly agreed to this and Marius accepted the appointment. He sent word to the army which was not far from Rome that he would come in a short time to take command. When Sulla heard this he became very angry. He called his soldiers around him, told them what had been done and asked them if they would submit to be the slaves of Marius and his party. No, no cried the soldiers. We will not submit. We want you for our general. Then follow me to Rome said Sulla. We will teach Marius and his friends that they must not insult us. So the soldiers marched quickly back to Rome with Sulla at their head. They declared that they would take the city out of the hands of rebels as they called the friends of Marius. When they entered the city they were met by Marius and his followers and there was a battle in which Marius was defeated. Then a law was passed declaring Marius a traitor and that he should be put to death. But Marius fled from Rome with some friends and went down the Tiber in a boat to the Mediterranean. He sailed along the coast and then he and his companions went ashore to seek for food. They wandered through the country for some time without seeing anyone. At last they met a farmer who gave them something to eat. He told them that horsemen from Rome were riding through the place searching for Marius. They were frightened at this and they ran into a thick wood where they stopped all night. But while his companions were downcast Marius was cheerful and hopeful. This bad state of things he said will only last a short time. I know it because the gods have revealed to me that I shall be once more council of Rome. But next day Marius was taken by the horsemen. He saw them coming and waited far into a great march and hid himself among some high, thick reeds. The horsemen rode into the march and found him and they put a rope around his neck and dragged him to the shore. Then they shut him up in a hut and began to think what they should do with him. At last they decided to put him to death at once. They thought this would please Sulla and that perhaps he would reward them for it. So they gave a sword to a slave and sent him in to kill Marius. The slave entered the hut and stood for a few moments looking at the great general. Marius glared at him like a wild beast and said in a stern voice, Slave, will you dare to kill Gaius Marius? The slave stared back in terror and ran out of the hut. Then he threw down his sword at the feet of the soldiers and cried out that he could never have the courage to slay Marius. It was now decided to send Marius out of the country. So he was taken to a ship and carried to Africa. After going ashore he wandered through the country until he came to the place where Carthage once stood. Nothing now remained of the famous city but a massive gloomy ruins for the Romans had entirely destroyed it a few years before in the Third Punic War. In these ruins Marius lived for a short time. One day a soldier came to tell him that the governor of Africa wanted him to leave the country. Go to your governor, answered Marius, and tell him that you saw Gaius Marius sitting on the ruins of Carthage. Not long afterwards when Sulla was away fighting King Mithredates there was great trouble at Rome. One of the councils named Sina, aided by many of the plebeians, attempted to get the control of public affairs but was defeated by the nobles. Then Sina and his followers were forced to leave the city. They organized an army among the Italians who had been complaining of not getting their rights from Rome. And they sent to Africa for Marius to come and be their commander. When Marius arrived he made an attack on Rome and soon captured it. Then he marched in through the gates at the head of his army and took possession of the city. At the next election the people elected him council. Marius now resolved to have vengeance on the nobles who had driven him from Rome. And for several days the old Roman surrounded by a guard of freed slaves went through the city seeking the nobles in their houses, in the temples, in the forum, and everywhere that they could be found and killing them without mercy. These were dreadful days. Some of the noblest men of Rome were put to death. None of Sulla's friends was spared. Even his wife and children were harshly treated and forced to leave the city. Marius did not stop the bloody work until he had killed all his enemies that he could find. But his triumph was short. He died in a little more than two weeks after he had become council for the seventh time. End of Chapter 18 We have had something to say of Sulla but there is much more to be told about him for he was a very remarkable man and he did remarkable things in Rome. His full name was Lucius Cornelius Sulla. He belonged to a very noble family. When he was a young man he was very fond of study and became an excellent scholar. He was also a good speaker and often made eloquent speeches in the forum on public affairs. He was a large strong man with red hair and a ruddy face. He was a very great soldier and one of the greatest of Roman generals. They called him the lion. He was so brave in battle. And he was so successful in war that he also got the name of Felix, a Latin word which means happy or fortunate. One of the greatest wars that Sulla was in was a war against the Greeks. Rome had conquered Greece some time before and the governors of many of the Greek cities were Romans. These governors were very cruel to the Greeks. Therefore the people hated them. Methodetes king of Pontus knew this and he offered to send armies to Greece to help to drive the Romans out of the country. The Greeks were very glad of this and they prepared for war against the Romans. Sulla arrived in Greece with a strong army and began a march through the country. He captured several of the cities and compelled them to submit to the Roman governors. Then he marched on to Athens, the capital city of Greece. But he found that it was occupied by Archaeolus, one of the generals of King Methodetes who had brought from Asia Minor an army to help the Greeks. Athens at this time was one of the most strongly fortified cities in the world. Its walls were 70 feet high and they were made of huge, thick blocks of hard, smooth stone. It took thousands of men many years to build these massive walls. The city was also well supplied with food so that it could hold out against a siege for a long time. For several weeks Sulla attacked Athens furiously day by day but it was all in vain. He could not take the city. His soldiers tried many times to mount the high walls but they could not do it. At last Sulla had battering rams made. These were engines for breaking down the walls of towns. They were long, heavy beams of wood with iron at one end formed like the head of a ram. This was why they were called battering rams. At first they were worked by men with their hands and bodily strength. In later times they were hung from a cross beam so as to swing back and forward and the iron end was made to strike against the wall with great force. When a number of battering rams were ready Sulla began another attack on Athens. But at dead of night a party of Athenians came out of the city and burned all the battering rams. Sulla quickly had new ones made and after months of hard labor the Romans at last succeeded in breaking down the walls and taking Athens. They plundered the beautiful city and destroyed many fine works of art. It is said that they carried off more than 600 pounds of gold and silver. Sulla remained in Athens only long enough to establish Roman authority there once more. Then he departed with his army and marched to Caronia another town of Greece where there was a force of 120,000 men which King Mithridates had sent to help the Greeks. The Romans numbered only about 40,000 men but Sulla was not afraid to fight the immense army of Mithridates. By placing his troops in good positions at the beginning of the battle and afterwards by moving them skillfully from one point to another he was able to win a great victory. This was a remarkable battle in one respect although there were furious charges in hand-to-hand combats in which thousands upon thousands of the soldiers of Mithridates were slain the Romans lost only a few men. We are told that when the roll call of the Roman army took place after the battle only 12 men failed to answer to their names. The army of Mithridates had lost 110,000 men, the Romans, only 12 men. But perhaps we ought not to believe that so very few Romans were killed for it seems hardly possible that it could have been so. It is certain, however, that Sulla gained a great victory. He also defeated another army sent by Mithridates soon afterwards. Then Archaeolus, the general of the army of Mithridates, begged for peace. Sulla made terms that were very good for Rome and Archaeolus and Mithridates had to accept them. Mithridates had to give the Romans a large sum of money and seventy ships of war and to promise to be the friend of Rome in future. Thus the war with Greece ended. Three. Sulla now prepared to return to Italy. He had heard how his friends in Rome and his wife and children had been treated by Marius. He was greatly enraged and in his letter to the Senate telling them of his victories in Greece he said, In return for my services which have brought honour and glory to Rome my wife and children have been driven from their home, my house has been burned and my friends have been put to death. I am now going back to punish those who did these things. When the letter was read to the Senators they were very much alarmed for they knew that if Sulla did as he threatened it would cause a dreadful civil war in Rome. In reply to Sulla they begged him not to make war on his own countrymen and they promised to do their best to bring about a friendly understanding between him and the followers of Marius. Sulla answered that he did not want any understanding with them. I want no friendship with my enemies, he said. I am able to take care of myself. It will be well for them if they can take care of themselves. Soon afterwards he set out for Italy with his army. Rome was then under the power of the Marian Party. This party was led by Senna and by Marius the Younger, the son of the Great Marius. When they heard that Sulla was coming they raised an army and went forth to drive him back. Young Marius said, Now it will be decided who shall be the master of Rome. A battle was fought between the two armies. It was long and severe and for a time it seemed as if the Marians would win. Even Sulla himself had no hope of victory. But soon very bad blunders made by the Marians turned the tide of battle in his favor and he was victorious. He took 6,000 prisoners. Four. Sulla now entered Rome as its master and a cruel master he proved to be. He first got himself appointed dictator for as long a time as he wished to hold the office. Then he commanded that all the followers of Marius should be slain. So they were hunted out of their hiding places and all put to death without mercy. When every person that was known to have been connected with the Marian party was killed the people thought Sulla would cease his murderous work. But he did not. He went on killing this one and that one, now a poor man and then a rich man. Until at last the Romans became dreadfully frightened. When will he stop, they said to one another in trembling tones. One day a senator had the courage to ask Sulla if he would please to say whom he intended to spare from death. Sulla coolly answered, I have not yet made up my mind. But if it is the wish of the Senate I will shortly make out a list of persons who must die. And Sulla really did make out a list of persons he intended to kill. It was called the prescription list and was hung up in the forum. Oh how anxiously the poor, terror-stricken Romans went to that list to read the names. And if a man saw that his name was not there he went away with joy in his heart. But if his name was there he covered his face with his toga and ran off to hide himself. The next day another and longer list of prescribed persons was hung up. And the day after, still another list. Anyone who killed a prescribed person got a large reward in money. But if anybody helped a prescribed person to escape he was punished by death. This dreadful work was continued until many thousands of people in Rome and throughout Italy were slain. Then Sulla had his triumph in the streets of Rome. It was the most magnificent procession that had yet been seen in the city. There were hundreds of beautiful horses drawing bright golden chariots. There were long lines of soldiers in glittering armor. There were numbers of slaves. And there were huge wagons containing gold and silver and other precious things, which Sulla had got in Greece after his victories over Mithridates. The dictator himself rode in the most splendid chariot of all. He seemed like a king and indeed was a king in power, though not in name. This was what was called a triumph. Sulla, for his own protection, had a bodyguard formed of slaves who had belonged to the people he had prescribed and put to death. This bodyguard is said to have numbered ten thousand men. And they were called Cornelie after Sulla's family name. Under the rule of Sulla his own will was law. He could do whatever he pleased. But he did not remain dictator a long time. And about a year after his triumph he seemed to have gotten tired of ruling and resigned the office. Then he left Rome and went to reside in his country house on the beautiful bay of Naples. Here he spent the rest of his life passing his time partly in feasting and merriment and partly in study. He died 78 B.C. End of Chapter 19 Chapter 20 of the Famous Men of Rome This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by James Christopher Famous Men of Rome by John H. Herron and A.B. Poland Chapter 20 Pompey the Great 1. Not long after the death of Sulla a new enemy to Rome appeared upon the Mediterranean Sea. A large number of people who lived on the coast of Asia Minor built an armed fleet of ships, sailed along the shores of Italy and attacked and plundered Roman vessels. The Sea Rovers, or Pirates as the Romans called them, had more than a thousand well-built, fast-sailing ships. Many of them were adorned with richly-guilded bowels and sterns, purple sails, and silver-mounted oars. They seized trading vessels, robbed them, and killed every person on board. Often, too, the pirates committed robberies on land. A boat crewed from a pirate ship would go ashore, put to death all the farmers in the neighborhood, and take away to their farms. So, in a short time, the pirates made themselves masters of the Italian coasts and kept the people in constant excitement and terror. But at last the Romans resolved to make war upon the robbers and selected a very popular young man named Nius Pompey to be the general. The people had great confidence in Pompey. They said that he was the only one who could put down the Mediterranean pirates and demanded that he should be sent to do the work. Pompey was a fine-looking man with very pleasant manners. He had made himself famous as a soldier by brave deeds in wars in Spain and Africa and was generally called Pompey the Great. His father had been a great commander and the boy had lived in camps and taken part in wars almost from childhood. He had had many adventures during his army life and had always shown the qualities of a hero. He fought on the side of Sulla in many battles against the Marians and he was thought to be one of Sulla's greatest generals. The Roman Senate, therefore, yielded to the demand of the people and appointed Pompey to go forth against the pirates. He accepted the command and promptly set to work to carry out the important undertaking. He gathered 14 powerful fleets. He kept one of them for himself and put the others under the command of good officers. Then he divided the Mediterranean into 13 districts and sent a fleet to each district to hunt the pirates. With his own fleet he sailed as far as the Strait of Gibraltar and then turned back towards Italy. On the way he chased the pirate vessels before him as he met them until they were stopped and seized by some of the 13 fleets stationed here and there all over the Mediterranean. The pirates were thus caught in a trap. Thousands of them were killed in battles with the different fleets and their vessels were burned. The remainder soon surrendered to the Romans and in three months the sea was cleared of pirates. Pompey was much praised for this great work and the people said he was just the man to take charge of the war against Mithridates. This king had again attacked a Roman province in Asia and the Romans resolved to punish him. But Mithridates was a very powerful man. He had great armies. He was a skillful general and he defeated the Romans in many battles. The Roman people, therefore, resolved to send Pompey against him. Pompey was much pleased to be placed in command of a great army and he proudly started off with his soldiers for the eastern lands. Two, Pompey remained in Asia several years and won many great victories. He conquered a number of countries and put Roman governors over them. Then he came back to Rome bringing kings and princes as prisoners and an enormous amount of gold and silver and other valuable things to enrich the republic and himself. He was welcomed in a magnificent manner and he had a triumph such as was given to great and victorious generals. But Pompey now began to think of making himself master of Rome during his lifetime. He had greatly pleased the people by his victories in war and they were praising him on every side. How to keep their favor and buy it to get power was now what occupied his mind. He had been consul before but he was now elected again and then he set about providing various sorts of amusements for the people. He believed that if the people were amused they would be less likely to object to his taking the powers of the government entirely into his own hands. He built a theater large enough to seat 40,000 persons. This was the first great theater erected in Rome. It was of stone and very strongly made. It had no roof and the rows of seats rose one above another in a half circle. At one end there was an immense stage on which all the performances took place. In this grand theater Pompey gave some very wonderful exhibitions from time to time. He had lions, elephants and other wild animals brought from Asia and Africa at great expense. These animals were let loose upon the stage and gladiators fought them in full view of the people in the theater. There were also thrilling combats in the theaters between the gladiators themselves. They fought each other savagely until one was wounded and fell upon the stage. Then the victor would turn towards the audience to find whether they wished him to kill the wounded man. If the people wanted this they would stretch out their hands with the thumbs down. If they did not want him killed they would hold their thumbs upward. If he had shown skill and courage and fought well they would give the sign to let him live. But if he had not made a brave fight they would turn down their thumbs and the unfortunate man would be instantly killed. Slaves and prisoners taken in war were taught to be gladiators in schools established for the purpose. There were hundreds of these trained fighters always ready for the combats. The Romans were very fond of such amusements and great crowds of men and women too attended the theater whenever there was a fight of gladiators. By giving the people a great deal of amusement of this kind on a grand scale Pompeii became the great popular favorite in Rome and while the people were entertained at his theater he managed the government to suit himself. 3. At this time the Romans ruled a vast territory which included not only all Italy but Greece, Spain, Syria, Egypt, Turkey, Switzerland and parts of France and Germany. Country after country had been conquered during a long series of years and millions of people of different races and languages were subjects of Rome. Rome itself was a city with a population of about half a million. It covered a very large area including the famous Seven Hills. Its streets were narrow and crooked but well paved and clean and the center of the city were a number of large squares in which there were handsome buildings. There were magnificent temples and baths and the houses of the nobles and wealthy plebeians were very large and splendid. Many of the fine houses were built of marble with great pillars in front elegant furniture and handsome carpets and rugs filled the rooms. There were many rich men in Rome at this time. Most of them had obtained the greater part of their wealth by plundering the conquered countries. They lived in a very magnificent manner, gave splendid dinners and entertainments and had hundreds of slaves to attend upon them. The slaves were a large class who were brought to Rome from many nations conquered in war. Many of them belonged to high families in their own country and were well educated. Some of them were physicians and others were good scholars and could read and write for their masters. The best cooks, builders tailors and farmers were slaves. In fact, it was by slaves that nearly all the skilled work in Rome was done. There were markets in Rome where slaves were sold. The slaves to be sold were placed on a platform. Labels hung from their necks showing their age and what they were able to do. The Roman children were taught to read and write Latin, which was their own language. They were also taught arithmetic and history. Most of the teachers were well educated slaves. Rome then was very rich and very powerful in the time of Pompey and for many years Pompey was very popular. At one time he became dangerously ill while visiting Naples. Then the people showed their great love for him in many ways and when he recovered there were public thanksgivings throughout Italy. On his journey home great crowds came out to greet him as he passed through the towns and when he arrived at Rome he was received with unbounded joy. A very strong hold on the affections of the people. So he cared little for the efforts made by a very ambitious Roman named Julius Caesar to win public favor. But Caesar was a man of strong will and great energy. He had resolved to be the ruler of Rome and he spared no labor to accomplish his purpose. Pompey at last became alarmed at Caesar's efforts but it was then too late. He was defeated by Caesar in a great battle and soon after lost his life. How these things came about we shall learn in the next story. End of Chapter 20 Chapter 21 of the Famous Men of Rome This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org Recording by James Christopher Famous Men of Rome by John A. Herron and A. B. Poland Chapter 21 Julius Caesar One Of all the Roman heroes the greatest was Gaius Julius Caesar. He was a very remarkable man in many ways. He was remarkable as a soldier statesman, scholar and as an order. He wrote a history of his own wars which is one of the best ancient histories that have come down to us. It is called Caesar's Commentaries and it is used as a textbook where Latin is taught. This famous Roman was tall, handsome, agreeable in his manners and of a gay disposition. He liked songs and stories and even when he was a great general he often was as merry and frolicsome as a boy. Sometimes however he was stern and cruel instead of kind and forgiving. Caesar was a member of the Julian family which was one of the first families in Rome. Four Caesars of this family had been consuls of Rome in one century. The aunt of Julius Caesar was the wife of the great leader Marius. Naturally, Caesar was Caesar's bitter enemy and did all he could against him. In that young man there is many a Marius, Sula is reported to have said. However, by keeping out of Rome Caesar was able to escape the traps laid for him at Sula's orders. As soon as Sula died Caesar returned to Rome. Although he was a rich noble he became a friend of the plebeians who supported their cause. He spoke a great deal in the forum upon political questions and the people looked upon him as their champion. They elected him to several public offices one after the other and thus his influence and power were much increased. At last he was appointed Governor of Spain which was then ruled by the Romans. On his way to Spain he stopped for a night at a little village among the mountains. One of his companions remarked the people had their contests and their jealousies as well as people in large cities. For as this village is I would rather be first here than second in Rome," said Caesar. Caesar was very successful in Spain and the Romans were so pleased with his conduct that when he came home they made him consul. During his consulship he had many good laws passed when about forty years old he was given command of an army and for some years followed the life of a wonderful success. The Roman armies were formed of regiments called legions. Each legion contained over three thousand men who were sometimes called legionaries. The weapons of the legionary were a short sword and a long spear called a pylum. Besides spears and swords the Roman soldiers used slings for hurling stones against the enemy. They also had a machine called a balista for throwing stones too heavy for hand slings. The military standard of the Romans was a figure of an eagle born on the top of a pole. Each legion had one of these and the soldier who carried it was called the eagle-bearer. Other standards were also used by the cohorts or companies into which the legions were divided. Caesar's first great battles were in Gaul. The Romans called all the inhabitants of that country Gauls although they were of many nations and spoke different languages. The Gauls were brave but Caesar proved to be a great general who conquered all Gauls. The Roman soldiers had great confidence in Caesar. When he led them they believed victory was certain. He was strict in his discipline but very friendly and pleasant with the men and he often gave them praise. He himself shared in their hardships day after day he marched on foot at their head through heat and rain and snow and fought with them in the front ranks. On one occasion Caesar built a very remarkable bridge. He wanted to get across the river Rhine with his army to punish some German tribes who were in the habit of attacking the friends of Rome in Gaul. There was no bridge. The Germans used to get over in small parties by swimming or in small boats. But a large army could not cross in this way without a great deal of trouble and loss of time. So Caesar resolved to build a bridge. He quickly set his men to work and they finished the bridge in ten days though all the wood had to be cut down in the forest and carried to the riverside. One of Caesar's greatest victories in Gaul was the taking of Elishia. This town had very strong walls all round it and it was defended by a great army of Gauls commanded by a brave chief named Bersangetorex. Caesar surrounded the town with his army and prevented food from being sent into the inhabitants. He also defeated an army that came from other parts of Gaul to help the Elishians. Bersangetorex then had to come out from the town and give himself up to Caesar. After many conquests in Gaul Caesar sailed over with an army to the island of Britain, now called Great Britain. The natives were a wild, fierce people and they fought bravely against Caesar and his army. But the Romans were victorious and they took possession of Britain and for over four hundred years the island was a part of the Roman Empire. Two. Caesar was engaged eight years in his wars in Gaul and Britain. It is said that during these years all nations took 800 cities, fought battles with three millions of men and made a million prisoners. He obtained immense quantities of treasure in the conquered lands and he himself as commander of the victorious armies kept a large part of it as his own share so that he became very rich. Caesar's wonderful victories made him a great man in Rome. The Plebeians rejoiced at the success of their leader and favorite and were ready to welcome him with the highest honors and return to the city. But Caesar had now made up his mind to become the master of Rome so he began to plan and to work to destroy the power of Pompeii who at that time ruled public affairs in Rome almost completely. In order to gain still greater favor Caesar sent a number of his friends to Rome to spend immense sums of money in various ways to please the people. They got up splendid games and feasts they divided large quantities of corn among the poor and they paid the debts of hundreds of men who had influence among the Plebeians. The people knew that all this was done at Caesar's expense and they praised and loved him for his generosity. Pompeii with a great show of authority now ordered Caesar to disband his army and send the soldiers to their homes for he said that Caesar had no need of an army any longer as he had finished his work in Gaul. But Pompeii too had an army at this time in Spain and Caesar said to him if you will disband your army I will disband mine. This made Pompeii very angry and he got the senate to pass a law declaring that Caesar was a public enemy and must be put down. One senator asked Pompeii what he should do if Caesar should come to Rome with his army. What should I do? cried Pompeii in a tone of contempt. Why I have only to stamp my foot and thousands of men will spring up to march under my orders. At that time Caesar was with his army happily. When he heard what the senate had done he called his soldiers together and made an eloquent speech. He told him of the injustice that Pompeii and the senate had done to him and he concluded by saying this is my reward for all that I have done for my country. But I shall go to Rome and establish an honest government of the people if you, my brave soldiers will be faithful to me. The soldiers answered with a loud shout saying we shall be faithful to you and we shall stand by you to the last. Caesar then started with his army and marched rapidly through northern Italy until he came to the banks of a little river at that time called the Rubicon and known as the southern boundary of Gaul. What river this was no one can now exactly tell but it is supposed that it was some one of several small rivers which flow into the Adriatic sea south of the river Poe. Caesar halted his army at the Rubicon and forbade anyone to cross it until he gave the order. He stood for some time on the banks in deep thought as if trying to decide whether he should cross the river and proceed or give up his dangerous undertaking. He was still within his own territory as commander of Gaul. If he should cross the Rubicon he would be on territory directly under the government of the officers at Rome. By law it was made an act of treason to be punished with death for any Roman general to enter this territory with an army without permission of the senate. We can retreat now, said Caesar to some of his officers who stood near him but once across the Rubicon it will be too late to draw back. While Caesar was talking a shepherd came along from a field close by playing lively music on a reed pipe. The soldiers gathered around him to listen to the music and some of them began to dance. One of Caesar's trumpeters stood among the soldiers with his trumpet in his hand. The shepherd saw the trumpet suddenly seized it across the bridge over the Rubicon which was but a few steps off. Then he put the trumpet to his lips sounded the stirring notes for an advance of the troops and began to march across the bridge. A sign from the gods, shouted Caesar let us go where we are thus called the die is cast. So saying he turned his horse right into the stream and rode across the Rubicon followed by his army. It was a daring thing because he has crossed the Rubicon the die is cast are now often used to mean that a bold or dangerous step has been taken from which there is no drawing back. There was no one to oppose Caesar as he marched through Italy. On the contrary, city after city surrendered to him. There was very little fighting. In most places the people seemed glad to have him as their ruler and gave him a warm welcome and feasted his soldiers. There were many heroes who were against him and he won host of friends and supporters all along his route. There was great alarm at Rome when it was learned that Caesar was advancing towards the city. The supporters of Pompeii became terrified and the rich nobles gathered up their money and other valuables and fled. Pompeii could do nothing to defend the city against Caesar and at last he too ran away. He went to Greece to raise an army to fight Caesar. When Caesar arrived at Rome he entered the city amid shouts of welcome from the people. He harmed no one but he set up a new government and organized a new senate. He was now the master spirit of the Republic. After arranging everything to his satisfaction in Rome he went to Spain and defeated Pompeii's generals there. Then he came back and turned his attention to Pompeii himself. In the meantime Pompeii had been very busy gathering an army in the eastern countries controlled by Rome. One way and another he collected 50,000 men. They were stationed on the coast of Macedonia in Greece. There they waited for Caesar and his army to cross the Adriatic Sea to give them battle. Caesar had a great deal of trouble in getting across the stormy sea with his army of 40,000 soldiers but at last a landing was made in Greece. Then the two armies had some skirmishing but no great battle. This continued for months. Pompeii at one time would gain the advantage and Caesar at another time. But it was evident that neither of the great rivals was in any hurry to risk the chance of defeat in a general battle. They knew well that such a defeat would entirely ruin the one that was defeated. But at last the two armies met for battle on the plane of Farsalia in Thessaly a district of Greece. The soldiers on both sides were mostly armed with spears and broadswords. Some carried slings to hurl large stones and others with bows and arrows. The greater part of the fighting however was done with swords. 80,000 men were engaged in the battle about 40,000 on each side. It was a brave heroic struggle and lasted for hours. Both armies fought splendidly but in the end Pompeii's army was forced back to its camp after dreadful slaughter. For a few minutes the camp was bravely defended against the attacks of Caesar soldiers and then had to be abandoned. After this, Pompeii's great army was utterly beat. Pompeii himself, with a few followers fled to the seashore and sailed across the Mediterranean to Egypt. There he was treacherously murdered by order of Ptolemy, the Egyptian king. Caesar gained a splendid victory at Farsalia but he was not yet master of the Roman Empire. The rich nobles and senators formed armies to fight him in Asia Minor, Africa and Spain. Caesar went with an army to Asia Minor, attacked his enemies, and won a great battle at a place called Zella. This victory was so quickly gained that in sending news of it to Rome Caesar wrote the famous dispatch Veni, Viti, Vichy which is in English I came, I saw, I conquered. He had equal success in Africa and Spain. In a very short time he destroyed the armies opposed to him. Then he returned to Rome and had the grandest triumph ever seen in the city. Celebration lasted four days and during that time Rome was in a high state of pleasant excitement. Thousands of persons from the surrounding country came to the city to witness the magnificent show. On each day there were splendid processions in which there were great numbers of gorgeous chariots drawn by beautiful horses and filled with Caesar's principal officers. Behind them marched hundreds of soldiers bearing banners on which were pictured scenes from Caesar's important battles. Asia and Africa appeared in the procession and there were also long lines of prisoners carrying valuable articles obtained by Caesar in the lands he had conquered. In addition to the processions many kinds of entertainments were provided for the people such as plays, circus exhibitions, combats between gladiators, wild beast hunts and chariot races. There were also feasts served to all the people of the city. It was a time of unbounded enjoyment and delighted the Romans so much that they became very devoted to Caesar. There was now no opposition to him. Both the nobles and plebeians were willing and even glad to have him as their ruler. He was chosen dictator for life and put in command of all the armies of the empire. He was called Imperator which means emperor. The people gave him the title of Father of His Country. Statues of him were erected in the public buildings and squares. A grand chair made somewhat like a throne placed in the Senate Chamber. And whenever he came to listen to the debates he sat in this chair as if he were king. Caesar now had laws passed making many improvements in the government. He also carried out a number of plans to make Rome of more importance as a commercial city. He erected magnificent buildings, made aqueducts to bring plenty of water to the city, established a great library and did many other things which were of much benefit to the people. One of the most useful things he did was to make a new calendar. Before his time the Romans had not a very clear knowledge as to the length of a year. At one time they had only 10 months in their year. Afterwards they had 12. But they counted only 365 days in every year. They did not know or did not give attention to the fact that the real length of the year is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 50 seconds. They did not reckon the extra hours, minutes and so their calendar got quite wrong in the course of a number of years. Caesar corrected the error by making one year in every four have 366 days, and the calendar thus corrected was called the Julian calendar. Caesar now possessed all the glory and power of a king and it began to be believed that he wanted to be a king in reality. The Romans had not had a king for 500 years and would not have one. Their feelings against kings was so strong that none of the men who had ruled Rome at times with almost kingly power had ever dared to call himself king. One day an intimate friend of Caesar saluted him in public as king. Caesar replied, I am not king, but only Caesar. Some of the nobles, however, felt certain that he meant to make himself king and they formed a plot to kill him in the Senate House on the Ides of March, that is, on the 15th of March. The Romans had certain names called Callans, knowns, and Ides. One of the persons who made the plot against Caesar was Junius Brutus, a highly respected Roman. It is said that he was a descendant of the Junius Brutus who, five centuries before, had helped to overthrow the tyrant king Tarquin. Brutus was an intimate friend of Caesar, but he thought that Caesar intended to destroy the Republic by making himself king and therefore he joined the plot against him. As the Ides of March the plan for putting Caesar to death was carefully arranged and settled. An augur, or fortune teller, one day stopped Caesar in the street and said to him, beware the Ides of March. But the great conqueror laughed at the warning. On the appointed day the plotters met in the Senate chamber ready to do the wicked deed they had planned. When Caesar entered the chamber, all present rose to greet him. He bowled and smiled pleasantly to the people and took his usual seat. Now was the fatal moment. As had been arranged one of the plotters went up to him with a request for the pardon of a prisoner. Then the rest crowded it around his chair as if to urge him to grant the request. Caesar seemed somewhat alarmed at the crowd and rose from his chair. At this moment he was stabbed in the side with a sword. Then there were loud outcries in the chamber and all was excitement and confusion. Caesar used a stylus to defend himself. The stylus was an instrument made of iron with a sharp point on one end for writing on wax tablets and with the other in smooth for rubbing out a word when necessary. For writing on parchment or paper a pen made of reed was used. Educated Romans carried their stylus and tablet in their pockets. From the name of the instrument the word style is now used to meet a particular manner of writing. Caesar had nothing but his stylus to defend himself with. He fought bravely until he saw his friend and then he cried out, you too Brutus and made no further resistance. They stabbed him until he felt dead. Then they went out of the senate and through the streets of Rome with Brutus at their head. They told the people what they had done and rejoiced at the deed. They said the death of Caesar saved the Roman Republic. But the people were very angry and threatened to put to death those who had killed Caesar. They would have done this only that Brutus and his friends were killed. There was a grand funeral service in honor of Caesar. The body was laid in the forum and a famous Roman named Mark Anthony made an eloquent funeral speech over it. He praised Caesar and spoke so bitterly against Brutus and his party that the people were more angry than ever. This Mark Anthony was afterwards a very powerful man in Rome. Caesar died 44 years before Christ was born. Of course his death did not save the Roman Republic. It had indeed to exist in all but the name. Rome was no longer a Republic but an Empire and as we shall see the family of Caesar gave it its first emperor. All the emperors adopted the name of Caesar as part of their title. End of Chapter 21 Chapter 22 of The Famous Men of Rome This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org Recording by Philippa Jevons Famous Men of Rome by John H. Haran and A. B. Poland Chapter 22 Cicero 1. Marcus Tullius Cicero was a prominent man at Rome for some time in the later years of the Republic. He was a great orator, one of most the world has ever known. His principal speeches have been preserved and are read and studied at the present day. He often spoke in the forum before large audiences and by his wonderful eloquence delighted all who heard him. Both the nobles and plebeians admired him for his learning, his oratory and his manly qualities. Cicero was a tall, graceful man with an intellectual and rather handsome face with bright black eyes. He was so great a favourite that he was chosen to fill several public offices and at last was elected consul. In the early part of his year as consul there was a mysterious plot formed in Rome by some nobles of bad character, old soldiers and others ready for any mischief. What their real object was no one seemed to know but it was said that the conspirators wanted to overthrow and set up a new one of their own. There was a senator named Sergius Catiline and many believed that he was at the head of the plot. He had a bad reputation and for some time the other senators had looked upon him with suspicion. There was no proof, however, that he was engaged in any unlawful proceedings so no charge could be made against him. But one day a young woman named Thulvia came to Cicero and gave him important information about the plot and Catiline's part in it. She said that she had a lover who was one of the plotters and that he had told her some of their secrets. She was greatly frightened for she thought that there might be bloodshed in Rome if the plot went on and she felt it her duty to tell Cicero about it. Cicero immediately went to the senate and made a powerful speech. He charged Catiline with being the leading person in a plot to overthrow the government. There was great excitement at his words. Catiline was present and he boldly denied the charge and defied Cicero to prove it. If Consul Cicero is afraid of my doing harm in Rome, said he, I am willing to place myself as a prisoner in the hands of any senator. I do not think it is safe to have you in the city, replied Cicero, and do you expect anyone to take you into his house? After a great deal of exciting talk, the senate laid aside the charges against Catiline for a while. Two. A few weeks later, in a city near Rome, there was an uprising of the people against the public officers. This caused a great deal of alarm and Cicero said it was the beginning of the plot that he had charged Catiline with forming. Then he hurried to the senate where Catiline was and made a great move. He called him a traitor to his country. Catiline turned pale and began to tremble. He attempted to speak but the senators shouted and hooted and hissed him. Those who sat near him got up in disgust and took seats in another part of the chamber, leaving the conspirator sitting by himself. At last Catiline ran out of the senate furious with anger and threatening revenge. Then he mounted a horse and rode quickly out of the city. Shortly afterwards Cicero learned the names of nine Roman citizens who were leaders in the plot and he had them arrested. He declared in the senate that they had planned to murder the senators and the high officers and to burn Rome. The senators declared at once that the nine must die and so Cicero had them put to death. Catiline now fled to the mountains called the Apennines and there raised a force of twenty thousand men. Two armies were sent against him from Rome. A battle took place in which Catiline's army was defeated and he himself killed. Thus ended what was known as the Catiline conspiracy. Cicero's action in helping to destroy it greatly pleased the Romans. In the senate he received much praise and honour. It was even declared that he was the father of his country. Antony did not like Cicero and when the triumvirate was formed the great orator was put to death by Antony's order. End of chapter 22 Chapter 23 of The Famous Men of Rome This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org Recorded by Alec Datesman Famous Men of Rome by John H. Horan and A. B. Poland Chapter 23 Augustus 1. The first of the long line of Roman emperors was Octavius, cold in history, Augustus. He was the grand nephew of Julius Caesar although he was scarcely 20 years old when Caesar died. He was very ambitious. He often said he should one day be at the head of the Roman Empire. I shall rule Rome like Caesar he would say to his companions. You may laugh at me now but the time will come when I shall be master of the Romans. Shortly after Caesar's death Octavius began to take an active part in political affairs. At this time Mark Antony was in control of Rome and he was managing everything to suit himself. He had been an intimate friend of Caesar and commanded one of his armies. He obtained a great deal of power but he was not liked very much either by the nobles or by the plebeians. Nobody trusted him. Once Antony tried to prevent Octavius from being elected a Tribune of the people. I will be a Tribune in spite of you, Octavius said, and he set to work with all his energy to get the office. There was a severe struggle on election day but the boy was successful. After this Octavius hated Antony and planned in secret to bring about his downfall and he succeeded in all he attempted to do. From a Tribune he advanced steadily step by step to more important offices. At last he obtained command of an army and marched his soldiers to northern Italy where a war was going on. While in this region he met Antony with his army. The two began to quarrel and at last came to blows. Then the army of Octavius fought with the army of Antony and the northern plains were reddened with the blood of the soldiers. When the fighting had gone on for some time Octavius sent to Antony and asked him to stop it. He pretended that he was very sorry he had begun to fight with Antony and asked for his friendship. Let us be friends and work together he said to Antony by joining our armies we shall be able to do some good. The fighting was then stopped and the two generals had a meeting. They agreed to unite their armies and to invite another Roman general named Lepidus who had a large army to join them. Lepidus accepted the invitation and came to have a talk with Antony and Octavius. They agreed to a plan by which they themselves were to rule Rome together. The general or government was called the Triumvirate. An Octavius, Antony and Lepidus were called Triumvires a word which means three men. 2. After making all their arrangements Antony, Octavius and Lepidus started for Rome with their armies and took possession of the city. Then they began to kill those that they thought were their enemies. More than 2,000 Romans were slain. They would have killed Brutus only that he was then in Greece where he had gone after Caesar's death with Antony and his friends. Antony and Octavius now went with an army to Greece to fight Brutus. Both armies met at Philippi in Macedonia and then there was a battle in which the army of Brutus was defeated. After the battle Brutus requested one of his slaves to kill him. The slave refused but when Brutus still pressed him to do it he held out his sword and Brutus killed himself by falling upon it. It is told that sometime before the battle of Philippi as Brutus was sitting one night near to him and said I am thy evil genius Brutus we shall meet again at Philippi. It is also said that the specter again appeared to Brutus on the night before the battle of Philippi and told him that his death was at hand. There was no one now to interfere with Antony, Octavius and Lepidus and they managed everything in Rome as they liked. They pretended all the time to have great respect for the senate and the officers of the government who had been elected by the people. After a short time Antony went to some part of the Roman Empire and Lepidus went to Africa. Octavius was left in Rome to attend to its affairs. He then began to plan to get rid of Antony and Lepidus so that he might rule Rome himself. With this object he raised a great army and determined to make war on his rivals. Sextus Pompeii, a son of Pompeii the Great was at this time in control of the island of Sicily. He was always making trouble for Octavius and he was aided by Lepidus who had come from Africa to Sicily with his army. One day Octavius sailed over the Mediterranean Sea to Sicily with thousands of soldiers destroyed the army of Sextus and induced the army of Lepidus to leave him. Lepidus was then taken prisoner. Now put an end to the power of Antony said Octavius to himself when he returned to Rome from Sicily. So he went to the senate and accused Antony of treason in Asia and Africa and asked that war be declared against him. The senate declared war and Octavius began to make great preparations for it. Antony was in Egypt when he heard of the declaration of war. He left scornfully at the idea of Octavius being able to beat him. Then he gathered an army of more than a hundred thousand men and a fleet of several hundred warships and set out to meet Octavius. He had with him Cleopatra the beautiful queen of Egypt whom he had married and she had a fleet of her own numbering sixty ships. Octavius had about as many soldiers and ships as Antony. The two fleets met near a place called Actium on the coast of Greece and fought a battle. For several hours the fight went on bravely but neither side gained any great advantage. Suddenly Cleopatra sailed away with her fleet and Antony quickly followed her with a few ships. Thus he deserted his men while they were fighting. The sailors and soldiers of the deserted fleet kept on fighting for a short time and then surrendered to Octavius. A few days later a part of Antony's army which was encamped on the shore near Actium also surrendered. Antony went back to Egypt with Cleopatra. His friends and supporters then left him and his power was gone. Soon after he stabbed himself and so died. It is said that Cleopatra died from the bite of a poisonous serpent called an asp which she placed on her arm on purpose to kill herself. 3. Octavius continued to fight in different parts of the empire until he defeated everyone who dared to oppose him. Then he went back to Rome with a great deal of glory and riches and let it be known at once that he intended to be the master of the government. Although he pretended to protect the rights of the people, he made himself consul and also assumed other high offices which greatly added to his power. Thousands of soldiers were at his call and finally he became very much like a king. The senate asked him if he would wish to be appointed dictator for life but he thought it wise to refuse this office. The senate then gave him the name of Augustus which meant that he was worthy of respect. The word Augustus in the Latin language means sacred. He called himself emperor and as Caesar Augustus he ruled the Romans all the rest of his life, a period of about 27 years. And when Augustus became emperor the Republic of Rome was no longer in existence. What was known as the Praetorian Guards were organized by Augustus to protect himself and uphold his authority as emperor. These guards were about 10,000 in number and they were composed of the most trusty soldiers of the empire. Each soldier had high rank and large pay and had to serve for many years. Whenever Augustus appeared in public he was attended by some of the Praetorian Guards and they looked very imposing with their handsome uniforms and glittering swords and spears. Augustus made many good changes in the government. He very much improved the condition of the plebeians. His principal ministers were two able men named Agrippa and Messinas who gave him very valuable assistance. Whenever these wise men saw that the Romans were getting uneasy and getting to grumble they would advise the emperor to distribute corn or money to the poor or to give hand exhibitions to amuse them. Augustus would follow the advice and by so doing made himself very popular. During his long reign Augustus had many splendid palaces, temples and other buildings erected in Rome and they made the city very beautiful. Augustus also founded cities in various parts of the empire. He encouraged literature and art and was himself an author. In his time the famous Roman poets Horace, Virgil, Varius and Ovid lived and also the great historian Livy who wrote the history of Rome from the earliest period down to his own time. Virgil was the author of a celebrated poem called The Aenid which tells of the wanderings and adventures of the Trojan hero Aeneas mentioned on page nine of this book. It was in the reign of Augustus that Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem, a town of Palestine or Judea in southwest Asia. Judea was then part of the Roman Empire. End of chapter 23 recorded by Alec Datesman, Brooklyn, New York