 Chapter 22 of The San Francisco Calamity by Earthquake and Fire. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Mark Apfelstadt. The San Francisco Calamity by Earthquake and Fire by Charles Morris. Chapter 22. Irruptions of Vesuvius, Etna, and Stromboli. Mount Vesuvius is of special interest as being the only active volcano on the continent of Europe, all others of that region being on the islands of the Mediterranean, and for the famous ancient eruption described in the last chapter. Before this, it had borne the reputation of being extinct, but since then it has frequently shown that its fires have not burned out and has on several occasions given a vigorous display of its powers. During the 1500 years succeeding the destructive event described, eruptions were of occasional occurrence, though of no great magnitude. But throughout the long intervals when Vesuvius was at rest, it was noted that Etna and Ischia were more or less disturbed. The Birth of Monte Nuovo. In 1538 a startling evidence was given that there was no decline of energy in the volcanic system of southern Italy. This was the sudden birth of the mountain still known as Monte Nuovo, or New Mountain, which was thrown up in the Campania near Avernus, on the spot formerly occupied by the Lucrene Lake. For about two years prior to this event, the district had been disturbed by earthquakes which on September 27th and 28th 1538 became almost continuous. The low shore was slightly elevated so that the sea retreated, leaving bare a strip of about 200 feet in width. The surface cracked, steam escaped, and at last early on the morning of the 29th a greater rent was made from which were vomited furiously smoke, fire, stones, and mud composed of ashes, making at the time of its opening a noise like the loudest thunder. The ejected material, in less than 12 hours, built the hill which has lasted substantially in the same form to our day. It is noteworthy fact that since the formation of Monte Nuovo there has been no volcanic disturbance in any part of the Neapolitan district except in Vesuvius, which for five centuries previous had remained largely at rest. Lava from Vesuvius. The first recognized appearance of lava in the eruptions of Vesuvius was in the violent eruptions of 1036. This was succeeded at intervals by five other outbreaks, none of them great energy. After 1500 the crater became completely quiet, the whole mountain in time being grown over with luxuriant vegetation, while by the next century the interior of the crater became green with shrubbery indicating that no injurious gases were escaping. This was sleep, not death. In 1631 the awakening came in an eruption of terrible violence. Almost in a moment the green mantle of woodland and shrubbery was torn away and death and destruction left where peace and safety had seemed assured. Mountain streams of lava poured from the crater and swept rapidly down the mountainside, leaving ruin along their paths. Rossina, Granacello, and Torre del Greco, three villages that had grown up during the period of quiescence, were more or less overwhelmed by the molten lava. Great torrents of hot water also poured out, adding to the work of desolation. It was estimated that 18,000 of the inhabitants were killed. What made the horror all the greater was a frightful error of judgment similar to that of the governor of Martinique at Saint-Pierre. The governor of Torre del Greco had refused to be warned in time and prevented the people from making their escape until it was too late. Not until the lava had actually reached the walls was the order for departure given. Before the order could be acted upon, the molten streams burst through the walls into the crowded streets and overwhelmed the vast majority of the inhabitants. In this violent paroxysm the whole top of the mountain is said to have been swept away, the new crater which took the place of the old one being greatly lowered. From that date Vesuvius has never been at rest for any long interval and eruptions of some degree of violence have been rarely more than a few years apart. Of its various later manifestations of energy we select for description that of 1767, of which an interesting account by a careful observer is extant. Great eruption of 1767. From the 10th of December 1766 to March 1767 Vesuvius was quiet. Then it began to throw up stones from time to time. In April the throws were more frequent and at night the red glare grew stronger on the cloudy columns which hung over the crater. These repeated throws of cinder, ashes and pumice stones which increased the small cone of eruption, which had been left in the center of the flat criteria space, that its top became visible. On the 7th of August there issued a small stream of lava from a breach in the side of the small cone. The lava gradually filled the space between the cone and the crateral edge. On the 12th of September it overflowed the crater and ran down the mountain. Stones were ejected which took ten seconds in their fall which it may be computed that the height which the stones reached was 1600 feet. Padre Tori, a great observer of Vesuvius, says they went up above a thousand feet. The lava ceased on the 18th of October, but at 8 a.m. on the 19th it rushed out at a different place after volleys of stones had been thrown to an immense height and the huge traditional pine tree of smoke reappeared. On this occasion that vast phantom extended its menacing shadow over Capri at a distance of 28 miles from Vesuvius. The lava at first came out of a mouth about 100 yards below the crater on the side toward Montessoma. While occupied in viewing this current event, the observer heard a violent noise within the mountain, saw it split open at a distance of a quarter mile and saw from the new mouth a mountain of liquid fire shoot up many feet and then, like a torrent, roll toward him. The earth shook, stones fell thick around him, dense clouds of ashes darkened the air, loud thunders came from the mountaintop and he took to precipitate flight. The Padre's account is too lively and instructive for his own words to be emitted. Padre Tori's narrative. I was making my observations upon the lava, which had already from the spot where it first broke out reached the valley when, on a sudden, about noon I heard a violent noise within the mountain and it a spot about a quarter of a mile off the place where I stood, the mountain split and with much noise from this new mouth a fountain of liquid fire shot up many feet high and then, like a torrent, rolled on directly towards us. The earth shook at the same time that a valley of stones fell thick upon us. In an instant clouds of black smoke and ashes caused almost total darkness. The explosions from the top of the mountain were much louder than any thunder I ever heard and the smell of the sulfur was very offensive. My guide, alarmed, took to his heels and I must confess that I was not at my ease. I followed close and we ran nearly three miles without stopping. As the earth continued to shake under our feet I was apprehensive of the opening of a fresh mouth which might have cut off our retreat. I also feared that the violent explosions would detach some of the rocks off the mount of Soma under which we were obliged to pass. Besides, the pumice stones falling upon us like hail were of such a size as to cause a disagreeable sensation in the part upon which they fell. After having taken breath as the earth trembled greatly I thought it most prudent to leave the mountain and return to my villa where I found my family in great alarm at the continual and violent explosions of the volcano which shook our house to its very foundation the doors and windows swinging upon their hinges. About two o'clock in the afternoon of the nineteenth another lava stream forced its way out of the same place from whence came the lava of last year so that the conflagration was soon as great on this side of the mountain as on the other side which I had just left. I observed on my way to Naples which was in less than two hours after I had left the mountain that the lava had actually covered three miles of the very road through which we had retreated. This river of lava in the Etriodecavallo was sixty or seventy feet deep and in some places nearly two miles broad besides the explosions which were frequent there was a continued subterranean and violent rumbling noise which lasted five hours into the night supposed to arise from contact of the lava with rainwater lodged in cavities within. The whole neighborhood was shaken violently. Portici and Naples were in extremity of alarm. The churches were filled, the streets were throng with processions of saints and various ceremonies were performed to quell the fury of the mountain. In the night of the twentieth the occasion being critical the prisoners in the public jail attempted to escape and the mob set fire to the gates of the residence of the Cardinal Archbishop because he refused to bring out the relics of Saint Januarius. The twenty-first was a quieter day but the whole violence of the eruption returned on the twenty-second at ten a.m. with the same thundering noise but more violent and alarming. Ashes fell in abundance in the streets of Naples covering the house tops and balconies an inch deep. Ships at sea, twenty leagues from Naples were covered with them. In the midst of these horrors the mob grew tumultuous and impatient, obliged the Cardinal to bring out the head of Saint Januarius at the extremity of Naples towards Vesuvius and it is well attested here that the eruption ceased the moment the saint came inside at the mountain. It is true the noise ceased at about that time after having lasted five hours as it had done the preceding days. On the twenty-third the lava still ran but on the twenty-fourth it ceased but the smoke continued. On the twenty-fifth there rose a vast column of black smoke giving out much forked lightning with thunder in a sky quite clear except for the smoke of the volcano. On the twenty-sixth smoke continued but on the twenty-seventh the eruption came to an end. This eruption was also described by Sir William Hamilton who continued to keep a close watch on the movements of the volcano for many years. The next outbreak of a special violence took place in 1779 when what seemed to the eye a column of fire ascended two miles high while cinder fragments fell far and wide destroying the hopes of harvest through a wide district. They fell in abundance thirty miles distance and the dust of the explosion was carried a hundred miles away. In 1793 the crater became active again and in 1794 after a period of short tranquility or comparative in action the mountain again became agitated and one of the most formidable eruptions known in the history of Vesuvius began. It was in some respect unlike many others being somewhat peculiar as to the place of its outburst the temperature of the lava and the course of the current. Bryce Luck an Italian geologist observed the characteristic phenomena with the eye of science and his account supplies many interesting facts. Bryce Luck on the eruption of 1794 Bryce Luck remarked certain changes in the character of the Earth's motions during this six hours eruption which led him to some particular conjecture of the cause. At the beginning the trembling was continual and accompanied by a hollow noise similar to that occasion by a river falling into a subterranean cavern. The lava at the time of its being disgorged from the impetuous and uninterrupted manner in which it was ejected causing it to strike violently against the walls of the vent occasioned a continual oscillation of the mountain. Toward the middle of the night this vibratory motion ceased and was succeeded by distant shocks. The fluid mass diminished in quantity now pressed less violently against the walls of the aperture and no longer issued in a continual and gushing stream but only at intervals when the inferior fermentation elevated the boiling matter above the mouth. About 4 a.m. the shocks began to be less numerous and the intervals between them rendered their force and duration more perceptible. During this tremendous eruption at the base of the Vesuvian Cone and the fearful earthquakes which accompanied it the summit was tranquil. The sky was serene, the stars were brilliant and only over Vesuvius hung a thick dark smoke cloud lighted up in a neuroral arch by the glare of the stream of fire more than two miles long and more than a quarter of a mile broad. The sea was calm and reflected the red glare while from the source of the lava came continual jets of uprushing incandescent stones. Nearer to view Torre del Greco was in flames and clouds of black smoke with falling houses presented a dark and tragical foreground heightened by the subterranean thunder of the mountain and the groans and lamentations of 15,000 ruined men women and children. The heavy clouds of ash which were thrown out on this occasion gathered in the early morning into a mighty shadow over Naples and the neighborhood. The sun rose pale and obscure and the long dim twilight reigned afterwards. Such were the phenomena on the western side of Vesuvius. They were matched by others on the eastern aspect not visible at Naples except by reflection of their light in the atmosphere. The lava on this side flowed eastward along a route often traversed by lava by the broken crest of the Cagnolo and the valley of Sorienta. The extreme length to which this current reach was not less than an Italian mile. The cubic content was estimated to be half that already assigned to the western currents. Taken together they amounted to 20,744,445 cubic meters or 2,804,440 cubic fathoms. The constitution of the lava being the same in each both springing from one deep-seated reservoir of fluid rock. The eruption of lava ceased on the 16th and then followed heavy discharges of ashes, violent shocks of earthquakes, thunder and lightning in the columns of vapors and ashes and finally heavy rains lasting till the 3rd of July. The barometer during all the eruption was steady. Bryslach made an approximate calculation of the quantity of ashes which fell on Vesuvius during the great eruption and states the result as equal to what would cover a circular area of 6 kilometers, about three and a half English miles in radius and 39 centimeters, about 15 inches in depth. Strange effects. Among the notable things which attended this eruption it is recorded that in Greco, metallic and other substances exposed to the current were variously affected. Silver was melted, glass became porcelain, iron swelled to four times its volume and lost its texture. Brass was decomposed and its constituent copper crystallized in cubic and octahedral forms aggregated in beautiful branches. Zinc was sometimes turned to blend. During the eruption the lip of the crater toward Bosco Trichese on the southeast fell in or was thrown off and the height of that part was reduced 426 feet. On the 17th the sea was found in a boiling state 100 yards off the new promontory made by the lava of Toro del Greco and no boat could remain near it on account of melting of the pitch in her bottom. For nearly a month after the eruption vast quantities of fine white ashes mixed with volumes of steam were thrown out from the crater. The clouds thus generated were condensed into heavy rain and large tracks of the Vesuvian slopes were deluged with volcanic mud. It filled ravines such as Faso Grande and concreted and hardened there into Pumesius Tufa a very instructive phenomena. Immense injury was done to the rich territory of Soma, Atayano and Bosco by heavy rains which swept along cinders broke up the roads and bridges and overturned trees and houses for the space of 15 days. There were few years during the 19th century in which Vesuvius did not show symptoms of its internal fires and at intervals it manifested much activity though not equaling the terrible eruptions of its past history. The severest eruptions in that century were those of 1871 and 1876. In the first a sudden emission of lava killed 20 spectators at the mouth of the suspended fury after San Sebastian and Massa had been well annihilated. Fragments of rock were thrown up to the height of 4000 feet and the explosions were so violent that the whole countryside fled panic-stricken to Naples. The activity of the volcano accompanied by distinct shocks of earthquakes lasted for a week. In 1876 for three weeks together lava streamed down the side of Vesuvius sweeping away the village of Serolo and running nearly to the sea at Point Magdaloni. There were formed 10 small craters within the Great One but these were united by a later eruption in 1888 and pressure from beneath formed a vast cone where they had been. Hardy hood of the people. It may seem strange that so dangerous a neighborhood should be inhabited but so it is. Though Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae lie buried beneath the modern ashes belched out of the mouth of Vesuvius villages of Portici and Ravina, Torodel Greco and Torodel Annunciata have taken their place and a large population, cheerful and prosperous, flourishes around the disturbed mountain and over the district of which it is the somewhat untrustworthy safety valve. It is thus that man in his eagerness to cultivate all parts of the earth dares the most frightful perils and ventures into the most threatening situations seeking to snatch the means of life from the death. The danger is soon forgotten. The need of cultivation of the ground is ever pressing and no threats of peril seem capable of restraining the activity of man for many years. Though the proposition of abandoning the island of Martinique has been seriously considered, the chances are that before many years have passed a cheerful and busy population will be at work again on the flanks of Mount Pelé. Mount Etna. On the eastern coast of the island of Sicily not far from the sea rises in solitary grandeur, Mount Etna, the largest and highest of European volcanoes. Its height above the level of the sea is a little over 10,870 feet, considerably above the limit of perpetual snow. It accordingly presents the striking phenomena of volcanic vapors ascending from a snow-clad summit. The base of the mountain is 87 miles in circumference and nearly circular, but there is a traditional extent all around over-spread by its lava. The lower portions of the mountain are exceedingly fertile and richly adorned with cornfields, vineyards, olive groves, and orchards. Above this region are extensive forests chiefly of oak, chestnut, and pine with here and there clumps of cork trees and beach. In this forest region are grassy glades which afford rich pasture to numerous flocks. Above the forest lies a volcanic covered with black lava and slag. Out of this region, which is comparatively flat, rises the principal cone about 1,100 feet high, having on its summit the crater when sulfurous vapors are continually evolved. The great height of Etna has exerted a remarkable influence on its general conformation, for the volcanic forces have rarely been a sufficient energy to throw the lava quite up to the crater at the summit. The consequence has been that numerous subsidiary craters and cones have been formed all around the flanks of the mountain, so that it has become rather a large cluster of volcanoes than a single volcanic cone. The eruptions of this mountain have been numerous, records of them extending back to several centuries before the Christian era, while unrecorded ones doubtless took place much further back. After the beginning of the Christian era, and more especially after the breaking forth of Vesuvius in 79 AD, Etna destroyed longer intervals of repose. Its eruptions since that time have nevertheless been numerous, more especially during the intervals when Vesuvius was inactive. They're being a sort of alternation between the periods of great activity of the two mountains, although there are not a few instances of their having both been in action at the same time. Similarity in Etna's eruptions There is a great similarity in the character of the eruptions of Etna. Earthquakes stage the outburst, loud explosions follow, rifts and bokeh death woko open in the sides of the mountain. Smoke, sand, ashes and scoriae are discharged. The action localizes itself in one or more craters cinders are thrown up and accumulate around the crater and cone, ultimately lava rises and frequently breaks down one side of the cone where the resistance is leased, then the eruption is at an end. Smith says the symptoms which preceded the eruption are generally irregular clouds of smoke, ferrilli or volcanic lightings, hollow intonations and local earthquakes that often alarm the surrounding country as far as Messina and have given the whole province the name of Valdemone as being the abode of infernal spirits. These agitations increase until the vast cauldron becomes surcharge with fused minerals when, if the convulsion is not sufficiently powerful to force them from the great crater which from its great altitude and the weight of the attendant matter requires an uncommon effort, they explode through that part of the side which offers the least resistance with a grand and terrific effect, throwing red hot stones and flakes of fire to an incredible height and spreading ignited cinders and ashes in every direction. After the eruption of ashes, lava frequently flows, sometimes rising to the top of the cone of cinders at others disrupting it on the least resisting side. When the lava has reached the cone it begins to flow down the mountain and being in a very fluid state it moves with great velocity. As it cools the sides and surface begin to harden, its velocity decreases and after several days it moves only a few yards an hour. The internal portions however part slowly with their heat and months after the eruption clouds of steam arise from the black and externally cold lava beds after rain which having penetrated through the rocks has found its way to the heated mass the eruption of 1669. The most memorable of the eruptions of Etna was that which elevated the double cone of Mont Rosset and destroyed a large part of the city of Catania. It happened in the year 1669 and was preceded by an earthquake which overthrew the town of Nicolosi situated 10 miles inland from Catania and about 20 miles from the top of Etna. The eruption began with a sudden opening of an enormous fissure extending way above Nicolosi to within about a mile of the top of the principal cone its length being 12 miles its average breadth 6 feet its depth unknown. We have a more detailed account of this eruption than of any preceding one as it was observed by men of science from various countries. The account from which we select is that of Alfonso Borelli Professor of Mathematics at Catania. From the fissure above mentioned he says there came a bright light and this mouse opened in a line with it and emitted vast columns of smoke accompanied by loud bellowings which could be heard 40 miles off. Towards the close of the day a crater opened about a mile below the others which ejected red hot stones to a considerable distance and afterwards sand and ashes which covered the country for a distance of 60 miles. The new crater soon vomited forth a torrent of lava which presented a front of two miles. It encircled Montpelieri and afterwards flowed towards Belfasso a town of 8,000 inhabitants which was speedily destroyed. Seven miles of fire opened around the new crater and in three days united with it forming one large crater 800 feet in diameter. All this time the torrent of lava continued to descend. It destroyed the town of Mascalucia on the 23rd of March. On the same day the crater cast up great quantities of sand, ashes and scoriae and formed itself above the great double hill now called Monte Rossae from the red color of the ashes of which it is mainly composed. Villages and cities buried. On the 25th very violent earthquakes occurred and the cone above the great central crater was shaken down into the crater for the fifth time since the first century A.D. The original current of lava divided into three streams one of which destroyed San Pietro, the second Campurotando and the third the lands about Mascalucia and afterward the village of Mr. Bianco. Fourteen villages were altogether destroyed and the lava flowed towards Catania. At Albinelli two miles from the city it undermined a hill covered with cornfields and carried it forward a considerable distance. A vineyard was also seen to be floating on its fiery surface. When the lava reached the walls of Catania it accumulated without progression until it reached the top of the wall sixty feet in height and it then fell over in a fiery cascade and overwhelmed a part of the city. Another portion of the same stream threw down a hundred and twenty feet of the wall and flowed into the city. On the twenty-third of April the lava reached the sea which it entered as a stream six hundred yards broad and forty feet deep. The stream had moved at the rate of thirteen miles in twenty days but as it cooled it moved less and of course it advanced only two miles. On reaching the sea the water of course began to boil violently and clouds of steam arose carrying with them particles of scoriae. Toward the end of April the stream on the west side of Catania which had appeared to be consolidated again burst forth and flowed into the garden of the Benedictine monastery of San Nicola and then branched off into the city. Attempts were made to build walls to arrest its progress. An attempt of another kind was made by a man of Catania named Papalardo who took fifty men with him having previously provided them with skins for protection from the intense heat and with crowbars to effect an opening in the lava. They pierced the solid outer crust of solidified lava and a rivulet of the molten interior immediately gushed out and flowed in the direction of Paterno where upon five hundred men of that town alarmed for its safety took up arms and caused Papalardo and his men to desist. The lava did not altogether stop for four months and two years after it had ceased to flow it was found to be red hot beneath the surface. Even eight years after the eruption quantities of steam escaped from the lava after a shower of rain. The stones ejected. The stones which were ejected from the crater during this eruption were often of considerable magnitude and Borelli calculated the diameter of one which he saw was fifty feet. It was thrown a distance of a mile and as it fell penetrated the earth to a depth of twenty-three feet. The volume of lava admitted during the eruption amounted to many millions of cubic feet. Ferrara considers that the length of the stream was at least fifteen miles but its average width was between two and three miles so that it covered at least forty square miles of surface. Among the towns overflowed by this great eruption was Montpellier. Thirty-five years afterwards in 1704 an excavation was made on the site of the original church of this place and at the depth of thirty-five feet the workmen came upon the gate which was adorned with three statues. From under an arch which had been formed by the lava one of these statues with a balance and coins were extracted in good preservation. This fact is remarkable for in a subsequent eruption which happened in 1766 a hill about fifty feet in height being surrounded on either side by two streams of lava was in a quarter of an hour swept along by the current. The latter event may be explained by supposing that the hill in question was cavernous in its structure and that the lava penetrating into the cavities forced asunder their walls and also detached the super incumbent mass from its support. It is not by its streams of fire alone that it ravages the valleys and plains at its base. It sometimes also deluges them with great floods of water. On the second of March 1755 two streams of lava issuing from the highest crater were once precipitated on an enormous mass of very deep snow which then closed the summit. These fire recurrence ran through the snow to a distance of three miles melting it as they flowed. The consequence was that a tremendous torrent of water rushed down the sides of the mountain carrying with it vast quantities of sand volcanic cinders and blocks of lava with which it overspread the flanks of the mountain and the plains beneath where it originated in its course. The volume of water was estimated at 16 million cubic feet at forming a channel two miles broad and in some places 34 feet deep and flowing at the rate of two-thirds of a mile in a minute. All the winter snow on the mountain could not have yielded such a flood and Liel considered that it melted older layers of ice which had been preserved under a covering of volcanic dust. Aetna in 1819 another great eruption took place in 1819 which presented some peculiarities. Near the point whence the highest stream of lava issued in 1811 there were open three large mouths which with loud explosions threw up hot cinders and sand illuminated by a strong glare from beneath. Shortly afterwards there was opened a little lower down another mouth from which a similar eruption took place and still farther down there soon appeared a fifth whence a torrent of lava which rapidly spread itself over the Bal de Vauvet. During the first 48 hours it flowed nearly four miles when it received a great accession. The three original mouths became united into one large crater from which as well as from the other two mouths below there poured forth a vastly augmented torrent of lava which rushed with great impetuosity down the same valley. During its progress over this gentle slope it acquired the usual crust of hardened slag. It directed its course towards that point at which Bal de Vauvet opens into the narrow ravine beneath it there being between the two a deep and almost perpendicular precipice. Arrived at this point the lava torrent leaped over the precipice in a vast cascade and with a thundering noise arising chiefly from the crashing and breaking up of the solid crust which was in great measure pounded to atoms by the fall. It throwing up such vast clouds of dust as to form that a fresh eruption had begun at this place which was within a wooded region. A very violent eruption which lasted more than nine months commenced on the 21st of August 1852. It was first witnessed by a party of English tourists who were ascending the mountain from Nicolosi in order to see the sunrise from the summit. As they approached the Casa Inglesi the crater commenced to give forth ashes and flames of fire. In a narrow defile they were met by a violent hurricane which overthrew both the mules and their riders and urged them towards the precipices of Val de Beauvais. They sheltered themselves beneath some masses of lava when suddenly an earthquake shook the mountain and their mules in terror fled away. As they approached they returned on foot to Nicolosi, fortunately without having sustained injury. In the course of the night many Boca de Fuoco, small lava vents, opened in that part of the Val de Beauvais called Bazo de Trifolieto. A great fissure opened at the base of Giancola Grande and a crater was thrown up from which for 17 days showers of sand and scoriae were ejected. Effect of the eruption. During the next day a quantity of lava flowed down the Val de Beauvais branching off so that one stream advanced to the foot of Monte Finocchio and the other to Monte Calana. Afterwards it flowed towards Zafarana and devastated a large tract of region. Four days later a second crater was formed near the first from which lava was emitted together with sand and scoriae which caused cones to arise around the craters. The lava moves slowly and towards the end of August it came to a stand only a quarter mile from Zafarana. On the 2nd of September Giamaro ascended Monte Finocchio in the Val de Beauvais in order to witness the outburst. He states that the hill was violently agitated like a ship at sea. The surface of the Val de Beauvais appeared like a molten lake. Scoriae were thrown up from the crater to a great height and loud explosions were heard at frequent intervals. The eruption continued to increase in violence. On October 6 two new mouths opened in the Val de Beauvais emitting lava which flowed towards the valley of Calana and fell over the Salto della Giormenta, a precipice nearly 200 feet deep. The noise which it produced was like that of a clash of metallic masses. It continued with abated violence during the early months of 1853 and it did not finally cease till May 27. The entire mass of lava ejected is estimated to have been equal to an area 6 miles long by 2 miles broad with an average depth of about 12 feet. This eruption was one of the grandest of all known eruptions of Etna. During its outflow more than 2 billion cubic feet of molten lava was spread over a space of 12 miles. There have been several eruptions since its date but none of market prominence though the mountain is rarely quiescent for any lengthened period. The Lepari Volcanoes southeastward of Isia between Calabria and Sicily the Lepari Islands arrest attention for the volcanic phenomena they present on one of these is Mount Volcano or Volcano from which all this class of mountains is named. At present the best known of the Lepari Volcanoes is Stromboli which consists of a single mountain having a very obtuse conical form. It has on one side of it several small craters of which only one is at present in a state of activity. The total height at the mountain is about 2000 feet and the principal crater is situated about two thirds of the height. Stromboli is one of the most active volcanoes in the world. It is mentioned as being in a state of activity by several writers before and the commencement of its operations extends into the past beyond the limits of tradition. Since history began its action has never wholly ceased although it may have varied in intensity from time to time. It has been observed that the violence of its eruptive force has a certain dependence on the weather being most intense when the barometer is lowest. From the position of the crater it is possible to ascend the mountain and look down upon it from above. Even when viewed in this manner it presents a very striking appearance. While there is an uninterrupted continuance of small explosions there is a frequent succession of more violent eruptions at intervals varying in length from 7 to 15 minutes. Hoffman at Stromboli Several imminent observers have approached quite close to the crater and examined it narrowly. One of these was M. Hoffman who visited it in 1828. This imminent geologist while having his legs held by his stretch his head over the precipice and looking right down into the mouth of one of the vents of the crater immediately under him watched the play of liquid lava within it. Its surface resembled molten silver and was constantly rising and falling at regular intervals. A bubble of white vapor rose and escaped with a decrepitating noise at each ascent of the lava, tossing up red-hot fragments of scoria which continued dancing up and down with a sort of rhythmic play upon the surface. At intervals of 15 minutes or so there was a pause in these movements. Then followed a loud report while the ground trembled and there rose to the surface of the lava an immense bubble of vapor. This bursting with a crackling noise threw out to a height of about 1200 feet large quantities of red-hot stones in scoria which, describing parabolic curves fell in a fiery shower all around. After another brief repose the more moderate action was presumed as before. Lepari, a neighboring volcano, was formerly more active than Stromboli though for centuries past it has been in a state of complete quiescence. The island of Volcano lies south of Lepari. Its crater was active before the Christian era and it still emits sulfurous and other vapors. At present its main office is to serve as a sulfur mine. Thus the peak which gives title to all fire-breathing mountains has become relevant to man. So are the mighty fallen. End of Chapter 22 Recording by Mark Epfelsdott Parlin, New Jersey Chapter 23 of The San Francisco Calamity by Earthquake and Fire This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org Recording by Avahi 2010 The San Francisco Calamity by Earthquake and Fire by Charles Morris Chapter 23 Skapta Jokul and Hekla The Great Icelandic Volcanoes The far northern island of Iceland on the verge of the frozen arctic realm is one of the most volcanic countries in the world whether we regard the number of volcanoes concentrated in so long as space or the extraordinary violence of their eruptions of volcanic mountains there are no less than 20 which have been active during historical times Skapta in the north and Hekla in the south being much the best known in all 23 eruptions are on record Iceland's Volcanoes rival Mount Etna in height and magnitude their action has been more continuous and intense and the range of volcanic products is far greater than in Sicily the latter island indeed is not one-tenth of volcanic origin while the whole of Iceland is due to the work of subterranean forces it is entirely made up of volcanic rocks and has seemingly been built up during the ages from the depth of the seas it is reported indeed that a new island the work of volcanic forces appeared opposite Mount Hekla in 1563 but this statement is open to doubt Volcanoes in Iceland the eruptions of the volcanoes in Iceland have been amongst the most terrible of those carefully recorded the cold climate of the island and the height of the mountains produce vast quantities of snow and ice which cover the volcanoes and fill up the cracks and valleys in their sides when, therefore, an eruption commences, the intense heat of the boiling lava and of the steam which rushes forth from the crater makes the whole mountain hot and vast masses of ice great fields of snow and deluges of water roll down the hillsides into the plains the lava pours from the top and from cracks in the side of the mountain it is ejected hundreds of feet to fall amongst the ice and snow and the great masses of red hot stone cast forth accompanied by cinders and fine ashes splash into the roaring torrent which tears up rocks in its course and devastates the surrounding country for miles Dreadful floods an eruption of Kodlugja in 1860 was accompanied by dreadful floods it began with a number of earthquakes which shook the surrounding country then, a dark columnar cloud of vapor was seen to rise by day from the mountain and by night, bolts of fire volcanic bombs and red hot cinders to the height of 24,000 feet nearly 5 miles which was seen at a distance of 180 miles deluges of water rushed from the heights bearing along whole fields of ice and rocky fragments of every size some vomited from the volcano but in great part torn from the flanks of the mountain itself and carried to the sea there to add considerably to the coastline after devastating the intervening country the fountain of volcanic bombs consisted of masses of lava containing gases which exploded and produced a loud sound which was said to have been heard at a distance of 100 miles the size of the bombs and the height to which they must have reached were very great but the most remarkable of the historical eruptions in Iceland were those of Skaptajökull in 1783 and of Hekla in 1845 of these an extended description is worthy of being given of these two memorable eruptions that of Skaptajökull began on the 11th of June 1783 it was preceded by a long series of earthquakes which had become exceedingly violent immediately before the eruption on the 8th volcanic vapors were emitted from the summit of the mountain and on the 11th immense torrents of lava began to be poured forth from numerous mouths these torrents united to form a large stream which flowing down into the river Skaptaj not only dried it up but completely filled the vast gorge through which the river had held its course this gorge 200 feet in breadth and from 400 to 600 feet in depth the lava filled so entirely as to overflow to a considerable extent the fields on either side on issuing from this raven the lava flowed into a deep lake which lay in the course of the river here it was arrested for a while but it ultimately filled the bed of the lake altogether either drying up its waters or chasing them before it into the lower part of the river's course still forced onward by the accumulation of molten lava from behind the stream resumed its advance till it reached some ancient volcanic rocks which were full of caverns into these it entered and where it could not eat its way by melting the old rock the passage by shivering the solid mass and throwing its broken fragments into the air to a height of 150 feet a torrent of lava on the 18th of June they're opened above the first mouth a second of large dimensions when spored another immense torrent of lava which flowed with great rapidity over the solidified surface of the first stream and ultimately combined with it to form a more formidable main current when this fresh stream reached the Firi Lake which had filled the lower portion of the valley of the Skapta a portion of it was forced up the channel of that river towards the foot of the hill when it takes its rise after pursuing its course for several days the main body of this stream reached the edge of a great waterfall called Staptafos which plunged into a deep abyss displacing the water the lava here leaped over the precipice and formed the great cataract of fire after this it filled the channel of the river though extending itself in breadth far beyond it and followed it until it reached the sea enormous quantity of lava the 3rd of August brought fresh accessions to the flood of lava still pouring from the mountain there being no room in the channel now filled by the former lurid stream which had pursued a north-westerly course the fresh lava was forced to take a new direction towards the southeast where it entered the bed of another river with a barbaric name here it pursued a course similar to that which flowed through the channel of the Skapta filling up the deep gorges and then spreading itself out into great Firi lakes over the plains the eruptions of lava from the mountain continued with some short intervals for two years and so enormous was the quantity poured forth during this period that according to a careful estimate which has been made the whole together would form a mass equal to that of Mont Blanc after two streams the greater was 50 the less 40 miles in length the Skapta branch attained on the plains a breadth varying from 12 to 15 miles that of the other was only about half as much each of the currents had an average depth of 100 feet but in the deep gorges it was no less than 600 feet even as late as 1794 vapors continued to rise from these great streams and the water contained in the numerous fissures formed in their crust was hot the devastation directly wrought by the lava currents themselves was not the whole of the evils of the island and its inhabitants partly owing to the sudden melting of the snows and glaciers of the mountain partly owing to the stoppage of the river courses immense floods of water deluged the country in the neighborhood destroying many villages and a large amount of agricultural and other property 20 villages were overwhelmed by the lava currents while the ashes thrown out during the eruption covered the whole island and the surface of the sea for miles around its shores on several occasions the ashes were drifted by the winds over considerable parts of the European continent obscuring the sun and giving the sky a gray and gloomy aspect in certain respects they reproduced the phenomena of the explosion of Mount Krakatoa which singularly occurred just a century later in 1883 the strange red sunset phenomena of the letter were reproduced by this Icelandic event of the 18th century out of the 50,000 persons who then inhabited Iceland 9,336 perished together with 11,460 head of cattle 190,480 sheep and 28,000 horses the straitful destruction of life was caused partly by the direct action of the lava currents partly by the noxious vapours they emitted partly by the floods of water partly by the destruction of the urbage by the falling ashes and lastly in consequence of the desertion of the coasts by the fish which formed a large portion of the food of the people eruption of Mount Hekla after this frightful eruption no serious volcanic disturbance took place in Iceland until 1845 when Mount Hekla again became disastrously alive Mount Hekla has been the most frequent in its eruptions of any of the Icelandic volcanoes previous to 1845 there had been 22 recorded eruptions of this mountain since the discovery of Iceland in the 9th century while from all the other volcanoes in the island there had been only 20 during the same period Mount Hekla has more than once remained in activity for 6 years at a time a circumstance that has rendered it the best known of the volcanoes of this region later outbreaks after enjoying a long rest of 79 years this volcano burst again into violent activity in the beginning of September 1845 the first inkling of this eruption was conveyed to the British islands in the fall of volcanic ashes in the Orkneys which occurred on the night of September 2nd during a violent storm this palpable hint was soon confirmed by direct intelligence from Copenhagen on the 1st of September a severe earthquake followed the same night by fearful subterranean noises alarmed the inhabitants and gave warning of what was to come about noon the next day water opened in the sides of the volcano two new mouths when two great streams of glowing lava poured forth they fortunately flowed down the northern and northwestern sides of the mountain where the low grounds are near barren heaths affording a scanty pasture for a few sheep these were driven before the fury stream but several of them were burned before they could escape the whole mountain was enveloped by ravers and wapers the rivers near the lava currents became so hot as to kill the fish and to be impassable even on horseback about a fortnight later there was a fresh eruption of crater violence which lasted 22 hours and was accompanied by detonations so loud as to be heard over the whole island two new craters were formed one on the southern the other on the eastern slope of the cone the lava issuing from these craters flowed to a distance of more than 22 miles at about 2 miles from its source the fury stream was a mile wide and from 40 to 50 feet deep it destroyed a large extent of fine pasture and many cattle nearly a month later on the 15th of October a fresh flood of lava burst from the southern crater and soon heaped up a mass of 40 to 60 feet in height three great columns of vapor, dust and ashes rising at the same time from the three new craters of the volcano the mountain continued in a state of greater or less activity during most of the next year and even as late as the month of October 1846 after a brief pause it began again with renewed vehemence the volumes of dust ashes and vapor thrown up from the craters and brightly illuminated by the glowing lava beneath assumed the appearance of flames and descended to an immense height electric phenomena among the stones tossed out of the craters was one large mass of pumice weighing nearly half a ton which was carried to a distance of between 4 and 5 miles the rivers were flooded by the melting of ice and snow which had accumulated in the mountain the greatest mischief wrought by these successive eruptions was the destruction of the pasturages which were for the most part covered with volcanic ashes even were left exposed the urbage acquired a poisonous taint which proved fatal to the cattle inducing among them a peculiar marine fortunately owing to the nature of the district through which the lava passed there was in this occasion of human life the Icelandic volcanoes are remarkable for the electric phenomena which they produce in the atmosphere violent thunderstorms with showers of rain and hail are frequent accompaniments of volcanic eruptions everywhere but owing to the coldness and dryness of the air into which the vapors from the Icelandic volcanoes ascend the condensation is so sudden and violent that great quantities of electricity are developed thunderstorms accompanied by the most vivid lightnings are the result Humboldt mentions in his cosmos that during an eruption of Kotlugia one of the southern Icelandic volcanoes the lightning from the cloud of volcanic vapor killed 11 horses and 2 men cosmos 1 223 great displays of the aurora borealis usually accompany the volcanic eruptions of this island doubtless resulting from the quantity of electricity imparted to the higher atmosphere by the condensation of the ascending vapors on the 18th of august 1783 while the great eruption of Skapta Jokur was in progress an immense fireball passed over England and the European continent as far as Rome this ball which was estimated to have had a diameter exceeding 1 km is supposed to have been of electrical origin and due to the high state of electric tension in the atmosphere over Iceland at that time end of chapter 23 section 24 of the san francisco calamity by earthquake and fire this is LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org we cannot do better than open this chapter with an account of the work of volcanoes in the mountain girdled east indian island of java this large and fertile tropical island has a large native population and many european settlers are employed in cultivating spices, coffee, and woods the island is rather more than 600 miles long and it is not 150 miles broad in any area of the island and the island is more than 600 miles long and it is not 150 miles broad in any part and this narrow shape is produced by a chain of volcanoes which runs along it there is scarcely any other region in the world where volcanoes are so numerous even in the east where the volcano is a very common product of nature some of the volcanoes of java are constantly in eruption while others are inactive one of their number, galunggung was previous to 1822 covered from top to bottom with a dense forest around it were populous villages the mountain was high, there was a slight hollow on its top, a basin like valley carpeted with the softest sword brooks rippled down the hillside through the forests and joining their silvery streams flowed on through beautiful valleys into the distant sea in the month of july 1822 there were signs of an approaching disturbance this tranquil peacefulness was at an end one of the rivers became muddy and its waters grew hot in october without any warning a most terrific eruption occurred a loud explosion was heard the earth shook and immense columns of hot water boiling mud mixed with burning brimstone ashes and stones were hurled upwards from the mountain top like a water spout and with such wonderful force that large quantities fell at a distance of 40 miles every valley near the mountain became filled with burning torrents the rivers swollen with hot water and mud overflowed their banks and swept away the escaping villagers and the bodies of cattle, wild beasts and birds were carried down the flooded stream eruption of galung gong a space of 24 miles between the mountain and a river 40 miles distant was covered to such a depth with blue mud that people were buried in their houses and not a trace of the numerous villages and plantations was visible the boiling mud and cinders were cast forth with such violence from the crater while many distant villages were utterly destroyed and buried others much nearer the volcano were scarcely injured all this was done in five short hours four days afterward a second eruption occurred more violent than the first and hot water and mud were cast forth with masses of slag like the rock called basalt some of which fell 7 miles off a violent earthquake shook the whole district and the top of the mountain fell in and so did one of its sides leaving them hills appeared where there had been level land before and the rivers changed their courses drowning in one night 2,000 people at some distance from the mountain a river runs through a large town and the first intimation the inhabitants had of all this horrible destruction was the news that the bodies of men and the carcasses of stags, rhinoceroses, tigers and other animals were rushing along to the sea no less than 114 villages were destroyed and above 4,000 persons were killed by this terrible catastrophe 50 years before this eruption Mount Papandayang one of the highest burning mountains of Java was constantly throwing out steam and smoke but as no harm was done the natives continued to live on its sides suddenly this enormous mountain fell in and left a gap 15 miles long and 6 broad 40 villages were destroyed some being carried down and others overwhelmed by mud and burning lava no less than 1,957 people perished with vast numbers of cattle moreover most of the coffee plantations in the neighboring districts were destroyed even more terrible was the eruption of Mount Saleh another of the volcanoes of Java the burning of the mountain was seen 100 miles away while the thunders of its convulsions and the trembling of the earth reached the same distance 7 hills at whose base ran a river crowded with dead buffaloes deer, apes, tigers and crocodiles slipped down and became a level plane river courses were changed forests were burnt up and the whole face of the country was completely altered later volcanic eruptions in Java include that of 1843 when Mount Guntur flung out sand and ashes estimated at the vast total of 30 million tons and those of 1849 and 1872 when Mount Marapi a very active volcano covered a great extent of country with stone and ashes and ruined the coffee plantations of the neighboring districts we have said nothing concerning the most terrible explosion of all that of the volcanic island off Krakatoa off the Java coast this event was so phenomenal as to deserve a chapter of its own for which we reserve it the United States as one result of its recent acquisition of island dominions has added largely to its wealth in volcanic mountains the Hawaiian craters far the greatest in the world now belong to our national estate and the Philippine islands contain various others of less importance yet some of which have proved very destructive but description of those of the island of Luzon which are the most active in the archipelago is here subjoined the Luzon volcanoes volcanoes have played an important part in the formation of the Philippine islands and have left traces of their former activity in different directions most of them however have long been dead and silent only a few of the once numerous group being now active of these there are three of importance in the southern region of Luzon Tal, Bulusan and Mayon the last named of these is the largest and most active of the existing volcanoes in form it is of marvelous grace and beauty forming a perfect cone about 50 miles in circuit to a height of 8900 feet it is one of the most prominent landmarks to navigators in the island from its crater streams upward a constant smoke accompanied at times by flame while from its depths issue subterranean sounds often heard at a distance of many leagues the whole surrounding country is marked by evidences of old eruptions this mountain in 1767 sent up a cone of flame of 40 feet in diameter at base for 10 days and for 2 months a wide stream of lava poured from its crater a month later there gushed forth great floods of water which filled the rivers to overflow doing widespread damage to the neighboring plantations but its greatest and most destructive eruption took place in 1812 the year of the great eruption of the St. Vincent volcano on this fatal occasion several towns were destroyed and no less than 12,000 people lost their lives the debris flung forth from the crater so abundant that deposits deep enough to bury the tallest trees were formed near the mountain in 1867 another disastrous explosion took place and still another in 1888 a disaster different in kind and cause occurred in 1876 when a terrible tropical storm burst upon the mountain the floods of rain swept from its sides the loose volcanic material and brought to destruction to the neighboring country more than 6,000 houses being ruined by the rushing flood Bulusan and Tal Bulusan a volcano on the southern extremity of the island resembles Vesuvius in shape for many years it remained dormant but in 1852 smoke began to issue from its crater in some respects the most interesting of these three volcanoes is that of Tal which lies almost due south of Manila and about 45 miles distant on a small island in the middle of a large lake known as Bumbum or Bung Bung a remarkable feature of this volcanic mountain is that it is probably the lowest in the world its height being only 850 feet above sea level there are doubtful traditions that lake Bumbum 800 square miles in extent was formed by a terrible eruption in 1700 by which a lofty mountain 8,000 or 9,000 feet high was destroyed the vast deposits of porous tufa in the surrounding country are certainly evidences of former greater eruptions from Mount Tal the crater of this volcano is an immense cup shaped depression a mile or more in diameter in about 800 feet deep when recently visited by Professor Wooster during his travels in these islands he founded to contain three boiling lake lids of strangely colored water one being of a dirty brown hue a second intensely yellow in tint and the third of a brilliant emerald green the mountain still steams in fumes as if too actively at work it is still low to be at rest above in past times it has shown the forces at play in its depths by breaking at times into frightful activity of the various explosions on record the three most violent were those of 1716, 1749 and 1754 in the last named year the earth for miles round quaked with the convulsive throes of the deeply disturbed mountain and vast quantities of volcanic dust were hurled high into the air sufficient to make it dark at midday for many lakes around the roofs of distant manila were covered with volcanic dust and ashes molten lava also poured from the crater and flowed into the lake which boiled with the intense heat while great showers of stones and ashes fell into its waters volcanoes in the southern islands extinct volcanoes are numerous in Luzon and there are smoking cones in the north and also in the Babu Yanes islands farther north. Volcanoes also exist in several of the other islands on Negros is the active peak of Malaspina and on Camiguin an island about 90 miles to the southeast a new volcano broke out in 1876 the large island of Mindanao has three volcanoes of which Kotabato was in eruption in 1856 and is still active at intervals Oppo the largest of the three estimated to be 1,312 feet high has three summits within which lies the great crater now extinct and filled with water in evidence of former volcanic activity there are abundant deposits of sulfur on the island of Leyte the hot springs in various localities and the earthquakes which occasionally bring death and destruction of the many of these on record the most destructive was in 1863 when 400 people were killed and 2,000 injured while many buildings were wrecked another in 1880 brought great destruction in Manila and elsewhere though without the loss of life and earthquake in Mindanao in 1875 opened a passage to the sea and a vast plane emerged these convulsions of the earth affect the form and elevation of buildings which are rarely more than two stories high and lightly built while translucent seashells replace glass in their windows while Java is the most prolific in volcanoes of the islands of the Malayan Archipelago other islands of the group possess active cones including Sumatra, Bali, Amboyna, Banda and others in Sangui an island north of Celebes is a volcanic mountain from which there was a destructive eruption in 1856 the country was devastated with lava, stones and volcanic ashes ruining a wide district and killing nearly 3,000 of the inhabitants Mount Madrian in one of the Spice Islands was rent entwined by a fierce eruption in 1646 and since then has remained two distinct mountains it became active again in 1862 after two centuries of repose and caused great loss of life and property Soraya a small island of the same group forming but a single volcanic mountain had an eruption in 1693 the cone crumbling gradually till a vast crater was formed filled with liquid lava and occupying nearly half the island this lake of fire increased in size by the same process till in the end it took possession of the island and forced all the inhabitants to flee to more hospitable shores the great eruption of Tamboro but of the east Indian islands Sumbawa lying east of Java contains the most formidable volcano one indeed scarcely without arrival in the world this one is named Tamboro of its various eruptions the most furious on record was out of 1815 this as we are told by Sir Stamford raffles far exceeded in force and duration any of the known outbreaks of Etna or Vesuvius the ground trembled and the echoes of its roar were heard through an area of 1000 miles around the volcano and to a distance of 300 miles its effects were astounding in Java 300 miles away ashes filled the air so thickly that the solar rays could not penetrate them and fell to the depth of several inches the detonations were so similar to the reports of artillery as to be mistaken for them the Rajah of Sangheer who was an eyewitness of the eruption thus described it to Sir Stamford quote about 7 p.m. on the 10th of April three distinct columns of flame burst forth near the top of the Tamboro mountain all of them within the verge of the crater and after ascending separately to a very great height their tops united in the air in a troubled confused manner in a short time the whole mountain next Sangheer appeared like a body of liquid fire extending itself in every direction the fire and columns of flame continued to rage with unabated fury until the darkness caused by the quantity falling water matter obscured them at about 8 p.m. stones at this time fell very thick at Sangheer some of them as largest two fists but generally not larger than walnuts between 9 and 10 p.m. ashes began to fall and soon after a violent whirlwind ensued which blew down nearly every house in the village of Sangheer carrying the roofs and light parts away with it in the port of Sangheer adjoining Tamboro its effects were much more violent tearing up by the roots the largest trees and carrying them into the air together with men, horses, cattle and its influence. This will account for the immense number of floating trees seen at sea. The sea rose nearly 12 feet higher than it had ever been known to do before and completely spoiled the only spots of rice land in Sangheer sweeping away houses and everything within its reach. The whirlwind lasted about an hour no explosions were heard till the whirlwind had ceased at about 11 p.m. from midnight till the evening of the 11th they continued without intermission after that time their violence moderated and they were heard only at intervals but the explosions did not cease entirely until the 15th of July of all the villages of Tamboro Tempo containing about 40 inhabitants is the only one remaining in Pecate no vestige of a house is left 26 of the people who were at Tsumbawa at the time are the whole of the population who have escaped from the most particular inquiries I have been able to make there were certainly fewer than 12,000 individuals in Tamboro and Pecate at the time of the eruption of whom only five or six survive the trees and herbage of every description along the whole of the north and west sides of the peninsula have been completely destroyed with the exception of those on a high point of land near the spot where the village of Tamboro stood end quote Tamboro village was not only invaded by the sea on this occasion but its site permanently subsided so that there was now 18 feet of water where there was formerly dry land the volcanoes of Japan the Japanese archipelago as stated in an earlier chapter is abundantly supplied with volcanoes a number of them being active of these the best known to travelers is Asama Yama a mountain 8,500 feet high of which there are several recorded eruptions the first of these was in 1650 after which the volcano remained feebly active till 1783 when it broke out in a very severe eruption in 1870 there was another of some severity accompanied by violent shocks of earthquake felt at Yokohama the crater is very deep with irregular rocky walls of a sulfurous character far the most famous of all the Japanese mountains however is that named Fuji san but commonly termed in English Fujiyama or Fusiyama it is in the vicinity of the capital and is the most prominent object in the landscape for many miles around the apex is shaped somewhat like an eight petaled lotus flower and offers to view from different directions from three to five peaks though now apparently extinct it was formerly an active volcano and is credited in history with several very disastrous eruptions the last of these was in 1707 at which time the whole summit burst into flames rocks were split and shattered by the heat and stones fell to the depth of several inches in Yedo now Tokyo, 60 miles away at present there are in its crater which has a depth of 700 or 800 feet neither sulfurous exhalations nor steam according to Japanese tradition this great peak was upheaved in a single night from the bottom of the sea more than 2100 years ago nothing can be more majestic than this volcano extinct though it be a dense cone from the plane to the height of over 12,000 feet truncated at the top and with its peak almost always snow covered its ascent is not difficult to an expert climber and has frequently been made from its summit is unfolded a panorama beyond the power of words to describe and probably the most remarkable on the globe mountains, valleys, lakes, forests and the villages of 13 counties may be seen as we gaze upon its beautifully shaped mass visible even from Yokohama and 100 miles at sea one does not wonder that it should be regarded as a holy mountain and that it should form a conspicuous object in every Japanese work of art it is to the natives of Japan as Mont Blanc is to Europeans the quote monarch of mountains in summer pilgrimages are made around the base of the summit elevation and there are on the upward path a number of Buddhist temples and shrines with lots of stone for devotion, shelter and the storage of food for pilgrims Hakone lake is 3,000 feet above the sea and probably lies in the crater of an extinct volcano its waters are very deep it is several miles long and wide and is surrounded by high hills which abound in fine scenery so fataras and mineral springs hot springs near Hakone lake at this place the mountain seems to be smoldering sulfur fumes and steam issue at many points and the ground is covered with a friable white alkaline substance in many a hollow the water bubbles with clouds of vapor and sulfur added hydrogen here the soil is hot and evidently underlaid by active fires it is not safe to go very near as the crust is thin and crumbling the water running down the hills has a refreshing sound and attempting clearness but the thirsty tongue at once detected to be a very strong solution of alum the whole aspect of the place is infernal and naturally suggests the name given its principal geyser O-Gigoko Big Hell Fujiyama is almost a perfect cone with as above said a truncated top in which is the crater it is however less steep than Mayon its upper part is comparatively steep even to 35 degrees but below this portion the inclination gradually lessens till its elegant outlines are lost from which it rises the curves of the sides depend partly on the nature size and shape of the ejected material the fine uniform pieces remaining on comparatively steep slopes while the larger and rounder ones roll farther down resting on the inclination that afterward becomes curved from the subsidence of the central mass the most recent and one of the most destructive of volcanic eruptions recorded in Japan was that of Bandai-san or Baldai-san for ages this mountain had been peaceful and there was scarcely an indication of its volcanic character or of the terrific forces which lay dormant within its heart on its flanks lay some small deposits of scoriae indications of far past eruptions and there were some hot springs at its base while steam arose from a fissure yet there was nothing to warn people of the vicinity the deadly peril lay under their feet Bandai-san's work of terror this sense of security was fatally dissipated on a day in july 1888 when the mountain suddenly broke into eruption and flung 1600 million cubic yards of its summit material so high into the air that many of the falling fragments in their fall struck the ground with such velocity as to be buried far out of sight the steam and dust were driven to a height of 13,000 feet where they spread into a canopy of much greater elevation causing pitchy darkness beneath there were from 15 to 20 violent explosions and a great landslide devastated about 30 square miles and buried many villages in a Nagase valley Mr. Norman a traveler who visited the spot shortly afterward thus describes the scene of ruin after a journey through the forests which closed the slopes of the volcanic mountain and prevented any distant view the travelers at last found themselves quote standing upon the ragged edge of what was left of the mountain of Bandai-san after two thirds of it including of course the summit had been literally blown away and spread over the face of the country the original cone of the mountain he continues had been truncated at an acute angle to its axis from our very feet a precipitous mud slope falls away for half a mile or more till it reaches the level at our right still below us rises a mud wall a mile long as also sloping down to the level and behind it is evidently the crater but before us for five miles in a straight line and on each side nearly as far is a sea of congealed mud broken up into ripples and waves of great billows and bearing upon its bosom a thousand huge boulders weighing hundreds of tons apiece end quote on reaching the crater he founded to resemble a gigantic cauldron fully a mile in width and enclosed with precipitous walls of indurated mud from several orifices volumes of steam rose into the air and when the vapor cleared away for a moment glimpses of a massive boiling mud were obtained before the eruption of the mountain top had terminated in three peaks of these the highest had an elevation of about 5,800 feet the peak destroyed was the middle one which was rather smaller than the other two quote the explosion was caused by steam there was neither fire nor lava of any kind it was in fact nothing more or less than a gigantic boiler explosion the whole top and one side of show bandai sun had been blown into the air in a lateral direction and the earth of the mountain was converted by the escaping steam at the moment of the explosion into boiling mud part of which was projected into the air to fall at a long distance and then take the form of an overflowing river which rushed with vast rapidity and covered the country to a depth of from 20 to 150 feet 30 square miles of country were thus devastated end quote in the devastated lowlands and buried villages below and on the slopes of the mountain many lives were lost from the survivors Mr. Norman gathered some information enabling him to describe the main features of the catastrophe we append a brief outline of his narrative Mr. Norman's narrative quote at a few minutes past 8 o'clock in the morning a frightful noise was heard by the inhabitants of a village 10 miles distant from the crater some of them instinctively took to flight but before they could run much more than 100 yards the light of day was suddenly changed into a darkness more intense than that of midnight a shower of blinding hot ashes and sand poured down upon them the ground was shaken with earthquakes and explosion followed explosion the last being the most violent of all many fugitives as well as people in the houses were overwhelmed by the deluge of mud none of the fugitives went overtaken by death being more than 200 yards from the village end quote from the statements made by those fortunate enough to escape with their lives and from a personal examination of the ground Mr. Norman inferred that the mud must have been flung fully 6 miles into the air and then have poured in a torrent along the ground for 4 miles further all this was done in less than 5 minutes so that quote millions of tons of boiling mud were hurled over the country at the rate of 2 miles a minute the velocity of the mud torrent may perhaps be overestimated but in its awful suddenness this catastrophe was evidently one with few equals the cone destroyed may have been largely composed of rather fine ashes and scoriae which was almost instantaneously converted into mud by the condensing steam and the boiling water ejected the quantity of water thus discharged must have been enormous of the remaining volcanic regions of the pacific the new zealand islands present some of the most striking examples of activity all the central parts indeed of the northern island of the group are highly of a highly volcanic character there is here a mountain named Tonga Rero on whose snow clad summit is a deep crater from which volcanic papers are seen to issue and which exhibits other indications of having been in a state of greater activity at not a very remote period of time there is also at no great distance from this mountain a region containing numerous funnel shaped chasms emitting hot water or steam or sulfurous vapors or boiling mud the earthquakes in New Zealand had probably their origin in this volcanic focus the New Zealand volcanoes Tonga Rero has a height of about 6,500 feet well Agmont 8,270 feet in height is a perfect cone with a perpetual cab of snow there are many other volcanic mountains and also great numbers of mud volcanoes hot springs and geysers it is for the latter that the island is best known to geologists their waters are at or near the boiling point and contain silica in abundance at a place called Rotomahana in the vicinity of Mount Tarawera there was formerly a lake of about 120 miles acres in area which was in its way one of the most remarkable bodies of water upon the earth formerly we say for this no longer this lake no longer exists it having been destroyed by the very forces to which it owed its fame its waters were maintained nearly at the boiling point by the continual accession of boiling water from numerous springs the most abundant of these sources was situated at the height of about 100 feet above the level of the lake it kept continually filled an oval base in about 250 feet in circumference the margins of which were merged all around with beautiful pure white stalactites formed by deposits of silica with which the hot water was strongly impregnated at various stages below the principal spring were several others that contributed to feed the lake at the bottom in the center of which was a small island minute bubbles continually escaped from the surface of the water with a hissing sound and the sand all around the lake was at a very high temperature if a stick were thrust into it very hot the vapors would ascend from the hole not far from this lake were several small basins filled with tepid water which is very clear and of a blue color the conditions here were of a kind with those to which are due the great geysers of iceland and the yellowstone park but different in the fact that instead of being intermittent and throwing up jets at intervals the springs allowed the water to flow from them in a continuous stream the pink and white terraces the salacious encrustations left by the overflow from the large pool had made a series of terraces 2 to 6 feet high with the appearance of being hewn from white or pink marble each of the basins containing a similar azure water these terraces covered an area of about 3 acres and looked like a series of cataracts changed into stone each edge being fringed with a festoon of delicate stalactites the water contained about 85% of silica with 1 or 2% of iron aluminum and a little alkali there were no more beautiful products of nature upon the earth than those quote pink and white terraces end quote as they were called the hot springs of the yellowstone have produced formations resembling them but not they're equal in fairy like charm one series of these terraced pools and cascades was of the purest white tint the other of the most delicate pink the waters topping over the edge of the pool and falling in a miniature cascade to the one next below thus keeping the edges built up by a continual renewal of the silicious incrustation but all their beauty could not save them from utter and irremediable destruction by the forces below the earth's surface on June 9 1886 a great volcanic disturbance began in the Auckland lake region with a tremendous earthquake followed during the night by many others at seven the next morning a lead covered cloud of pumice sand advancing from the south burst and discharged showers of fine dust the range of Mount Tarawara seemed to be in full volcanic activity including some craters supposed to be extinct and embracing an area of 120 miles by 20 the showers of dust were so thick as to turn day into night for nearly two days some lives were lost and several villages destroyed being covered 10 feet deep with ashes dust and clay mud the volcanic phenomena were the most violent character and the whole island appears to have been more or less convulsed Mount Tarawara is said to be 500 feet higher than before the eruption glowing masses were thrown up into the air and tongues of fiery hue gases or illuminated vapors 500 feet wide towered up 1000 feet high the mountain was 200 feet in height Tarawara in eruption this eruption presented a spectacle of rarely equaled grandeur to travelers and strangers the greatest result in loss will be the destruction of those world famous curiosities the white and pink terraces in the vicinity of Lake Rotomahana and the region of the famous geysers the natives have a superstition that the eruption of the extinct Tarawara was caused by the profanation of foreign footsteps it was to them a sacred place and its crater a repository for their dead the first earthquake occurred in this region one side of the mountain fell in and then the eruption began the basin of the lake was broken up and disappeared but again reappeared as a boiling mud cauldron craters burst out in various places and the beautiful terraces were no more after the first day the violence gradually diminished and in a week had seized possibly another lake will be formed and in time other terraces but it is hardly within the range of probability that the beauty of the lost terraces will ever be paralleled in this eruption as usual we find the earthquake preceding the volcanic outburst New Zealand like the Philippines, Java and the Japanese islands is situated over a great earthfisher or line of weakness subsidence or dislocation from tensile strain of the crust took place influx of water to new regions of heated strata may have developed the explosive force the earthquake and the volcano work together here as they frequently do unfortunately in this case destroying one of the most beautiful scenes on the surface of the globe the Antarctic volcanoes much further south on the frozen shore of Victoria land in the Antarctic regions Sir James Ross in 1841 sailing his discovery ships the Arabus and Terror two great volcanic mountains which he named after those two vessels Mount Arabus is continually covered from top to bottom with snow and glaciers the mountain is about 12,000 feet high and although the snow reaches to the very edge of the crater there rise continually from the summit immense volumes of volcanic fumes illuminated by the glare of the glowing lava beneath them the vapors ascend to an estimated height of 2,200 feet above the top of the mountain end of chapter 24 section 25 of the San Francisco Calamity by earthquake and fire by Charles Morris this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org recording by Lane Stranahan the San Francisco Calamity by earthquake and fire chapter 25 the wonderful Hawaiian craters and Kilauea's Lake of Fire in the central region of the North Pacific Ocean lies the archipelago formerly known as the Sandwich Islands now collectively designated as Hawaii the people of the United States should be especially interested in this island group for it has become one of our possessions an outlying territory of our growing republic and in making it part of our national domain we have not alone extended our dominion far over the seas but have added to the many marvels of nature within our land the chief wonders of the world the stupendous Hawaiian volcanoes before whose grandeur many of more ancient fame sink into insignificance and the island of Hawaii the island of Hawaii the principal island of the group we may safely say contains the most enormous volcano of the earth indeed the whole island which is 4,000 square miles an extent may be regarded as of volcanic origin it contains four volcanic mountains Huala, Hualalia, Monacaia and Monaloa the two last named are the chief the former being 13,800 feet the latter 13,600 feet above sea level although their height is so vast the ascent to their summits is so gradual that their circumference at the base is enormous the bulk of each of them is reckoned to be equal to two and a half times that of Etna some of the streams of lava which have emanated from them are 26 miles in length like two miles in breadth on the adjoining island of Maui is a still larger volcano the mighty Haleakala long since extinct but memorable as possessing the most dependist crater on the face of the earth the mountain itself is over 10,000 feet high and forms a great dome-like mass of 90 miles circumference at base the crater on its summit has a length of seven and a half and a width of two and a quarter miles with a total area of about 16 square miles the only approach in dimensions to this enormous opening exist in the still living crater of Kilauea on the flank of Manaloa a volcanic island group the peaks named are the most apparent remnants of a world-rending volcanic activity in the remote past by whose force this whole Hawaiian island group was lifted up from the depths of the ocean here descending some three and a half miles below the surface level the coral reefs which abound around the islands are of comparatively recent formation and rest upon a substratum of lava probably ages older which forms the base of the archipelago the islands are volcanic peaks and ridges that have been pushed up above the surrounding areas by the profound action of the interior forces of the earth it must not be supposed that this action was a violent perpendicular thrust upward over a very limited locality for the mountains continue to slope at about the same angle under the sea and for great distances at every side so that the islands are really the crests of an extensive elevation estimated to cover an area of about 2,000 miles in one direction by about 150 or 200 miles in the other the process was probably a gradual one of upbuilding by means of which the sea receded as the land steadily rose some idea of the mighty forces that have been at work beneath the sea and above it can be gained by considering the enormous mass of material now above the sea level of the island of Hawaii, the largest of the group has been estimated by the Hawaiian Surveyor General as containing 3,600 cubic miles of lava rock above sea level taking the area of England at 50,000 square miles this massive volcanic matter would cover that entire country to a depth of 274 feet we must remember however that what is above sea level is only a small fraction of the total amount since it sweeps down below the waves hundreds of miles on every side the crater of Haleakala one of the lava openings on these islands, the extinct one of Haleakala as stated with its 27 miles circumference is far the most stupendous it is easy to access the mountain sides leading to it presenting a gentle slope while the walls of the crater in places perpendicular in others are so sloping that man and horse can descend them the pit varies from 1,500 to 2,000 feet in depth its bottom being very irregular in the old lava flows and the many cinder cones those still looking as fresh as though their fires had just gone out some of these cones are over 500 feet high there was a tradition among the natives that the vast lava streams which in the past flowed from the crater to the sea continue to do so in the period of their remote ancestors they still indeed appear as if recent though there are today no signs of volcanic activity anywhere on this island in fact the only volcano now active in the Hawaiian islands is Manaloa in the southern section of the island of Hawaii a striking feature of this is that it has two distinct and widely disconnected craters one in its summit the other on its flank at a much lower level the latter is the vast crater of Kilauea the largest active crater known on the face of the globe Miss Bird in the crater of Kilauea we cannot offer a better description of the aspect of this lava abyss than to give Miss Bird's eloquent description of her adventurous descent into it quote the abyss which is really at a height of 4000 feet on the flank of Manaloa has the appearance of a pit on a rolling plane but such a pit it is quite 9 miles in circumference and at its lowest area which not long ago fell about 300 feet just as the ice on a pond falls when the water below is withdrawn covers 6 square miles the depth of the crater varies from 800 to 1000 feet according as the molten sea below is at flood or ebb signs of volcanic activity are present more or less throughout its whole depth and for some distance along its margin in the form of steam cracks, jets of sulfurous vapor blowing cones accumulating deposits of acicular crystals of sulfur etc and the pit itself is constantly rent and shaken by earthquakes great eruptions occur with circumstances of indescribable terror and dignity but Kilauea does not limit its activity to these outbursts but has exhibited its phenomena through all known time in a lake or lakes on the southern part of the crater 3 miles from this side this lake, the Halea Mau Mau or House of Everlasting Fire of the Hawaiian mythology the abode of the dreaded goddess Pele is approachable with safety except during an eruption the spectacle however varies almost daily and at times the level of the lava in the pit within a pit is so low and the suffocating gases are evolved by the most quantities that travelers are unable to see anything at the time of our visit there there had been no news from it for a week and as nothing was to be seen but a very faint bluish vapor hanging around its margin the prospect was not encouraging after more than an hour of very difficult climbing we reached the lowest level of the crater pretty nearly a mile across presenting from above the appearance of a sea at rest but on crossing it we found it to be an expanse of waves and convolutions of ashy colored lava cracks filled up with black iridescent rolls of lava only a few weeks old parts of it are very rough and ridgy jammed together like field ice or compacted by rolls of lava which may have swelled up from beneath but the largest part of the area presents the appearance of huge coiled hausers the ropey formation of the lava rendering an illusion almost perfect these are riven by deep cracks which emit hot sulfurous vapors as we ascended the flow became hotter under our feet as well as more porous and glistening it was so hot that a shower of rain hissed as it fell upon it the crust became increasingly insecure and necessitated our walking in single file with the guide in front to test the security of the footing I fell through several times and always into holes full of sulfur esteem so malignantly acid that my strong dog skin gloves were burned through as I raised myself on my hands we had followed the lava flow 30 miles up to the crater's brink and now we had toiled over recent lava for 3 hours and by all calculations were close to the pit yet there was no smoke or sign of fire and I felt sure that the volcano had died out for once for my special disappointment suddenly just above and in front of us gory drops were tossed in the air and springing forward we stood on the brink of Halea Mal Mal which was about 35 feet below us I think we all screamed I know we all wept we were speechless for a new glory and terror had been added to the earth it is the most unutterable of wonderful things the words of common speech are quite useless it is unimaginable indescribable a sight to remember forever a sight which at once took possession of every faculty of sense and soul removing one altogether out of the range of ordinary life here was the real bottomless pit the fire which is not quenched the lake which burneth with fire and brimstone the everlasting burnings the fiery sea whose waves are never weary perhaps those scripture phrases were suggested by the sight of some volcano in eruption there were groanings rumblings and detonations rushings, hissings, splashings and the crashing sound of breakers on the coast but it was the surging of fiery waves upon a fiery shore but what can I write such words as jets, fountains, waves, spray convey some idea of order and regularity but here there are none the inner lake while we stood there formed a sort of crater within itself the whole lava sea rose about 3 feet a blowing cone about 8 feet high was formed it was never the same 2 minutes together and what we saw had no existence a month before and probably will be changed in every central feature a month from hence the prominent object was fire in motion but the surface of the double lake was continually skimming over for a second or two with cool crust of lustrous gray white frost like frost silver broken by jagged cracks of a bright rose color the movement was nearly always from the sides to the center but the movement of the center itself appeared independent and always took a southerly direction before each outburst of agitation there was much hissing and throbbing with internal roaring as of imprisoned gases now it seemed furious, demonical as if no power on earth could bind it then playful and sportive then for a second languid but only because it was accumulating fresh force sometimes the whole lake took the form of mighty waves and it surging heavily against the partial barrier with a sound like the pacific surf lashed, tore, covered it and threw itself over it in clots of living fire it was all confusion, commotion forces, terror, glory majesty, mystery and even beauty and the color I hath not seen it molten metal hath not that crimson gleam nor blood that living light end quote to this description we may add that of Mr. Ellis a former missionary to these islands and one of the number who have descended to the shores of Kilauea is a bis of fire he says after describing his difficult descent and progress over the lava strewn pit Mr. Ellis visits the lake of lava quote immediately before us yawned an immense gulf in the form of a crescent about two miles in length from northeast to southwest nearly a mile in width and apparently 800 feet deep the bottom was covered with lava and the southwestern and northern parts of it were one vast flood of burning matter in a state of terrific ebullition rolling to and fro its fiery surges and flaming billows 51 conical islands of varied form and size containing as many craters rose either round the edge or from the surface of the burning lake 22 constantly emitted columns of gray smoke or pyramids of brilliant flame and several of these at the same time vomited from their ignited mouths streams of lava which rolled in blazing torrents down their back indented sides into the boiling mass below the existence of these conical craters to conclude that the boiling cauldron of lava before us did not form the focus of the volcano that this mass of melted lava was comparatively shallow and that in the basin in which it was contained was separated by a stratum of solid matter from the great volcanic abyss which constantly poured out its melted contents through these numerous craters into this upper reservoir the sides of the gulf before us although composed of different strata of ancient lava were perpendicular for about 400 feet and rose from a wide horizontal ledge of solid black lava of irregular breadth but extending completely round beneath this ledge the sides sloped gradually towards the burning lake which was as nearly as we could judge 300 or 400 feet lower it was evident that the large crater had been recently filled with liquid lava up to this black ledge and hand by some subterraneous canal emptied itself into the sea or spread under the low land on the shore the grey and in some places apparently calcined sides of the great crater before us the fissures which intersected the surface of the plane on which we were standing the long banks of sulfur on the opposite side of the abyss the vigorous action of the numerous small craters on its borders the dense columns of vapor and smoke that rose at the north and west end of the plane together with the ridge of steep rocks by which it was surrounded rising probably in some places 300 or 400 feet in the perpendicular height presented an immense volcanic panorama the effect of which was greatly augmented by the constant roaring of the vast furnaces below end quote monoloa in eruption of the two great craters of monoloa the summit one has frequently in modern times overflowed its crest and poured its molten streams and glowing rivers over the land this has rarely been the case with the lower and incessantly active crater of Kilauea the lava when in excess appears to escape by subterranean channels to the sea we append descriptions of some of the more recent examples of monoloa as eruptive energy the lava from this crater does not alone flow over the crater's lip but at some times makes its way through fissures far below the immense pressure causing it to spout in great flashing fountains high into the air in 1852 the fiery fountains reached a height of 500 feet in some later eruptions they have leaped 1000 feet high the lava is white hot as it ascends but it assumes a blood red tint in its fall and strikes the ground with a frightful noise the quantities of lava ejected in some of the recent eruptions have been enormous the river-like flow of 1855 was remarkable for its extent being from 2 to 8 miles wide with a depth of from 3 to 300 feet and extending in a winding course for a distance of 60 miles the apostle of Hawaiian volcanoes, the Reverend Titus Cohen who ventured to the source of this flow while it was in supreme action thus described it quote, we ascended our rugged pathway amidst stream and smoke and heat which almost blinded and scathed us we came to open orifices down which we looked into the fiery river which rushed madly under our feet these fire events were frequent some of them measuring 10, 20, 50 or 100 feet in diameter in one place we saw the river of lava uncovered for 30 rods rushing down a declivity of from 10 to 25 degrees the scene was awful the momentum incredible the fusion perfect white heat and the velocity 40 miles an hour the banks on each side of the stream were red hot, jagged and overhanging as we viewed it rushing out from under its ebb and counter pain and in the twinkling of an eye diving again into its fiery den it seemed to say, stand off scan me not, I am God's messenger a work to do, away later he wrote again quote, the great summit fountain is still playing with fearful energy and the devouring stream rushes madly down toward us it is now about 10 miles distant and heading directly for our bay in a few days we may be called to announce this painful fact that our beauteous helo is no more that our lovely, our inimitable landscape, our emerald bowers our crescent strand and our silver bay are blotted out a fiery sword hangs over us a flood of burning ruin approaches us devouring fires are near us with shore and solemn progress the glowing fusion advances through the dark forest and the dense jungle in our rear cutting down ancient trees of enormous growth and sweeping away all vegetable life for months the great summit furnace on monoloa has been in awful blast floods of burning destruction have swept wildly and widely over the top and down the sides of the mountain the wrathful stream has overcome every obstacle winding its fiery way from its high source to the bases of the everlasting hills spreading in a molten sea over the plains penetrating the ancient forests driving the bellowing herds the wild goats and the affrighted birds before its lurid glare leaving nothing but ebb and blackness and smoldering ruin in its track end quote his anticipation of the burial of helo under the mighty flow happily not realized it came to an abrupt hauled well seven miles distant checked stream standing in a threatening and rugged ridge rigid beatling front the eruptions of 1859 in 1865 in January 1859 monoloa was again at its fire play throwing up lava fountains from 800 to 1000 feet in height from this great fiery fountain the lava flowed down numerous streams spreading over a width of five or six miles one stream probably formed by the junction of several smaller attained a height of from 20 to 25 feet and a breadth of about an eighth of a mile great stones were thrown up along with the jet of lava and the volume of seeming smoke composed probably of fine volcanic dust is said to have risen to the height of 10,000 feet an eruption of still greater violence took place in 1865 characterized by similar phenomena particularly the throwing up of jets of lava this fiery fountain continued to play without intermission for 20 days and nights varying only as respect to the height to which the jet arose which is said to have ranged between 100 and 1000 feet the mean diameter of the jet being about 100 feet this eruption was accompanied by explosions so loud as to have been heard at a distance of 40 miles a cone of about 300 feet in height and about a mile in circumference was accumulated around the orifice when the jet ascended it was composed of solid matters ejected with the lava and it continued to glow like a furnace not withstanding its exposure to the air the current of lava on this occasion flowed to a distance of 35 miles burning its way through the forests and filling the air with smoke and flames from the ignited timber the glare from the glowing lava and the burning trees together was discernible by night at a distance of 200 miles from the island the lava flow of 1880 a succeeding great lava flow was that which began on November 6th 1880 Mr. David Hitchcock who was camping on Montaguea at the time of this outbreak saw a spectacle that few human eyes have ever beheld we stood writes he on the very edge of that flowing river of rock oh what a sight it was not 20 feet from us was this immense bed of rock slowly moving forward with an irresistible force bearing on its surface huge rocks and immense boulders of tons weight water would carry a toy boat the whole front edge was one bright red mass of solid rock incessantly breaking off from the towering mass and rolling down to the foot of it to be again covered by another avalanche of white hot rocks and sand the whole mass at its front edge was from 12 to 30 feet in height along the entire line of its advance it was one crash of rolling sliding tumbling red hot rock we could hear no explosions while we were near the flow only a tremendous roaring like 10,000 blast furnaces all at work at once end quote this was the most extensive flow of recent years and its progress from the interior plain through the dense forests above Helo and out onto the open levels close to the town was startling and menacing enough through the woods especially was a turbulent seething mass that hurled down mammoth trees and licked up streams of water and day and night kept an unintermitting wave of explosions the steam and imprisoned gases would burst the congealing surface with cloud detonations so that it could be heard for many miles it was not an infrequent thing for parties to camp out close to the flow overnight ordinarily a lava flow moves sluggishly and congeals rapidly so that what seems like a hardy hood in the narrating is in reality calm judgment for its perfectly safe to be in the close vicinity of a lava stream and even to walk on its surface as soon as one would be inclined to walk on cooling iron in a foundry this notable flow finally seized within half a mile of Helo where its black form is a perpetual reminder of a marvelous deliverance from destruction Kilauea in 1840 Kilauea seems never in historic times to have filled and overflowed its vast crater to do so would need an almost inconceivable volume of liquid rock material but it approached this culmination in 1840 when it became through its whole extent a raging sea of fire the boiling lava rose in the mighty mountain cup to a height of from 500 to 600 feet then it forced a passage through a subterranean cavity 27 miles long and reached the sea 40 miles distance in two days the stream where it fell into the sea was half a mile wide so the flow kept up for three weeks heating the ocean 20 miles from land an eyewitness of this extraordinary flow thus describes it when the torrent of fire precipitated itself into the ocean the scene assumed a character of terrific and indescribable grandeur the magnificence of destruction was never more perceptibly displayed than when these antagonistic elements met in deadly strife the mightiest of the earth's magazines of fire poured forth its burning billows to meet the mightiest of oceans for two score miles it came rolling tumbling swelling forward an awful agent of death rocks melted like wax in its path forests crackled and blazed before its fervent heat the works of man were to it but as a scroll in the flames imagine Niagara's stream above the brink of the falls with its dashing whirling madly raging waters hurrying on to their plunge instantaneously converted into fire a gory huge river of fused minerals volumes of hissing steam arising and some curling upward from ten thousand vents which give utterance to as many deep toned mutterings and sullen confined clamorings gasses detonating and shrieking as they burst from their hot prison house the heavens lured with flame the atmosphere dark and oppressive the horizon murky with vapors and gleaming with the reflected contest such was the scene as the fiery cataract leaping a precipice of 50 feet poured its flood upon the ocean the old line of coast a mass of compact indurated lava whitened cracked and fell the waters recoiled and sent forth a tempest of spray they foamed and dashed around over the melted rock they boiled with the heat and the roar of the conflicting agencies grew fiercer and louder the reports of the exploding gases were distinctly her 25 miles distant and were likened to a whole broad side of heavy artillery streaks of the intense light gleamed like lightning in all directions the outskirts of the burning lava as it fell cooled by the shock were shivered into millions of fragments and scattered by the strong wind in sparkling showers far into the country for three successive weeks the volcano disgorged an uninterrupting burning tide with scarcely any diminution into the ocean on the other side for 20 miles the sea became heated with such rapidity that on the second day of the junction of the lava the ocean fishes came ashore dead in great numbers at a point 15 miles distant six weeks later at the base of the hills the water continued scalding hot and sent forth steam at every wash of the waves end quote the sinking of Kilauea's fire lake in 1866 the great crater of Kilauea presented a new and unlooked for spectacle in the sinking and vanishing of its great lava lake in march of that year the fires of the ancient cauldron totally disappeared and the surrounding lava rock sank to a depth of nearly 600 feet Mr. Thrum in a pamphlet on the suspended activity of Kilauea says of it quote distant rumbling noises were heard accompanied by a series of earthquakes 43 in number with the fourth shock the brilliancy of the new lake disappeared and towards 3 a.m. the fires and Hala Mau Mau also disappeared from the crater in darkness with the dawn the shocks and noises ceased and revealed the changes which Kilauea had undergone in the night all the high cliffs surrounding Hala Mau Mau and new lake which had become a prominent feature in the crater had vanished entirely and the molten lava of both lakes had disappeared by some subterranean passage from the bottom of Hala Mau Mau there was no material change in the sunken portion of the crater except a continual falling in of rocks as the contraction from its former intense heat loosened their compactness and sent them hurling some 200 or 300 feet below giving forth at times a boom as a distant thunder followed by clouds of cinders and ashes shooting up into the air 100 to 300 feet proportionate doubtless to the size of the newly fallen mass this remarkable recession of the liquid lava in Hala Mau Mau was probably due to the opening of some deep subterranean passage through which the lake of lava made its way to the ocean's depths the Reverend Mr. Baker probably the most adventuresome explorer of Hawaiian volcanoes actually descended into that crumbling pit to a point within which he judged to be 50 feet of the bottom but Hala Mau Mau had only taken an intermission for in two short months signs of returning life became frequent and unmistakable and in June culminated in the sudden outbreak of a lake that has since then steadily increased in activity the goddess Pele we cannot close this chapter without some reference to the goddess Pele to whom the Hawaiians long imputed the wonder work of their volcanic mountains when there is unusual commotion in Kilauea myriads of thread-like filaments float in the air and upon the cliffs making deposits much resembling matted hair a single filament over 15 inches long was picked up on a helo veranda having sailed the in-the-air distance of 50 miles this is the famous Pele's hair being the glass-like product of volcanic fires it resembles Prince Rupert's drops and the tradition is that wherever the volcano becomes active it is because Pele the goddess of the crater emerges from her fiery furnace and shakes her vitreous locks in anger this fabled being according to Emerson in a paper on the lesser Hawaiian gods quote, could at times assume the appearance of a handsome young woman as when Kama Paua was smitten with her charms when he first saw her with her sisters at Kilauea Kama Paua'a was a gigantic hog who could appear quote, could appear as a handsome young man a hog, a fish, or a tree at other times the innate character of the fury showed itself and Pele appeared in her usual form as an ugly and hateful old hag with tattered and fire-burnt garments scarcely concealing the filth and nakedness of her person she thought eyes and fiendish countenance paralyzed the beholder and her touch turned him into stone she was a jealous and vindictive monster, delighting in cruelty and at the slightest provocation overwhelming the unoffending victims of her rage in widespread ruin end quote the superstition regarding the goddess Pele was thought to have received a death blow in 1825 when Kapi Olani and a Hawaiian princess and a Christian convert ascended in attendance to the crater of Kilauea where she publicly defied the power and wrath of the goddess no response came to her defiance and she ascended in safety and faith in Pele's power was widely shaken yet as late as 1887 the old superstition revived and claimed an exalted victim for in that year the princess the youngest sister of the king starved herself to death to appease the anger of the goddess Pele supposed to be manifested in Manolo's eruption of that year and to be quieted only by the sacrifice of a victim of royal blood thus slowly do the old superstitions die away end of section 25