 section 4 of volume 1 of a popular history of France from the earliest times this is the LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org volume 1 of a popular history of France from the earliest times by François Guizot translated by Robert Black chapter 3 the Romans in Gaul it was Rome herself that soon crossed that barrier of the Alps which she had pronounced fixed by nature and insurmountable scarcely was she mistress of Cisalpine Gaul when she entered upon a quarrel with the tribes which occupied the mountain passes with an unsettled frontier and between neighbors of whom one is ambitious and the other barbarian pretexts and even causes are never wanting it is likely that the Gallic mountaineers were not careful to obscene they and their flocks from descending upon the territory which had become Roman the Romans in turn penetrated into the hamlets carried off flocks and people and sold them in the public markets at Cremona at Placentia and in all their colonies the Gauls of the Alps demanded Sukor of the Transalpine Gauls applying to a powerful chieftain named Kinkabil whose influence extended throughout the mountains but the terror of the Roman name had reached across Kinkabil sent to Rome a deputation with his brother at their head to set forth the grievances of the mountaineers and especially to complain of the consul Cassius who had carried off and sold several thousands of Gauls without making any concession the Senate was gracious Cassius was away he must be waited for meanwhile the Gauls were well treated Kinkabil and his brother received his presence two golden collars five silver vases two horses fully comparison and Roman dresses for all their sweet still nothing was done another a greater and more decisive opportunity offered itself Marseille was an ally of the Romans as the rival of Carthage and with the Gauls forever at her gates she had need of Rome by land and sea she pretended also to the most eminent and intimate friendship with Rome her founder the Focian Euczenes had gone to Rome it was said and concluded a treaty with Tarquinius Priscus she had gone into mourning when Rome was burned by the Gauls she had ordered a public levy to aid towards the ransom of the capital Rome did not dispute these claims to remembrance the friendship of Marseille was of great use to her in the whole course of her struggle with Carthage and but lately at the passage of Hannibal through Gaul Rome had met with the best of treatment there she granted the Massilians a place among her senators at the festivals of the Republic and an exemption from all duty in her ports towards the middle of the second century BC Marseille was at war with certain Gallic tribes her neighbors whose territory she coveted two of her colonies Nicae and Antibes were threatened she called on Rome for help a Roman deputation went to decide the quarrel but the Gauls refused to obey its summons and treated it with insolence the deputation returned with an army succeeded in beating the refractory tribes and gave their land to the Missilians the same thing occurred repeatedly with the same result within the space of 30 years nearly all the tribes between the Roan and the Var in the country which was afterwards Provence was subdued and driven back amongst the mountains with notice not to approach within a mile of the coast in general and a mile and a half of the places of disembarkation but the Romans did not stop there they did not mean to conquer from Marseille alone in the year 123 BC at some leagues to the north of the Greek city near a little river then called Coenus and afterwards the Ark the Council Gaia's Sextius Calvinus had noticed during his campaign an abundance of thermal springs agreeably situated amidst wood covered hills there he constructed an enclosure aqueducts baths houses a town in fact which he called after himself Aquae Sexti the modern X the first Roman establishment in Transalpine Gaul as in the case of Cisalpine Gaul with Roman colonies came Roman intrigue and dissensions got up and fermented amongst the Gauls and herein Marseille was a powerful seconder for she kept up communications with all the neighboring tribes and fanned out the spirit of faction after his victories the console Gaia Sextius seated at his tribunal was selling his prisoners by auction when one of them came up to him and said I have always liked and serve the Romans and for that reason I have often incurred outrage and danger at the hands of my countrymen the console had him set free him and his family and even gave him leave to point out amongst the captives any for whom he would like to procure the same kindness at his request nine hundred were released the man's name was Crato a Greek name which points to a connection with Marseille or one of her colonies the Gauls moreover ran of themselves into the Roman trap two of their confederations the Iduans of whom mention has already been made and the alabrogians who were settled between the Alps the Isere and the Roan were at war a third confederation the most powerful and Gaul at this time the Avernians who were the rival of the Iduans gave their countenance to the alabrogians the Iduans with whom the Marseillians had commercial dealings solicited through these latter the assistance of Rome a treaty was easily concluded the Iduans obtained from the Romans the title of friends and allies and the Romans received from the Iduans that of brothers which amongst the Gauls implied a sacred tie the console Domitius forthwith commanded the alabrogians to respect the territory of the allies of Rome the alabrogians rose up in arms and claim the aid of the alabrogians but even amongst them in the very heart of Gaul Rome was much dreaded she was not to be encountered without hesitation so be to itus king of the alabrogians was for trying accommodation he was a powerful and wealthy chieftain his father Luern used to give amongst the mountains magnificent entertainments he had a space of twelve square fur logs enclosed and dispensed wine mead and beer from cisterns made within the enclosure and all the Avernians crowded to his feasts bit to itus displayed before the Romans his barbaric splendor a numerous escort suburbly clad surrounded his ambassador in attendance were packs of enormous hounds and in front went a bard or poet who sang with roti or harp in hand the glory of be to itus and of the Avernian people disdainfully the console received and sent back the embassy war broke out the alabrogians with the usual competence and hastiness of all barbarians attacked alone without waiting for the Avernians and were beaten at the confluence of the Rhone and the so go a little above Avignon the next year one twenty one bc the Avernians in their turn descended from the mountains and crossed the Rhone with all their tribes diversely armed and clad and ranged each about its own chieftain in his barbaric vanity be to itus marched to war with the same pomp that he had in vain displayed to obtain peace he sat upon a car glittering with silver he wore a plaid of striking colors and he brought in his train of pack of war hounds at the site of the Roman legions few a number iron clad and serried ranks that took up little space he contemptuously cried there is not a meal for my hounds the Avernians were beaten as the alabrogians had been the hounds of be to itus were of little use to him against the elephants which the Romans had borrowed from Asiatic usage and which spread consternation amongst the Gauls the Roman historians say that the Avernian army was two hundred thousand strong and that one hundred and twenty thousand were slain but the figures are absurd like most of those found in ancient chronicles we know nowadays thanks to modern civilization which shows everything in broad daylight and measures everything with proper caution that only the most populous and powerful nations and that at great expenditure of trouble and time can succeed in moving armies of two hundred thousand men and that no battle however murderous it may be ever costs one hundred and twenty thousand lives Rome treated the Avernians with consideration but the alabrogians lost their existence as a nation the Senate declared them subject to the Roman people and all the country comprised between the Alps the Roan from its entry into the lake of Geneva to its mouth and the Mediterranean was made a Roman consular province which means that every year a consul must march thither with his army in the three following years indeed the consuls extended the boundaries of the new province on the right bank of the Roan to the frontier of the Pyrenees southward in the year one fifteen BC a colony of Roman citizens was conducted to Narbonne a town even then importance in spite of the objections made by certain senators who are unwilling say the historians so to expose Roman citizens to the waves of barbarism this was the second colony which went and established itself out of Italy the first to been founded on the ruins of Carthage having thus completed their conquest the Senate to render possession safe and sure decree the occupation of the passes of the Alps which opened gall to Italy there was up to that time no communication with gall save along the Mediterranean by a narrow and difficult path which has become an hour time the beautiful route called the cornice the mountain tribes defended their independence with desperation when that of the Stoomians who occupied the passes of the maritime Alps saw their inability to hold their own they cut their throats of their wives and children set fire to their houses and threw themselves into the flames but the Senate pursued its course in perturbedly all the chief defiles of the Alps fell into its hands the old Phoenician road restored by the consul Domitius bore that's forth his name via Domitia in less than 60 years after sys Alpine gall had been reduced to a Roman province Rome possessed in trans Alpine gall a second province with her she sent her armies and where she established her citizens without obstruction but Providence seldom allows men even in the midst of their successes to forget for long how precarious they are and when he is pleased to remind them it is not by words as the Persian reminded their king but by fearful events that he gives his warnings at the very moment when Rome believed herself free from Gallic invasions and on the point of avenging herself by course of conquest a new invasion more extensive and more barbarous came bursting upon Rome and upon gall at the same time and plunge them together in the same troubles and the same perils in the year 113 B.C. there appeared to the north of the Adriatic on the right bank of the Danube an immense multitude of barbarians ravaging Noricum and threatening Italy two nations predominated the Kimbrians or Kimbrians and the Tutans the national name of the Germans they came from afar northward from the Kimbrian peninsula nowadays Jutland and from the countries bordering on the Baltic which nowadays formed the Dutchies of Holstein and Schleswig a violent shock of earthquake a terrible inundation had driven them they said from their homes and those countries do indeed show traces of such events and Kimbrians and Tutans had been for some time roaming over Germany the console Papyrus Carbo dispatched in all haste to defend the frontier paid them in the name of the Roman people to withdraw the barbarians modestly replied that they had no intention of settling in Noricum and if the Romans had rights over the country they would carry their arms elsewhere the console who had found haughtiness succeed thought he might also employ perfidy against the barbarians he offered guides to conduct them out of Noricum and the guides misled them the console attacked them unexpectedly during the night and was beaten however the barbarians still fearful to not venture into Italy they roamed for three years along the Danube as far as the mountains of Macedonia and Thrace then retracing their steps and marching eastward they inundated the valleys of the Halvetic Alps now Switzerland having their numbers swelled by other tribes Gallic or German who preferred joining in pillage to undergoing it the Ambrons among others a Gallic people that had taken refuge in Halvetia after the expulsion of the Umbrians by the Etruscans from Italy joined the Kimbrians in two tons and in the year 110 all together entered Gall at first by way of Belgica and then continuing their wanderings and ravages in central Gall they at last reached the Rome on the frontiers of the Roman province there the name of Rome again arrested their progress they applied to her anew for lands with the offer of their services Rome answered Marcus Salinas who commanded in the province has neither lands to give you nor services to accept from you he attacked them in their camp and was beaten three consuls Lucius Cassius Gaius Servilius Omepio and and Nius Manlius successively experienced the same fate with the barbarians victory bread presumption their chieftains met and deliberated whether they should not forthwith cross into Italy to exterminate or enslave the Romans and make Kimbrians broken at Rome Scarce a prisoner was in the tent loaded with fetters during the deliberation he was questioned about the resources of his country cross not the Alps said he go not into Italy the Romans are invincible in a transport of fury the chieftain of the Kimbrians Boyorix by name fell upon the Roman and ran him through Halbate the advice of Scarce was followed the barbarians did not as yet dare to decide upon invading Italy but they freely scoured the Roman province meeting here with repulse and there with reinforcement from the peoples who form the inhabitants the Tecto Sagi and Voles Kimbrian in origin and maltreated by Rome join them then on a sudden whilst the tutons and ambrons remained in gall the Kimbrians passed over to Spain without apparent motive and probably as an over swollen torrent divides and disperses its waters in all directions the commotion at Rome was extreme never had so many or such wild barbarians threatened the Republic never had so many or such large Roman armies been beaten in succession there was but one man it was said who could avert the danger and give Rome the ascendancy it was Marius lowborn but already illustrious esteemed by the Senate for his genius as a commander and for his victories swaying at his will the people who saw in him one of themselves and admired without envying him beloved and feared by the army for his bravery his rigorous discipline and his readiness to share their toils and dangers stern and rugged without education eloquence or riches ill suited for shining in public assemblies but resolute and dexterous in action verily made to dominate the vigorous but unrefined multitude whether in camp or city partly by participating their feelings partly by giving them in his own person a specimen of the desserts and sometimes of the virtues which they esteem but do not possess he was console in Africa where he was putting an end to the war with jukertha he was elected a second time console without interval and in his absence contrary to all the laws of the republic scarcely had he returned when on descending from the capital where he had just received a triumph for having conquered and captured jukertha he set out for gall on his arrival instead of proceeding as his predecessors to attack the barbarians at once he can find himself to organizing and enuring his troops subjecting them to frequent marches all kinds of military exercises and long and hard labor to ensure supplies he made them dig towards the mouths of the roan a large canal which formed the junction with the river a little above aro and which at its entrance into the sea offered good harbourage for vessels this canal which existed for a long while under the name of rossi marianke the dykes of marius is filled up nowadays but at its southern extremity the village of foes still preserves a remembrance of it trained in this severe school the soldiers acquired such a reputation for sobriety and laborious assiduity that they were proverbially called marius's mules he was as careful for their moral state as for their physical fitness and labor to exalt their imaginations as well as to harden their bodies in that camp and had missed those toils in which he kept them strictly engaged frequent sacrifices and scrupulous care and consulting the oracles kept superstition at a white heat a syrian prophetess named martha who had been sent to marius by his wife julia the aunt of julia cesar was ever with him and accompanied him at the sacred ceremonies and on the march being treated with the greatest respect and having vast influence over the minds of the soldiers two years rolled on in this fashion and yet marius would not move the increasing devastation of the country fire and famine the despair and complaints of the inhabitants did not shake his resolution nor was the confidence he inspired both in the camp and at Rome a wit shaken he was twice reelected console once while he was still absent and once during a visit he paid to Rome to give directions to his party in person it was at Rome in the year one oh two bc that he learned how the kimbrans weary of spain had recrossed the pyrenees rejoined their old comrades and had at last resolved in concert to invade italy the kimbrans from the north by way of helvetia and noricum the tutans and ambrans from the south by way of the maritime alps they were to form a junction on the banks of the pole and thence marched together on Rome at this news marius forthwith withdrew to gall and without troubling himself about the kimbrans who had already put themselves in motion towards the northeast he placed his camp so as to cover at one in the same time the two roman roads which crossed at arle and by one of which the ambro tutans must necessarily pass to enter idly on the south they soon appeared in immense numbers say the historians with their hideous looks and their wild cries drawing up their chariots and planting their tents in front of the roman camp they showered upon marius and his soldiers continual insult and defiance the romans in their irritation would feign have rushed out of their camp but marius restrained them it is no question said he with his simple and convincing common sense of gaining triumphs and trophies it is a question of averting this storm of war and saving idly a teutonic chieftain came one day up to the very gates of the camp and challenged him to fight marius had him informed that if he were tired of life he could go and hang himself as the barbarians still persisted marius sent him a gladiator however he made his soldiers in regular succession mount the ramparts to get them familiarized with the cries looks arms and movements of the barbarians the most distinguished of his officers young sartorius who understood and spoke gallic well penetrated in the disguise of a gall into the camp of the ambrons and informed marius of what was going on there at last the barbarians in their impatience having vainly attempted to storm the roman camp struck their own and put themselves in motion towards the alps for six whole days it is said their bands were defiling beneath the ramparts of the romans and crying have you any message for your wives we will soon be with them marius too struck his camp and followed them they halted both of them near x on the borders of the coinus the barbarians in the valley and marius on a hill which commanded it the ardor of the romans was at its height it was warm weather there was a want of water on the hill and the soldiers murmured you are men said marius pointing to the river below and there is water to be bought with blood why don't you lead us against them at once then said a soldier whilst we still have blood in our veins we must first fortify our camp answered marius quietly the soldiers obeyed but the hour of battle had come and well did marius know it it commenced on the brink of the coinus between some ambrons who were bathing and some roman slaves gone down to draw water when the whole horde of the ambrons advanced to the battle shouting their war cry of umbra umbra a cry of gallic auxiliaries a body of gallic auxiliaries in the roman army and in the first rank heard them with great amazement for it was their own name and their own cry there were tribes of ambrons in the alps subjected to roam as well as in the helvitic alps and umbra umbra resounded on both sides the battle lasted two days the first against the ambrons the second against the two tons both were beaten in spite of their savage bravery and the equal bravery of their women who defended with indomitable obscenity the cars with which they had remained almost alone in charge of the children and the booty after the women it was necessary to exterminate the hounds who defended their masters bodies here again the figures of the historians are absurd although they differ the most extravagant raised the number of barbarian slain to 200 thousand and that of the prisoners to 80 000 the most moderate stop at 100 000 in any case the carnage was great for the battlefield where all these corpses rested without burial rotting in the sun and rain got the name of campy putridi or fields of putrification a name traceable even nowadays in that of purée a neighboring village as to the booty the roman army with one voice made a free gift of it to marius but he remembering perhaps what had been lately done by the barbarians after the defeat of the consuls manlius and sevillius determined to have it all burned in honor of the gods he had a great sacrifice prepared the soldiers crowned with laurel were ranged about the pyre their general holding on high a blazing torch was about to apply the light with his own hand when suddenly on the very spot whether by design or accident came from rome the news that marius had just been for the fifth time elected consul in the midst of the acclamations from his army and with a fresh chaplet bound his brow he applied the torch in person and completed the sacrifice were we traveling in provence in the neighborhood of x we should encounter per adventure some peasant who was pointing out to us the summit of a law where on in all probability marius offered 1940 years ago that glorious sacrifice would say to us in his native dialect there is the temple of victory there indeed was built not far from a pyramid erected in honor of marius a little temple dedicated to victory thither every year in the month of may the population used to come and celebrate a festival and light a bonfire answered by other bonfires on the neighboring heights when gall became christian neither monument nor festival perished a saint took the place of the goddess and the temple of victory became the church of saint victoria there are still ruins of it to this day the religious procession which succeeded the pagan festival ceased only at the first outbreak of the revolution and the vague memory of a great national event still mingles in popular tradition with the legends of the saint the ambrons and tutans were beaten they remained the kimbrans who according to agreement had repass the helvitic alps and entered italy on the northeast by way of the addigae marius marched against them in july of the following year 101 bc ignorant of what had occurred in gall and possessed as ever with the desire of a settlement they again sent to him a deputation saying give us lands and towns for us and our brethren what brethren s marius the tutans the romans who were about marius begin to laugh let your brethren be said marius they have land and will always have it they received it from us the kimbrans receiving the irony of his tone burst out into threats telling marius that he should suffer for it at their hands first and afterwards at those at the tutans when they arrived they are here rejoined marius you must not depart without saluting your brethren and he had tutobod king of the tutans brought out with the other captive chieftains the envoys reported the sad news in their own camp and three days afterwards july 30th a great battle took place between the kimbrans and the romans in the rowdyne plains a large track near vercale it were unnecessary to dwell on the details of the battle which resembled that of x besides fought as it was in italy and by none but romans it has but little to do with the history of gall it has been mentioned only to make known the issue of that famous invasion of which gall was the principal theater for a moment it threatened the very existence of the roman republic the victories of marius arrested the torrent but did not dry up its source the great movement which drove from asia to europe and from eastern to western europe masses of roving populations followed its course bringing incessantly upon the roman frontiers new comers and new perils a greater man than marius julia cesar in fact saw that to effectively resist these clouds of barbaric assailants the country into which they poured must be conquered and made roman the conquest of gall was the accomplishment of that idea and the decisive step towards the transformation of the roman republic in to a roman empire end of chapter three section five a volume one of a popular history of france from the earliest times this is a libervox recording all libervox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit libervox.org volume one of a popular history of france from the earliest times by françois guizot translated by robert black chapter four gall conquered by julius cesar part one historians ancient and modern have attributed to the roman senate from the time of the establishment of the roman province in gall a long premeditated design of conquering gall altogether others have said that when julius cesar in the year of rome 696 58 bc got himself appointed pro consul in gall his single aim was to form for himself there an army devoted to his person of which he might avail himself to satisfy his ambition and make himself master of rome we should not be too ready to believe in these far-reaching and precise plans conceived and settled so long beforehand whether by a senate or a single man provision and exact calculation do not count for so much in the lives of governments and of peoples it is unexpected events inevitable situations the imperious necessities of successive epochs which most often decide the conduct of the greatest powers and the most able politicians it is after the fair when the course of the facts and their consequences have received full development that admits their tranquil meditations analysts and historians in their learned way attribute everything to systematic plans and personal calculations on the part of the chief actors there is much less of combination than of momentary inspiration derived from circumstances in the resolutions and conduct of political chiefs kings senators or great men from the time that discord and corruption had turned the roman republic into a bloody and tyrannical anarchy the roman senate no longer meditated grand designs and its members were preoccupied only with the question of escaping or avenging proscriptions when caesar procured for himself the government for five years of the Gauls the fact was that not desiring to be a sanguinary dictator like Silla or a gala chieftain like Pompeii he went and sought abroad for his own glory and fortune sake in a war of general roman interest the means and chances of success which were not furnished to him in rome itself by the dogged and monotonous struggle of the factions in spite of the victories of marius and the destruction or dispersion of the tutans in kimbrians the whole of gaul remained seriously disturbed and threatened at the northeast in belgica some bands of other tutans who had begun to be called germans men of war had passed over the left bank of the rye and were settling or wandering there without definite purpose in eastern and central gaul in the valleys of the yura alvernia on the banks of the son the allier and the dube the two great gallic confederations that of the itoans and that of the alvanyans were disputing the preponderance and making war upon one another seeking the aid respectively of the romans and of the germans at the foot of the alps the little nation of the alabrogans having fallen a prey to civil dissension had given up its independence to rome even in southern and western gaul the populations of aquitania were rising vexing the roman province and rendering necessary on both sides of the pyrenees the intervention of roman legions everywhere floods of barbaric populations were pressing upon gaul were carrying disquietude even where they had not themselves yet penetrated and causing pre sentiments of a general commotion the danger burst before long upon particular places and in connection with particular names which have remained historical in the war with the confederation of the itoans that of the alvanyans called to their aid the german aria vistas chieftain of a confederation of tribes which under the name of suavians were roving over the right bank of the rine ready at any time to cross the river aria vistas with fifteen thousand warriors at his back was not slow in responding to the appeal the itoans were beaten and aria vistas settled amongst the gauls who had been thoughtless enough to appeal to him numerous bands of suavians came and rejoined him and in two or three years after his victory he had about him it was said one hundred and twenty thousand warriors he had a portion to them a third of the territory of his gallic allies and he imperiously demanded another third to satisfy another twenty five thousand of his old german comrades who asked to share his booty and his new country one of the foremost itoans divitiakis by name went and invoked the succor of the roman people the patrons of his confederation he was admitted to the presence of the senate and invited to be seated but he modestly declined and standing leaning upon his shield he set forth the sufferings and claims of his country he received kindly promises which at first remained without fruit he however remained at Rome persistent in his solicitations and carrying on intercourse with several romans of consideration notably with cicero who says of him i knew divitiakis the itoan who claimed proficiency in that natural science which the greeks call physiology and he predicted the future either by augury or his own conjecture the roman senate with the indecision and indolence of all declining powers hesitated to engage for the itoans sake in a war against the invaders of a corner of gallic territory at the same time that they gave a cordial welcome to divitiakis they entered into negotiations with aria vistas himself they gave him beautiful presence the title of king and even a friend the only demand they made was that he should live peaceably in his new settlement and not lend his support to the fresh invasions of which they were the symptoms in gall and which were becoming too serious for resolutions not to be taken to repel them a people of gallic race the helvetians who inhabited present switzerland where the old name still abides besides the modern found themselves incessantly threatened ravaged and invaded by the german tribes which pressed upon their frontiers after some years of perplexity and internal discord the whole helvetic nation decided upon abandoning its territory and going to seek in gall westward it is said on the borders of the ocean a more tranquil settlement but informed of this design the roman senate and caesar at that time console resolved to protect the roman province and their gallic allies the itoans against this inundation of roaming neighbors the helvetians nonetheless persisted in their plan and in the spring of the year roam six ninety six fifty eight bc they committed to the flames in the country they were about to leave twelve towns four hundred villages and all their houses loaded their cars with provisions for three months and agreed to meet at the southern point of the lake of geneva they found on their reunion says caesar a total of three hundred and sixty eight thousand emigrants some ninety two thousand men and arms the switzerland which they abandoned numbers now two million five hundred thousand inhabitants but when the helvetians would have entered gall they found their caesar who after having got himself appointed pro consul for five years had arrived suddenly at geneva prepared to forbid their passage they sent to him a deputation to ask leave they said merely to traverse the roman province without causing the least damage caesar knew as well how to gain time is not to lose any he was not ready so he put off the helvetians to a second conference in the interval he employed his legionaries who could work as well as fight and erecting upon the left bank of the ron a wall sixteen feet high and ten miles long which rendered the passage of the river very difficult and on the return of the helvetian envoys he formally forbade them to pass by the road they had proposed to follow they attempted to take another and to cross not the ron but the sound and march thence towards western gall but whilst they were arranging for the execution of this movement caesar who had up to that time only four legions at his disposal returned to idli brought away five fresh legions and arrived on the left bank of the sound at the moment when the rear guard of the helvetians was embarking to rejoin the main body which had already pitched its camp on the right bank caesar cut to pieces this rear guard crossed the river in his turn with the legions pursued the immigrants without relaxation came into contact with them on several occasions at one time attacking them or repelling their attacks at another receiving and giving audience to their envoys without ever consenting to treat with them and before the end of the year he had so completely beaten decimated and dispersed and driven them back that of the three hundred and sixty eight thousand helvetians which had entered gall but one hundred and ten thousand escaped from the romans and were enabled by flight to regain their country idlians sequanians or avarians all the galls interested in the struggle thus terminated were eager to congratulate caesar upon his victory but if they were delivered from the invasion of the helvetians another scourge fell heavily upon them aria vistas and the germans who were settled upon their territory oppressed them cruelly and day by day fresh bands were continually coming to aggravate the evil and the danger they abjured caesar to protect them from these swarms of barbarians in a few years said they all the germans will have crossed the Rhine and all the galls will be driven from gall for the soil of germany cannot compare with that of gall any more than the mode of life if caesar and the roman people refused to aid us there was nothing left for us but to abandon our lands as the helvetians would have done in their case and go seek afar from the germans another dwelling place caesar touched by so prompt an appeal to the power of his name and fame gave ear to the prayer of the galls but he was for trying negotiation before war he proposed to aria vistas an interview at which they a right treat in common of affairs of importance for both aria vistas replied that if he wanted anything of caesar he would go in search of him if caesar had business with him it was for caesar to come caesar thereupon can fade to him by messenger his enspreced injunctions not to summon any more from the borders of the Rhine fresh multitudes of men and to cease from vexing the idolans and making war on them and their allies otherwise caesar would not fail to avenge their wrongs aria vistas replied that he had conquered the idolans the roman people were in the habit of treating the vanquished after their own pleasure and not the advice of another he too himself had the same right caesar said that he would avenge the wrongs of the idolans but no one had ever attacked him with impunity if caesar would like to try it let him come he would learn what could be done by the bravery of the germans who were as yet unbeaten who were trained to arms who for fourteen years had not slept beneath a roof at the moment he received this answer caesar had just heard that fresh bands of swayvans were acclaimed on the right bank of the Rhine ready to cross and that aria vistas with all his forces was making towards wasontio the chief town of the sequanians caesar forthwith put himself in motion occupied wasontio established there a strong garrison and made his arrangements for issuing from it with his legions to go and anticipate the attack of aria vistas then came to him word that no little disquietude was showing itself among the roman troops and many soldiers and even officers appeared anxious about the struggle with the germans their ferocity the vast forces which must be traversed to reach them the difficult roads and the transport of provisions there was an apprehension of broken courage and perchance of numerous desertions caesar summoned a great council of war to which he called the chief officers of his legions he complained bitterly of their alarm recalled to their memory their recent successes against the helvetians and scoffed at the rumors spread about the germans and at the doubts with which there was an attempt to inspire him about the fidelity and obedience of his troops an army said he disobeys only the commander who leads them badly and has no good fortune or is found guilty of cupidity and and malversation my whole life shows my integrity and the war against the helvetians my good fortune i shall order forthwith the departure i had intended to put off i shall strike the camp the very next night at the fourth watch i wish to see as soon as possible whether honor and duty or fear prevail in your ranks if there be any refusal to follow me i shall march with only the 10th legion of which i have no doubt that shall be my praetorian cohort the cheers of the troops officers and men were the answer given to the reproaches and the hopes of the general all hesitation passed away and caesar set out with his army he fetched a considerable compass to spare them the passage of thick forests and after a seven days march arrived at a short distance from the camp of aria vistas on learning that caesar was already so near the german sent to him a messenger with proposals for the interview which was but lately demanded and to which there was no longer any obstacle since caesar had himself arrived upon the spot and the interview really took place with mutual precautions for safety and warlike dignity caesar repeated all the demands he was made upon aria vistas who in his turn maintained his refusal asking what was wanted why had foot been set upon his lands that part of gall was his province just as the other was a roman province if caesar did not retire and withdraw his troops he should consider him no more a friend but an enemy he knew that if he were to slay caesar he would recommend himself to many nobles and chiefs among the roman people he had learned as much from his own envoys but if caesar retired and left him aria vistas in free possession of gall he would pay liberally in return and would wage on caesar's behalf without trouble or danger to him any wars he might desire during this interview it is probable that caesar smiled more than once at the boldness and shrewdness of the barbarian ultimately some horsemen in the escort of aria vistas began to cover call towards the romans and to hurl at them stones and darts caesar ordered his men to make no reprisals and broke off the conference the next day aria vistas proposed a renewal but caesar refused having decided to bring the quarrel to an issue several days in succession he let out his legions from the camp and offered battle but aria vistas remained within his lines caesar then took the resolution of assailing the german camp into filing in front of cars filled with their women at his approach the germans at length moved out from their entrenchments and defiling in front of cars filled with their women who implored them with tears not to deliver them into slavery of the romans the struggle was obstinate and not without moments of anxiety and partial check for the romans but the genius of caesar and strict discipline of the legions carried the day the route of the germans was complete they fled towards the rine which was only a few leagues from the field of battle aria vistas himself was amongst the fugitives he found a boat by the riverside and recrossed into germany where he died shortly afterwards to the great grief of the germans says caesar the swaybean bands who were awaiting on the right bank the result of the struggle plunged back again within their own territory and so the invasion of the germans was stopped as the immigration of the helvetians had been and caesar had only to conquer gall it is uncertain whether he had from the beginning determined the whole plan but so soon as he had set seriously to work he felt all the difficulties the expulsion of the helvetian immigrants and of the german invaders left the romans and galls alone face to face and from that moment the romans were in the eyes of the galls foreigners conquerors oppressors their deeds aggravated day by day the feelings excited by the situation they did not ravage the country as the germans had done they did not appropriate such and such piece of land but everywhere they assumed the mastery they laid heavy burdens upon the population they removed the rightful chieftains who were opposed to them and forcibly placed or maintained in power those only who were subservient to them independently of the roman empire caesar established everywhere his own personal influence by turns gentle or severe caressing or threatening he sought and created for himself partisans amongst the galls as he had amongst his army showing favor to those only whose devotion was assured to him to national antipathy towards foreigners must be added the intrigues and personal rivalry of the conquered in their relations with the conqueror conspiracies were hatched insurrections soon broke out in nearly every part of gall in the heart even of the people's most subject to roman dominion every movement of this kind was for caesar a provocation a temptation almost an obligation to conquest he accepted them and profited by them with that promptitude in resolution boldness and address and execution and cool indifference as to the means employed which were characteristics of his genius after nine years from 696 AUC to 705 and in eight successive campaigns he carried his troops his lieutenants himself and air long war or negotiation corruption discord or destruction in his path amongst the different nations and confederations of gall Celtic kimbrick germanic iberian or hybrid northward and eastward in belgica between the sain and the ryan westward in america on the borders of the ocean southwestward in aquitania centerward amongst the peoples established between the sain the lower and the sound he was nearly always victorious and then at one time he pushed his victory to the bitter end and at another stopped at the right moment that it might not be comprised when he experienced reverses he bore them without repining and repaired them with inexhaustible ability and courage more than once to revive the sinking spirits of his men he was rashly lavish of his person and on one of those occasions at the raising of the siege of gurgovia he was all but taken by some alvernian horsemen and left his sword in their hands it was found a while afterwards when the war was over in a temple in which the galls had hung it Caesar's soldiers would have torn it down and returned it to him but let it be said he to his sanctified in good or evil fortune the hero of a triumph at Rome or the prisoner in the hands of Mediterranean pirates he was unrivaled in striking the imaginations of men and growing great in their eyes he did not confine himself to conquering and subjecting the galls and gall his ideas were ever outstripping his deeds and he knew how to make his power felt even when he made no attempt to establish it twice he crossed the Rhine to hurl back the Germans beyond their river and to strike to the very hearts of their forests the terror of the Roman name AUC 699 to 700 he equipped two fleets made two descents on great Britain AUC 699 and 700 several times defeated the Britons and their principal chieftain Coswellon and set up across the channel the first landmarks of roman conquest he thus became more and more famous and terrible both in gall whence he sometimes departed for a moment to go and look after his political prospects in Italy and in more distant lands where he was but in apparition but the greatest minds were far from foreseeing all the consequences of their deeds and all the perils proceeding from their successes Caesar was by nature neither violent nor cruel but he did not trouble himself about justice or humanity and the success of his enterprises no matter by what means or at what price was his sole law of conduct he could show on occasion moderation and mercy but when he had to put down an obstinate resistance or when a long and arduous effort had irritated him he had no hesitation in employing atrocious severity and perfidious promises during his first campaign in belgica AUC 697 and 57 bc two peoples the nervians and the aduaticans had gallantly struggled with brief moments of success against the roman legions the nervians were conquered and almost annihilated their last remnants huddled for refuge in the midst of their morasses sent a deputation to caesar to make submission saying of 600 senators three only are left and 60 000 men that bore arms scarce 500 have escaped caesar treated them kindly returned to them their lands and warned their neighbors to do them no harm the aduaticans on the contrary defended themselves to the last extremity caesar having slain 4000 had all that remained sold by auction and 56 000 human beings according to his own statement passed as slaves into the hands of their purchasers some years later another belgian people the ebroons settled between the muse and the rye rose and inflicted great losses upon the roman legions caesar put them beyond the pale of military and human law and had all the neighboring peoples and all the roving bands invited to come in pillage and destroy that accursed race promising to whoever would join in the work the friendship of the roman people a little later still some insurgents in the center of gall had concentrated in a place in the southwest called or relic dunum nowadays it is said pui de sola in the department of the lot between verac and martel after a long resistance they were obliged to surrender and caesar had all the combatants hands cut off and sent them thus mutilated to live in rome throughout gall as a spectacle to all the country that was or was to be brought to submission nor were the rigors of administration less than those of warfare caesar wanted a great deal of money not only to maintain satisfactorily his troops in gall but to defray the enormous expenses he was at in idly for the purpose of enriching his partisans or securing the favor of the roman people it was with the produce of imposts and plunder in gall that he undertook the reconstruction at rom of the basilica of the forum the site whereof extending to the temple of liberty was valued it is said at more than twenty five million five hundred thousand francs cicero who took the direction of the works wrote to his friend adicus we shall make it the most glorious thing in the world kato was less satisfied three years previously dispatches from caesar had announced to the senate his victories over the belgian and german insurgents the senators had voted a general thanksgiving but thanksgiving cried kato rather expiation pray the gods not to visit upon our armies the sin of a guilty general give up caesar to the germans and let the foreigner know that roam does not enjoy in perjury and rejects with horror the fruit thereof and of chapter four part one section six a volume one of a popular history of france from the earliest times this is a liber vox recording all liber vox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit liber vox dot org volume one of a popular history of france from the earliest times by françois guizot translated by robert black chapter four gall conquered by julius caesar part two caesar had all the gifts all the means of success in empire that can be possessed by man he was great in politics and in war as active and full of resource amidst the intrigues of the forum as amidst the combinations and surprises of the battlefield equally able to please and to terrify he had a double pride which gave him double confidence in himself the pride of a great noble and the pride of a great man he was fond of saying my aunt julia is maternally the daughter of kings paternally she is descended from the immortal gods my family unites to the sacred character of kings who are the most powerful amongst men the awful majesty of the gods who have even kings in their keeping thus by birth as well as nature caesar felt called to dominion and at the same time he was perfectly aware of the decadence of the roman patriciate and of the necessity for being popular in order to become master with this double instinct he undertook the conquest of the galls as the surest means of achieving conquest at roam but owing either to his own vices or to the difficulties of the situation he displayed in his conduct and his work in gall so much violence and oppression so much iniquity and cruel indifference that even at that time in the midst of roman harshness pagan corruption and gallic or german barbarism so great an infliction of moral and material harm could not but be followed by a formidable reaction where there are strength and ability the want of foresight the fears the weaknesses the dissensions of men whether individuals or peoples may be for long calculated upon but it may be carried too far after six years struggling caesar was victor he had passed through and subjected them all either by his own strong arm or thanks to their rivalries in the year of roam 702 he was suddenly informed in italy whether he had gone on his roman business that most of the gallic nations united under a chieftain hitherto unknown were rising with one common impulse and recommending war the same perils and the same reverses the same sufferings and the same resentments had stirred up amongst the galls without distinction of race and name a sentiment to which they had hitherto been almost strangers the sentiment of gallic nationality and the passion for independence not local any longer but national the sentiment was first manifested among the populace and under obscure chieftains a band of carnutian peasants people of chartreine rushed upon the town of guenobom giz rouse the inhabitants and massacre the italian traders and a roman knight gaius fousius chita whom caesar had commissioned to buy corn there and less than 24 hours the signal of insurrection against roam was born across the country as far as the ovanians amongst whom conspiracy had long ago been waiting and paving the way for insurrection amongst them lived a young gall his real name has remained unknown and whom history has called versingetorix that is chief over a hundred heads chief in general he came of an ancient and powerful family of ovanians and his father had been put to death in his own city for attempting to make himself king caesar knew him and had taken some pains to attach him to himself it does not appear that the ovanian aristocrat had absolutely declined the overtures but when the hope of national independence was aroused versingetorix was his representative and chief he descended with his followers from the mountain and seized gergovia the capital of his nation thence his messengers spread over the center northwest and west of gall the greater part of the peoples and cities of those regions pronounced from the first moment for insurrection the same sentiment was working amongst others more compromised with roam who waited only for a breath of success to break out versingetorix was immediately invested with the chief command and he made use of it with all the passion engendered by patriotism and the possession of power he regulated the movement demanded hostages fixed the contingents of troops imposed taxes inflicted summary punishment on the traitors the dastards and the indifferent and subjected those who turned a deaf ear to the appeal of their common country to the same pains and the same utilations that caesar inflicted on those who obstinately resisted the roman yoke at the news of this great movement caesar immediately left italy and returned to gall he had one quality rare even amongst the greatest men he remained cool amidst the very hottest alarms necessity never hurried him into precipitation and he prepared for the struggle as if he were always sure of arriving on the spot in time to sustain it he was always quick but never hasty and his activity and patience were equally admirable and efficacious starting from italy at the beginning of 702 a uc he passed two months in traversing within gall the roman province and its neighborhood in visiting the points threatened by the insurrection and the openings by which he might get at in assembling his troops in confirming his wavering allies and it was not before the early part of march that he moved with his whole army to agandicum sand the very center of revolt and started thence to push on the war with vigor in less than three months he spread devastation throughout the insurgent country he had attacked and taken its principal cities and delivering up everywhere country and city lands and inhabitants to the rage of the roman soldiery maddened at having again to conquer enemies so often conquered to strike a decisive blow he penetrated at last to the heart of the country of the ovanians and laid siege to gergovia their capital and the birthplace of versingetorix the firmness and the ability of the gallic chieftain was not inferior to such a struggle he understood from the outset that he could not cope in the open field with caesar and the roman legions he therefore exerted himself in getting together a body of cavalry numerous enough to harass the romans during their movements to attack their scattered detachments and bear his orders swiftly to all quarters and to keep up the excitement against the different peoples with some hope of success his plan of campaign his repeated instructions his passionate entreaties to the confederates were to avoid any action to anticipate by their own ravages those of the romans to destroy everywhere at the approach of the enemy stores springs bridges trees and habitations he wanted caesar to find in his front nothing but ruins and clouds of warriors relentless in pursuing him without getting within reach frequently he succeeded in obtaining from the people these painful sacrifices in the interest of the common safety as when the biturigians inhabitants of the district of borja burned in one day 20 of their towns or villages versingetorix abjured them to burn avericum borja their capital but they refused and the capture of avericum though gallantly defended justified the urgency of versingetorix seeing that it was an important success for caesar and a serious blow for the Gauls out of 40 000 combatants within the walls it is said scarcely 800 escaped the slaughter and succeeded in joining versingetorix who had hovered continually in the neighborhood without being able to offer the besieged any effectual assistance nor was it only against the romans that he had to struggle he had to fight amongst his own people against rivalry mistrust impatience and discouragement he was accused of desiring beyond everything the mastery he was even suspected of keeping up with the aim of assuring his own future secret relations with caesar he was called upon to attack the enemy in front and so bring the war to a decisive issue it was all very fine to be summoned by the popular voice to accomplish a great and arduous work but you cannot be with impunity the most far-sighted the most able and the most in danger because the most devoted versingetorix was bearing the burden of his superiority and influence until he should suffer the impenalty and pay with his life for his patriotism and his glory he was approaching the happiest moment of his enterprise and his destiny in spite of reverses in spite of caesar's presence and activity the insurrection was gaining ground and strength in the north west southwest on the banks of the rine the sein the luar the idea of gallic nationality and the hope of independence were spreading amongst people far removed from the center of the movement and were bringing to versingetorix declarations of sympathy or material reinforcements an event of more importance took place in the center itself the iduans the most ancient allies and clients the romans had in gall being divided amongst themselves and feeling besides the national instinct ended after much hesitation by taking part in the uprising caesar for all his care could neither prevent nor stifle this defection which threatened to become contagious and detached from rome the neighboring peoples that were still faithful caesar engaged upon the siege of gergovia encountered in obstinate resistance wilst versingetorix and camped on the heights which surrounded his birthplace everywhere embarrassed sometimes attacked and incessantly threatened the romans the eighth legion drawn on one day to make an imprudent assault was repulsed and lost 46 of its bravest centurions caesar determined to raise the siege and to transfer the struggle to places where the population could be more safely depended upon it was the first decisive check he had experienced in gall the first gallic town he had been unable to take the first retrograde movement he had executed in the face of the gallic insurgents and their chieftain versingetorix could not and would not restrain his joy it seemed to him that the day had dawned and an excellent chance arrived for attempting a decisive blow he had under his orders it is said 80 000 men mostly his own avanians and a numerous cavalry furnished by the different peoples his allies he followed all caesar's movements in retreat towards the sound and on arriving at longue not far from longre he halted near a little river named the vingin pitched his camp about nine miles from the romans and assembling the chiefs of his cavalry said now is the hour of victory the romans are flying to their province and leaving gall that is enough for our liberty today but too little for the peace and repose of the future for they will attack with greater armies and the war will be without end attack we them amiss the difficulties of their march if their foot support the cavalry they will not be able to pursue their route if as i fully trust they leave their baggage to provide for their safety they will lose both their honor and the supplies whereof they have need none of the enemy's horse will dare to come forth from their lines to give you courage and aid i will order forth from the camp in place in battle loray all our troops and they will strike the enemy with terror the gallic horsemen cried out that they all must bind themselves by the most sacred of oaths and swear that none of them would come again under roof or see again wife or children or parent unless he had twice pierced through the ranks of the enemy and all did take this oath and so prepared for the attack versen getterix knew not that Caesar with his usual foresight had summoned and joined to his legions a great number of horsemen from the german tribes roaming over the banks of the Rhine with which he had taken care to keep up friendly relations not only had he promised them pay plunder and lands but finding their horses ill trained he had taken those of his officers even those of the roman knights and veterans and distributed them amongst his barbaric auxiliaries the action began between the cavalry on both sides a portion of the gallic had taken up position on the road followed by the roman army to bar its passage but wilse the fighting at this point was getting more and more obstinate the german horse in Caesar's service gained a neighboring height drove off the gallic horse that were in occupation and pursued them as far as the river near which was versen getterix with his infantry disorder took place amongst this infantry so unexpectedly attacked Caesar launched his legions at them and there was a general panic and route among the galls versen getterix had great trouble in rallying them and he rallied them only to order a general retreat for which they clamored hurriedly striking the camp he made for alicia samor in ex-ois a neighboring town in the capital of the mandubians a people in client ship to the iduans Caesar immediately went in pursuit of the galls killed he says three thousand made important prisoners and encamped with his legions before alicia the day but one after versen getterix with his fugitive army had occupied the place as well as the neighboring hills and was hard at work entrenching himself probably without any clear idea as yet of what he should do to continue the struggle Caesar at once took a resolution as unexpected as it was discreetly bold here was the whole gallic insurrection chieftain and soldiery united together within or beneath the walls of a town of moderate extent he undertook to keep it there and destroy it on the spot instead of having to pursue it everywhere without ever being sure of getting at it he had at his disposal 11 legions about 50 000 strong in five or six thousand cavalry of which 2000 were germans he placed them around alicia and the gallic camp caused to be dug a circuit of deep ditches some filled with water others bristling with palisades and snares and added from interval to interval 23 little forts occupied or guarded night and day by detachments the result was a line of investment about 10 miles an extent to the rear of the roman camp and for defense against the attacks from without Caesar caused to be dug similar entrenchments which formed a line of circumvalation of about 13 miles the troops had provisions and forage for 30 days verson getter eggs made frequent sallies to stop or destroy these works but they were repulsed and only resulted in getting his army more closely cooped up within the place 80 000 gallican surgeons were as it were in prison guarded by 50 000 roman soldiers verson getter eggs was one of those who persevere and act in the days of distress just as in the springtime of their hopes before the works of the romans were finished he assembled his horsemen and ordered them to sally briskly from alicia return each to his own land and summon the whole population to arms he was obeyed and the gallic horsemen made their way during the night through the intervals left by the romans still in perfect lines of investment and disperse themselves amongst their various peoples nearly everywhere irritation and zeal were at their height and assemblage of delegates met a big brach day altune and fixed the amount of the contingents to be furnished by each nation and appoint was assigned at which all those contingents should unite for the purpose of marching together towards alicia and attacking the besiegers the total of the contingents thus levied on the 43 gallic peoples amounted according to caesar to 283 000 men and 240 000 men it is said did actually hurry up to the appointed place mistrust of such enormous numbers has already been expressed by one who has lived through the greatest european wars and has heard the abalus generals reduced to their real strength the largest armies we find in monsieur thers history of the consulate and empire that at australitz on the second december 1805 napoleon had but 65 to 70 000 men and the combined austrians and germans but 90 000 at leipzig the biggest of modern battles when all the french forces on the one side and the austrian prussian russian and swedish on the other were face to face on the 18th of october 1813 they made altogether about 500 000 men how can we believe then that 19 centuries ago gall so weakly populated and so slightly organized suddenly sent 240 000 men to the assistance of 80 000 galls besieged in the little town of alicia by 50 or 60 000 romans but whatever may be the case with the figures it is certain that at the very first moment the national impulse answered the appeal of versanghetorics and that the besieges of alicia caesar and his legions found that they were themselves all at once besieged in their entrenchments by a cloud of galls hurrying up to the defense of their compatriots the struggle was fierce but short every time that the fresh gallic army attacked the besiegers versanghetorics and the galls of alicia salade forth and joined in the attack caesar and his legions on their side and at one time repulsed these double attacks at another themselves took the initiative and assailed at one in the same time the besieged and the auxiliaries gall had sent them the feeling was passionate on both sides roman pride was pitted against gallic patriotism but in four or five days the genius of caesar carried the day the gallic reinforcements beaten and slaughtered without mercy dispersed and versanghetorics and the besieged were crowded back within their walls without hope of escape we have two accounts of the last moments of this gallic insurrection and its chief one written by caesar himself plain cold and harsh as its author the other by two later historians who were neither statesmen nor warriors clutark and deon casius has more detail and more ornament following either popular tradition or the imagination of the writers it may be well to give both the day after the defeat says caesar versanghetorics convokes the assembly and shows that he did not undertake the war for his own personal advantage but for the general freedom since submission must be made to fortune he offers to satisfy the romans either by instant death or by being delivered to them alive a deputation there is sent to caesar who orders the arms to be given up and the chiefs brought to him he seats himself on this tribunal in front of his camp the chiefs are brought versanghetorics is delivered over the arms are cast at caesar's feet except the itoans and avanians whom caesar kept for the purpose of trying to regain their people he had the prisoners distributed head by head to his army as booty of war the account of deon casius is more varied and dramatic after the defeat says he versanghetorics who is neither captured nor wounded might have fled but hoping that the friendship that had once bound him to caesar might gain him grace he repaired to the romans without previous demand of peace by the voice of a herald and appeared suddenly in his presence just as caesar was seating himself upon his tribunal the apparition of the gallic chieftain inspired no little terror for he was of lofty stature and had an imposing appearance in arms there was a deep silence versanghetorics fell at caesar's feet and made supplication by touch of hand without speaking a word the scene moved those present with pity remembering the ancient fortunes of versanghetorics and comparing them with his present disaster caesar on the contrary found proof of criminality in the very memories relied upon for salvation contrasted the late struggle with the friendship appealed to by versanghetorics and so put in a more hideous light the odiousness of his conduct and thus far from being moved by his misfortunes at the moment he threw them in chains forthwith and subsequently had him put to death after keeping him to adorn his triumph another historian contemporary with plutarque floris attributes to versanghetorics as he fell down and cast his arms at caesar's feet these words bravest of men thou hast conquered a brave man it is not necessary to have faith in the rhetorical compliment or to likewise reject the mixture of pride and weakness attributed to versanghetorics in the account of deon kessius it would not be the only example of a hero seeking yet some chance of safety in the extremity of defeat and abasing himself for the sake of preserving at any price a life on which fortune might still smile however it may be versanghetorics vanquished dragged out after 10 years imprisonment to great caesar's triumph and put the death immediately afterwards lives as a glorious patriot in the pages of that history in which caesar appears on this occasion as a peevish conqueror who took pleasure in crushing with cruel disdain the enemy he had been at so much pains to conquer alicia taken and versanghetorics a prisoner gall was subdued caesar however had in the following year a uc 703 a campaign to make subjugate some peoples who tried to maintain their local independence a year afterwards again attempts at insurrection took place in belgica and afterwards the mouth of the luar but they were easily repressed they had no national or formidable characteristics caesar and his lieutenants willingly contented themselves with an apparent submission and in the year 705 a uc the roman legions after nine years occupation in the conquest of gall were able to depart their from to italy and the east for a plunge into civil war end of chapter four section seven of volume one of a popular history of france from the earliest times this is a libre vox recording all libre vox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit libre vox dot org volume one of a popular history of france from the earliest times by france why we so translated by robert black chapter five gall under roman dominion part one from the conquest of gall by caesar to the establishment there of the francs under clovis she remained for more than five centuries under roman dominion first under the pagan afterwards under the christian empire in her primitive state of independence she had struggled for ten years against the best armies and the greatest man of rome after five centuries of roman dominion she opposed no resistance to the invasion of the barbarians germans goths allen's burgundians and francs who destroyed bit by bit the roman empire in this humiliation and one might say annihilation of a population so independent so active and so valiant at its first appearance in history is to be seen the characteristic of this long epic it is worthwhile to learn and to understand how it was gall lived during those five centuries under very different rules and rulers they may be summed up under five names which correspond with governments very unequal in merit and defect in good and evil wrought for their epic first the caesars from julius to nero from 49 bc to ad 68 second the flavians from vespecian to demission from ad 69 to 95 third the antonines from nerva to marcus aurelius from ad 96 to 180 fourth the imperial anarchy or the 39 emperors and the 31 tyrants from comotas to carinas and numerian from ad 180 to 284 fifth diocletian from ad 284 to 305 through all these governments and in spite of their different results for their cotemporary subjects the fact already pointed out as the general and definitive characteristic of that long epic to wit the moral and social decadence of gall as well as of the roman empire never ceased to continue and spread on quitting conquered gall to become master at roam caesar neglected nothing to assure his conquest and make it conducive to the establishment of his empire he formed of all the gallic districts that he had subjugated a special province which received the name of gallia comata gall of the long hair whilst the old province was called gallia toyata gall of the toga caesar caused to be enrolled amongst his troops a multitude of galls belgians avarians and aquitanians of whose bravery he had made proof he even formed almost entirely of galls a special legion called allata lark because it bore on the helmets of lark without spread wings the symbol of weightfulness at the same time he gave in gallia comata to the towns and families that declared for him all kinds of favors the rites of roman citizenship the title of allies clients and friends even to the extent of the julian name a sign of the most powerful roman patronage he had however in the old roman province formidable enemies especially the town of marseilles which declared against him and for pompe caesar had the place besieged by one of his lieutenants got possession of it caused to be delivered over to him its vessels and treasure and left in it a garrison of two legions he established at narbone arl biters bezier three colonies of veteran legionnaires devoted to his cause and near antipolis antibes a maritime colony called forum julie nowadays free has of which he proposed to make a rival to marseille much money was necessary to meet the expenses of such patronage and to satisfy the troops old and new of the conqueror of gall and rome now there was at rome an ancient treasure founded more than four centuries previously by the dictator camulus when he had delivered rome from the galls a treasure reserved for the expenses of gallic wars and guarded with religious aspect as sacred money in the midst of all discords and disorders at rome none had touched it after his return from gall caesar one day ascended the capital with his soldiers and finding in the temple of saturn the door closed of the place where the treasure was deposited ordered it to be forced l metellus tribune of the people made strong opposition conjuring caesar not to bring on the republic the penalty of such sacrilege but the republic has nothing to fear said caesar i have released it from its oaths by subjugating gall there are no more galls he caused the door to be forced and the treasure was abstracted and distributed to the troops gallic and roman whatever caesar may have said there were still galls for at the same time that he was distributing to such of them as he had turned into his own soldiers the money reserved for the expense of fighting them he was imposing upon gallia cometa under the name of stipendium soldiers pay a levy of 40 millions of cisterces a considerable amount for a devastated country which according to flutark did not contain at that time more than three millions of inhabitants and almost equal to that of the levies paid by the rest of the roman provinces after caesar augustus left soul master of the roman world assumed in gall as elsewhere the part of pacificator repairer conservator and organizer whilst taking care with all his moderation to remain always the master he divided the provinces into imperial and senatorial reserving to himself the entire government of the former and leaving the latter under the authority of the senate gall of the long hair all that caesar had conquered was imperial province augustus divided it into three provinces lagundanesean leonese belgian and aquitanian he recognized therein sixty nations or distinct cityships which continued to have themselves the government of their own affairs according to their traditions and manners whilst conforming to the general laws of the empire and abiding under the supervision of imperial governors charged with maintaining everywhere in the words of pliny the younger the majesty of roman peace ladenum leon which had been up to that time of small importance and obscure became the great town the favorite cityship and ordinary abiding place of the emperors when they visited gall after having held at narbonne a meeting of representatives from the different gallic nations augustus went several times to leon and even lived there as it appears a pretty long while to superintend no doubt from thence and to get into working order the new government of gall after the departure of augustus his adopted son drusus who had just fulfilled in belgica and on the rine a mission at the same time military and administrative called together at leon delegates from the sixty gallic cityships to take part bc twelve or ten in the inauguration of a magnificent monument raised at the confluence of the ron and son in honor of rome and augustus as the tutelary deities of gall in the middle of a vast enclosure was placed a huge altar of white marble on which were engraved the names of the sixty cityships of the long hair a colossal statue of the galls and sixty statues of the gallic cityships occupied the enclosure two columns of granite twenty five feet high stood close by the altar and were surmounted by two colossal victories in white marble ten feet high solemn festivals gymnastic games and oratorical and literary excitations accompanied the inauguration and during the ceremony it was announced amidst popular acclamation that a son had just been born to drusus at leon itself in the palace of the emperor where the child's mother antonia daughter of mark antony in octavia sister of augustus had been staying for some months this child was one day to be the emperor claudius the administrative energy of augustus was not confined to the erection of monuments and to festivals he applied himself to the development in gall of the material elements of civilization in social order his most intimate and able advisor agrippa being settled at leon as governor of the galls caused to be opened four great roads starting from a milestone placed in the middle of the leonese forum and going one centerwards to saint and the ocean another southwards to narbonne and the pyrenees the third northwestwards and toward the channel by amnien and boulogne and the fourth northwestwards and towards the rye agrippa founded several colonies amongst others colonia which bore his name and he admitted to gallic territory bands of germans who asked for an establishment there thanks to public security romans became proprietors in the gallic provinces and introduced them to italian cultivation the gallic chieftains on their side began to cultivate lands which had become their personal property towns were built or grew a pace and became encircled by ramparts under protection of which the populations came and placed themselves the most learned and attentive observer of nature and roman society pliny the elder attest that under augustus gallic agriculture and industry made vast progress but side by side with this work in the cause of civilization and organization augustus and his roman agents were pursuing a work of quite a contrary tendency they labored to extirpate from gall the spirit of nationality independence and freedom they took every pains to efface everywhere gallic memories and sentiments gallic towns were losing their old and receiving roman names augustonominium augustonamentum augusta and augusta dunham took the place of georgia novodunham and bribat the national gallic religion which was druidism was attacked as well as the gallic fatherland with the same design and by the same means at one time augustus prohibited this worship amongst the galls converted to roman citizens as being contrary to roman belief at another roman paganism and gallic druidism were fused together in the same temples and at the same altars as if diffused them in the same common indifference roman and gallic names become applied to the same religious personification of such and such a fact or such and such an idea mars and camel were equally the god of war bellen and apollo the god of light and healing diana and arduena the goddess of the chase everywhere whether it was a question of the territorial fatherland or of religious faith the old moral machinery of the galls was broken up or condemned to rest and no new moral machinery was allowed to replace it it was everywhere roman and imperial authority that was substituted for the free national action of the galls it is incredible that this hostility on the part of the powers that be towards moral sentiments and this absence of freedom should not have gravely compromised the material interest of the gallic population public administration however extensive its organization and energy if it be not under the superintendents and restraint of public freedom and morality soon falls into monstrous abuses which itself is either ignorant of or winningly suffers examples of this evil inherent in despotism abound even under the intelligent and watchable sway of augustus here's a case in point he had appointed as procurator that is financial commissioner in long haired gall a native who having been originally a slave and afterwards set free by Julius Caesar had taken the roman name of lasinias this man gave himself up during his administration to a course of the most shameless extortion the taxes were collected monthly and so taking advantage of the change of name which flattery had caused in the two months of july and august sacred to Julius Caesar and augustus respectively he made his year consist of fourteen months so that he might squeeze out fourteen contributions instead of twelve december said he is surely as its name indicates the tenth month of the year and he added there to in honor of the emperor two others which he called the eleventh and twelfth during one of the trips which augustus made into gall strong complaints were made against lasinias and his robberies were denounced to the emperor augustus dared not support him and seemed upon the point of deciding to bring him justice when lasinias conducted him to the place where was deposited all the treasure he had extorted and said see my lord said he what I have laid up for thee and for the roman people for fear lest the galls possessing so much gold should employ it against you both for thee I have kept it and to thee I deliver terry histoire de gallois three page 295 clarion histoire de liant page 198 to 180 augustus accepted the treasure and lasinias remained unpunished in the case of financial abuses or other acts absolute power seldom resist such temptations we may hear it said and we may read in the writings of certain modern philosophers and scholars that the victorious despotism of the roman empire was a necessary and salutary step in advance and that it brought about the unity and enfranchisement of the human race believe it not there is mingled good and evil in all the events and governments of this world and good often arises side by side with or in the wake of evil but it is never from the evil that the good comes injustice and tyranny have never produced good fruits be assured that whenever they have the dominion whenever the moral rights and personal liberties of men are trodden underfoot by material force be it barbaric or be it scientific there can result only prolonged evils and deplorable obstacles to the return of moral right and moral force which god be thanked can never be obliterated from the nature in the history of man the despotic imperial administration upheld for a long while the roman empire and not without renown but it corrupted innervated and impoverished the roman populations and left them after five centuries as incapable of defending themselves as they were of governing tiberius pursued engal but with less energy and less care for the provincial administration the pacific and moderate policy of augustus he had to extinguish in belgica and even in the leonese province two insurrections kindled by the sparks that remained of national and druidic spirit he repressed them effectually and without any violent display of vengeance he made a trip to gall took measures quite insufficient however for defending the rine frontier from the incessantly repeated incursions of the germans and hastened back to italy to resume the course of suspicion perfidity and cruelty which he pursued against the republican pride and moral dignity remaining amongst a few remnants of the roman senate he was succeeded by germanicus's unworthy son caligula after a few days of hypocrisy on the part of the new emperor and credulous hope on that of the people they found a madman let loose to take the place of an unfathomable and gloomy tyrant caligula was much taken up with gall plundering it and giving free rein in it to his frenzies by turns disgusting or ridiculous in a short and fruitless campaign on the banks of the rine he had made too few prisoners for the pomp of a triumph he therefore took some galls the tallest he could find of triumphal size as he said put them in german clothes made them learn some teutonic words and sent them away to roam to await in prison his return and his ovation lian where he stayed some time was the scene of his extortions and strangest freaks he was playing at dice one day with some of his courtiers and lost he rose sent for the tax list of the province marked down for death in confiscation some of those who are most highly rated and said to the company you people you play for a few drachmas but as for me I have just won by a single throw one hundred and fifty millions at the rumor of a plot hatched against him in Italy by some roman nobles he sent for and sold publicly their furniture jewels and slaves as the sale was a success he extended it to the old furniture of his own palaces in Italy I wish to fit out the galls said he it is a mark of friendship I owe to the brave performed the part roman people he himself at these sales performed the part of salesmen and auctioneer telling the history of each article to enhance the price this belonged to my father germanicus that comes to me from agrippa this vase is egyptian it was antonies augustus took it at the battle of actium the imperial sales were succeeded by literary games at which the losers had to pay the expenses of the prizes and celebrate in verse or prose the praises of the winners and if their compositions were pronounced bad they were bound to wipe them out with a sponge or even with their tongues unless they prefer to be beaten with a rod or sourced in the room one day when caligula in the character of jupiter was seated at his tribunal and delivering oracles in the middle of the public thoroughfare a man of the people remained motionless in front of him with eyes of astonishment fixed upon him what seem I to thee as the emperor flattered no doubt by this attention of the mob a great monstrosity answered the gall and that at the end of about four years was the universal cry and against a mad emperor the only resource of the roman world was at that time assassination the captain of caligula's guards rid roam in the provinces of him he did just one sensible and useful thing during the whole of his stay in gall he had a lighthouse constructed to illumine the passage between gall and great britain some traces of it they say have been discovered his successor claudius brother of the great germanicus and married to his own niece the second agrippina was as has been already stated born at leon at the very moment when his father drusus was celebrating there the erection of an altar to augustus during his whole reign he showed to the city of his birth the most lively goodwill and the constant aim as well as principle result of his goodwill was to render the city of leon more and more roman by a facing all gallic characteristics and memories she was endowed with roman rites monuments and names the most important or the most ostentatious she became the colony super eminently the great municipal town of the galls the claudian town but she lost what had remained of her old municipal government that is of her administration and commercial independence nor was she the only one in gall to experience the goodwill of claudius this emperor with a mark of scorn from his infancy whom his mother antonia called a shadow of a man an unfinished sketch of nature's drawing and of whom his granduncle augustus used to say we shall be forever in doubt without any certainty of knowing whether he be or be not equal to public duties claudius the most feeble indeed of the caesars in body mind and character was nevertheless he who had intermittent glimpses of the most elevated ideas and the most righteous sentiments and who strove the most sincerely to make them take the form of deeds he undertook to assure to all free men of long-haired gall the same roman privileges that were enjoyed by the inhabitants of leon and amongst others that of entering the senate of roman holding the great public offices he made a formal proposal to that effect the senate and succeeded not without difficulty in getting it adopted the speech that he delivered on this occasion has been to a great extent preserved to us not only in the summary given by tacitus but also in an inscription on a bronze tablet which split into many fragments at the time of the destruction of the building in which it was placed the two principal fragments were discovered at leon in fifteen twenty and they are now deposited in the museum of that city they fully confirmed the most equitable and it may be readily allowed the most liberal act of policy that emanated from the earlier roman emperors claudius had taken it into his head says senica to see all greeks galls spaniards and britains clad in the toga but at the same time he took great care to spread everywhere the latin tongue and to make it take the place of the different national idioms a roman citizen originally of asia minor and sent on a deputation to roam by his compatriots could not answer in latin the emperors questions claudius took away his privileges saying he is no roman citizen who is ignorant of the language of roam claudius however was neither liberal nor humane towards a notable portion of the gallant populations to it the druids during his staying gall he prescribed them and persecuted them without intermission forbidding under pain of death their form of worship and every exterior sign of their ceremonies he drove them away and pursued them even into great britain whether he conducted a d-43 a military expedition almost the only one of his reign save the continued struggle of his lieutenants on the rine against the germans it was evidently amongst the corporation of druids and under the influence of religious creeds and traditions that there was still pursued in harvard some of the old gallic spirit some passion for national independence and some hatred of the roman yoke in proportion as claudius had been popular in gall did his adopted son's assessor nero quickly become hated there is nothing to show that he even went thither either on the business of government or to obtain the momentary access of favor always excited in the mob by the presence and prestige of power it was towards greece and the east that a tendency was shown in the tastes and trips of nero imperial poet musician and actor el verus one of the military commandants in belgica had conceived of a project of a canal to unite the moselle to the son and so the Mediterranean to the ocean but intrigues in the province and the palace prevented its execution and in the place of public works useful to gall nero caused a new census to be made of the population whom he required to squeeze to pay for his extravagance it was in his reign as is well known that a fierce fire consumed a great part of roman her monuments the majority of historians accused nero of having himself been the cause of it but at any rate he looked on with cynical indifference as if amused at so grand a spectacle and taking pleasure in comparing it to the burning of Troy he did more he profited by it so far as to have built for himself free of expense that magnificent palace called the palace of gold of which he said when he saw it completed at last i'm going to be housed as a man should be five years before the burning of Rome leon had been a prey to a similar scourge and Seneca wrote to his friend Lucilius lagdanum which was one of the showplaces of gall is sought for in vain today a single night sufficed for the disappearance of a vast city it perished in less time than i take to tell the tale nero gave upwards of one hundred and fifty thousand dollars towards the reconstruction of leon a gift that gained him the city's gratitude which was manifested it is said when his fall became imminent it was however jay vindix a gall of vien governor of the leon's province who was the instigator of the insurrection which was fatal to nero and which put galba in his place when nero was dead there was no other Caesar no naturally indicated successor to the empire the influence of the name of Caesar had spent itself in crimes madnesses and incapacity of his descendants then began a general search for emperors and the ambition to be created spread abroad amongst the men of note in the roman world during the eighteen months that followed the death of nero three pretenders galba otho and vitelius ran this formidable risk galba was a worthy old roman senator who frankly said if the vast body of the empire could be kept standing in equilibrium without a head i were worthy of the chief place in the state otho and vitelius were two epicures both indolent and debauched the former after an elegant and the latter after a beastly fashion galba was raised to the purple by the leonese and narbonese provinces vitelius by the legions cantond in the belgic provinces to such an extended gall already influenced the destinies of Rome all three met disgrace and death within the space of eighteen months and the search for an emperor took a turn towards the east where the command was held by vespasian titus flavius vespasianus of reti in the duchy of spoleto a general sprung from a humble italian family who had won great military distinction and who having been proclaimed first at alexandria in judia and at antioch did not arrive until many months afterwards at roam where he commenced the twenty six years reign of the flavian family end of chapter five part one