 CHAPTER VIII. Poisonous insects, reptiles, and plants. Insects. My first experience with wood ticks, jiggers, and jersey mosquitoes was during the summer we spent at Bayville, near Tom's River, New Jersey. In many ways, Bayville, with its sand, its pines, its beautiful wood roads, and rare wild flowers is an interesting and attractive place. The salty air is fine when the thermometer is self-respecting and keeps the mercury below ninety degrees in the shade, but the oak underbrush harbors wood ticks, the blackberry bushes cover you with jiggers, the woods are full of deer flies, and the vicious mosquito whose name is Legion is everywhere where he is not barred out. Wood ticks. I had been told of the ticks that infest the forests of the south, had heard blood-curdling stories of how they sometimes bury themselves entire in the flesh of animals and men and have to be cut out, and my horror of them was great. In reality I found them unpleasant enough, but, as far as we were concerned, comparatively harmless. The wood tick is a small, rather disgusting-looking creature which, in appearance and size, resembles the common bedbug. It fastens itself upon you without your knowledge and you do not feel it even when it begins to suck your blood, but something generally impels you to pass your hand over the back of your neck or cheek where the thing is clinging and, feeling the lump, you pull it off and no great harm done. The tick is supposed always to bury its head in the flesh, and it is said that if the head is left in when the bug is pulled off an ugly sore will be the result. We had no experience of that kind, however, nor in our hurry to get rid of it, did we stop to remove the bug scientifically by dropping oil on it, as Kephard advises, but just naturally and simply, also vigorously, we grasped it between thumb and forefinger and hastily plucked it off. The effect of the bite was no worse on any of our party than that of the Jersey Mosquito. Often your friends will see a tick on you and tell you of it even while they have several all unknown to themselves decorating their own countenance. The name by which science knows this unlovely bug is Ixodace leech. Jigger, red bug, mite. The tiny mite, called by the native's jigger and red bug, is more annoying than the wood tick, one reason being that there are so many more of him. He really does penetrate the skin, and his wanderings under the surface give one the feeling of an itching rash which covers the body. You won't see the jigger, he is too small, but if you invade his domain you will certainly feel him. Deer fly. The deer fly will bite and bite hard enough to hurt. It will drive its sharp mandibles into your skin with such force as to take out a bit of the flesh, sometimes causing the blood to flow. But the bite does not seem particularly poisonous, though you feel it at the time and it generally raises a lump on the flesh. The deer fly belongs to the family of gadflies. It is larger than a house fly, and its wings stand out at right angles to its body. It will not trouble you much except in the woods. Blackfly. The Adirondack in Northwoods region is not only the resort of hunters, campers, and seekers after health and pleasure, but it is also the haunt of the maddening blackfly. From early spring until the middle of July or 1st of August, the blackfly holds the territory. Then it evacuates and is seen no more until next season when it begins a new campaign. Under the name of Buffalo fly, the blackfly is found in the west, where, on the prairies, it has been known to wage war on horses until death ensued. Death of the horses, not of the fly. It is a small fly about one-sixth of an inch long, thick-bodied, and black. It is said to have broad, silvery circles on its legs, but no one ever stops to look at these. Its probuscus is developed to draw blood freely, and it is always in working order. The only virtue the blackfly seems to have is its habit of quitting operations at sundown and leaving to other tormentors the task of keeping you awake at night. When the blackfly bites, you will know it, and it will leave its mark, when it does leave, which must generally be by your help, for it holds on with commendable persistence. If you would learn more of this charming insect, look for Simulium molestum in a book which treats the subject scientifically. Noseum, punky, midge. There is another pest of the north woods which the guides call the noseum. It is a very diminutive midge resembling the mosquito in form and viciousness, but so small as to be almost invisible. Night and day are the same to the noseum, its warfare is continuous and its bite very annoying, but it disappears with the blackfly in July or August. By September the mountains and woods are swept clear of all these troublesome things, except at times and in some places the ever-hungry mosquito, which will linger on for a last bite in his summer feast. The only way to relieve the irritation caused by the bites of these pests, including the mosquito, is to bathe the affected parts with campfire, alcohol, or diluted ammonia. When there are but one or two bites they may be touched with strong ammonia, but it will not do to use this too freely as it will burn the skin. Nats. In the mountains of Pennsylvania the most troublesome insects I found were the tiny nats that persist in flying into one's eyes in a very exasperating fashion. They swarm in a cloud in front of your face as you walk and make constant dashes at your eyes, although to reach their goal brings instant death. It is not much trouble to get one of these nats out of your eye when it once gets in. All that is necessary is to take the eyelashes of the upper eyelid between your thumb and first finger and draw the upper eyelid down over the under eyelid. The under eyelashes sweep the upper lid clear and the rush of tears that comes to the eye washes the insect out. Bees, Wasps, and Yellow Jackets. While honeybees and wasps can make themselves most disagreeable when disturbed, you can usually keep away from beehives and bee trees as well as from the great gray papery nests of the wasp, but the hornets or yellow jackets have an uncomfortable habit of building in low bushes and on the ground where you may literally put your foot in a hornet's nest. They are hot-tempered little people, these same hornets, as I have reason to know. Twice I have been punished by them and both times it was my head they attacked. Once I found them, or they found me, in a cherry tree, and the second time we met was when I stepped in their nest hidden on the ground. Their sting is like a hot wire pressed into the flesh. When angered they will chase you and swarm around your head, stinging whenever they can, but they may be beaten off if some friendly hand will wield a towel or anything else that comes handy. If the stings of any of these stinging insects are left in the wounds, they should be taken out with a clean needle or clean knife blade. In any case, mix some mud into a paste and plaster it on the parts that have been stung. If you are in camp and have with you a can of antiflogistine, use that instead of the mud. It is at least more sightly and is equally efficient in reducing inflammation. Various things have been devised as protection against insect torments. One is a veil of net to be worn over the hat. You will find this described in Chapter 4 under the heading of Personal Outfits. Dopes Then there are dopes to be rubbed over the face, neck, and hands. The three said to be the best are Nesmox Dope, Brex Dope, and HP Wells Bug Juice. There is also a Rexel preparation which, I am told, is good while it stays on, but will wash off with perspiration. Nesmox Dope In giving the recipe for his dope, Nesmox says that it produces a glaze over the skin and that in preventing insect bites he has never known it to fail. This is the dope. Pine tar, three ounces. Caster oil, two ounces. Oil of penny-royal, one ounce. Simmer all together over a slow fire and bottle. This is sufficient for four persons for two weeks. Brex Dope Pine tar, three ounces. Olive or castor oil, two ounces. Oil of penny-royal, one ounce. Citronella, one ounce. Creosote, one ounce. Campfer, pulverized, one ounce. Large tube of carbolated Vaseline. Heat the tar and oil and add the other ingredients. Simmer over slow fire until well mixed. The tar may be emitted if disliked or for ladies' use. Brex tells us that his dope was planned to be a counter-irritant after being bitten as well as a preventer of bites. HP Wells Bug Juice Olive oil, half a pint. Creosote, one ounce. Penny-royal, one ounce. Campfer, one ounce. Dissolve campfer in alcohol and mix. Any dope must be well rubbed in on face, neck, ears and behind ears, hands on the backs, wrists and arms, but be very careful not to get it in your eyes. Smudges Smudges are said to afford relief in camp, but my own experience has been that the insects can stand them better than I. A smudge is made by burning things that make little flame and much smoke. Dead leaves, not too dry, will make a fairly good smudge, but a better way is to burn damp cedar bark or branches on piles of hot coals taken from the campfire and kept alive at different sides of the camp. The accounts of extreme suffering caused by insect bites come from unusually sensitive people. All people are not affected alike. Two persons from one camp will tell entirely different stories of their experience with insects. The best way to encounter these, as all other annoyances, is to protect yourself as well as you can, and then, without whimpering, make the best of the situation. All the pests described will not fall upon you at once, and, taken singly or even doubly, you will manage to survive the ordeal. If the pleasure of the trail did not overbalance the pain, there would be fewer campers to relate their troubles. Snakes The bite of a poisonous snake is by all means to be avoided, and the point is, you almost always can avoid it. With all the snakes in the United States, Dr. William T. Hornaday, director of the Zoological Park of New York City, tells us that out of 75 million people not more than two die each year of snake bites. Snakes are not man hunters. They will not track you down. They much prefer to keep out of your way. What you have to do is to keep out of theirs. In a region where poisonous snakes abound, it is well to wear khaki leggings as a protection in case you inadvertently step too near and anger the creatures. For in such cases, they sometimes strike before you have time to beat a retreat. According to Dr. Hornaday, the poisonous snakes of North America are the rattlesnake, water moccasin, copperhead, sonora coral snake, harlequin snake, rattlesnakes. The rattlesnake appears to vary in color and markings in the different localities where it is found, and there are 14 or 15 varieties. But all carry the rattles, shake them warningly, and coil before they strike. The rattlesnake does not want to fight, and if you keep it a safe distance, it will glide off in another direction. But it is safest not to venture within striking distance, which is said to be two-thirds the length of the snake, even if the snake has not coiled, for it moves quickly and strikes like a flash. The rattles are at the extreme end of the tail and are composed of horny joints. The sound of the rattles is much like the humming of a locust, cicada. Rattlesnakes are often found sunning themselves on large rocks, and stone quarries are the chosen winter quarters where the whole colonies assemble. They are also found during the summer among underbrush and in stubble fields, where they probably go to hunt field mice and other small mammals. Banded Rattlesnake The mountains of Pennsylvania are a favorite resort of the rattlesnake, but, though I have passed many summers in Pike County, famous for its snakes, the only live one I ever saw in that locality was in a box at Rowland Station. The men of our party occasionally killed one and brought it to camp as a trophy, but one of our weekend guests spent most of his time hunting the rattler that he might take its skin back to the city, yet without success. It is the banded rattlesnake that is usually found in Pennsylvania. The color is yellowish, and it is marked with irregular wide bands of dark brown. Sometimes the snake is almost black, and it is thought that it turns dark with age. Diamond Rattlesnake The rattlesnake marked in diamond patterns of gold outlined on brown is of the south and is oftenest found in Florida. This is a very large snake, and closely allied to it is the Texas rattlesnake, which is the same in markings and color, but paler as if faded out. Massa Swaga The Massa Swaga is the rattlesnake occasionally found in the swamps from western New York to Nebraska, but it is rare. Its color is light brown with patches of dark brown its entire length. Copperhead The copperhead is not a rattler, though its vibrating tail amid dry leaves will sometimes hum like one. This is also true of the black snake. Its bite is very poisonous. It is found amid rocks and in the woods, and is at home from New England and the Atlantic Coast west to Indiana and south to Texas. This snake is seldom more than three feet long. Its color is light reddish brown with bands of rich chestnut which are narrow on the back and wide at the sides. The under part is whitish with dark spots on the abdomen. The head is generally coppery in color, but not always. In Texas the colors of the copperhead are stronger. The bands in head are decidedly reddish, and the bands have narrow white borders. Harlequin Snake and Coral Snake The Harlequin Snake and the Coral Snake are so similar in color and in habits, one description for both will answer our purpose. They are southern snakes, beginning in southern Indiana and extending south. They are quite poisonous, but of such retiring habits as hardly to be classed as dangerous. Most of their time is spent hidden under the sand and in the ground, but when they do come out their colors are so brilliant as not to be mistaken. On the Harlequin Snake the colors are bright coral red, yellow, and black, which alternate in stripes that encircle the body. Its head is always banded with a broad yellow stripe. The Coral Snake is much the same in color and only a close observer would notice the difference. The Coral Snake is also found in Arizona. Water Moccasin Cotton Mouth The water moccasin is ugly and ugly all the way through. Its deadly viciousness is not redeemed by any outward beauty. Its average length is three and a half feet, though it is occasionally longer. Its unlovely body is thick in the color of greenish mud. The sides are paler and have wide blackish bands. There are dark bands from the eyes to the mouth and above them there are pale streaks. The top of the head is very dark. The abdomen is yellow with splashes of brown or black. Heavy shields overhang the eyes and give a sinister expression to their angry glare. When suddenly approached the moccasin opens wide its white-lined mouth and one then understands why it is called Cotton Mouth. This snake does not coil before it strikes, but vibrates its tail slowly and watches its prey with mouth open. The moccasin is decidedly a southern snake and girls of the South know that its home is along the edges of bayous and in the swamps. It is frequently seen with its head and a small part of its body out of the water while the rest is submerged, but at times it will be found on a water-soaked log or on underbrush and low boughs of trees that overhang the water. The bite is very poisonous. Other Snakes There are many other snakes in the United States, but they are not venomous. Here is one thing to remember. We need never fear a snake found in this country which has lengthwise stripes, that is stripes running from head to tail. Daniel C. Beard tells me that he has learned this from observation and Raymond L. Dittmar's curator of reptiles in the New York Zooological Park agrees with him. While the lengthwise stripes snakes are harmless, others not striped in this way are harmless too. The black snake, though he looks an ugly customer and, when cornered, will sometimes show fight, is not venomous and his bite is not deep. It is therefore wanton cruelty to kill every snake that crosses your path simply because it happens to be a snake. Kepphart in his Book of Camping and Woodcraft says in regard to identifying the poisonous snake, Quote The rattlesnake, copperhead, and cottonmouth are easily distinguished from all other snakes as all three of them bear a peculiar mark or rather a pair of marks that no other animal possesses. This mark is the pit, which is a deep cavity on each side of the face between the nostrils and the eye, sinking into the upper jawbone. End quote. If when one has been bitten and the snake killed, an examination is made of its head, it can be ascertained immediately whether the snake was venomous, and in this way unnecessary fright may be avoided. Beaded Lizard, Heelamonster The only other venomous reptile found in the United States is the beaded lizard called Heelamonster. Unless you visit the desert regions of Arizona and New Mexico, you will not be apt to run across this most interesting though poisonous reptile. The Heelamonster looks very much like a unique piece of Indian beadwork, with its fat body and stubby legs covered with bright colored bead-like tubercles, which form almost a Navajo pattern. Its length is about 19 inches and its beads are colored salmon, flesh pink, white or yellow, and black. Though it has the appearance of being stuffed with cotton, it is really formidable and very much alive. Its jaws are strong, when it bites it holds on like a bulldog, and there is no way to force it to open its mouth except to pry the powerful jaws apart. While otherwise slow of movement it will turn quickly from side to side, snapping viciously. The inside of the Heela's mouth is black, and when angry it opens it wide and hisses. Treatment for Snakebites If the unlikely should chance to happen and one of your party is bitten by a poisonous snake, first age should be given immediately, and if a physician is within reach he should be summoned as quickly as possible. Much depends, however, upon what is done first. Anyone can administer the following treatment, and it should be done without flinching, or it may mean the saving of a life. 1. As soon as the person is bitten, twist the tourniquet very tightly above the wound, that is, between the wound and the heart, to keep the poison as far as possible from entering the entire system. 2. Slash the wound or stab it with a clean knife blade and force it to bleed copiously. If there is no break in the skin or membrane of your mouth or lips and no cavity in any of your teeth, suck the wound to draw out the poison. 3. Give the stimulant in small doses at frequent intervals to stimulate the heart and lungs and strengthen the nerves, but avoid overdoing this, for the result will be harmful. 4. If you have with you an anti-venomous serum, inject it as directed by the formula that accompanies it. Tie a loose bandage around the affected member, a handkerchief, neck scarf, or even a rope for a tourniquet to check circulation as described in Chapter 12 on Accidents. Every little while loosen the tourniquet, then tighten it again, for it will not do to stop the circulation entirely. All authorities do not advise sucking the wound, but it is generally done for with a perfectly sound and healthy mouth there is no danger, as the poison enters the system only by contact with the blood. Some writers advocate cauterizing the wound with a hot iron, but whatever is done do quickly and do not be afraid. Fear is contagious and exceedingly harmful to the patient. Remember that a snake bite is seldom fatal and that a swollen arm or leg does not mean that the case is hopeless. 5. Poisonous plants. There are two kinds of poisonous plants, those that are poisoned to the touch and those that are harmless unless taken inwardly. Both may be avoided when you learn to identify them. Poison Ivy. We are apt to think that everyone knows the common poison ivy, but that some people are not familiar with it was shown when one beautiful autumn day a young woman passed along our village street carrying a handful of the sprays of the vine gathered probably because of their beautiful coloring. Noticing that she was a stranger, no doubt from the city, and realizing the danger she was running of poisoning herself or someone else, we hurriedly caught up with her and gave first aid to the ignorant in a few forceful remarks. The result was that, without a word, the young woman simply opened her hand, dropped her vines on the walk, and hurried off as if to escape a pestilence. We were left to close the incident by kicking the stuff into the street that some other equally uninformed person might not be tempted to pick it up. If you do not know the poison ivy, remember this. It is the three-leaved ivy. Its leaves always grow in triplets as shown in illustration. The leaves are smooth, but not glossy. They have no teeth, but are occasionally notched. Sometimes the plant is bushy, standing a foot or two high. Again, it is trailing or climbing. It loves fence corners and big rocks to clamor over. It will also choose large trees for support, climbing up to their tops. The flowers are whitish, and the fruit is a pretty green-gray berry, round and smooth, which grows in scant clusters. Poison ivy is found through the country from Maine to Texas and west to South Dakota, Utah and Arkansas. Some people are immune to ivy poison, and, happily, I belong to the fortunate ones. Many persons are poisoned by it, however, and it may be that fear makes them more susceptible. On some the painful burning eruption is difficult to cure. Poison oak. The poison oak closely resembles the poison ivy, and is sometimes called by that name, but its leaves are differently shaped, being oval and outline with a few coarse, blunt teeth. They are also thicker and smaller than the ivy leaf. The poison oak is plentiful in cool uplands and in ravines, and is general throughout the Pacific coast from lower California and Arizona to British America. Poison sumac, or swamp sumac. Another member of the same family is the poison sumac. They are all three equally poisonous and act by contact. For poison, or swamp, sumac is a high, branching shrub, closely resembling the harmless species which grow on high, dry ground. The poison variety chooses low, wet places. The leaves of the poison sumac are compound, with from seven to thirteen leaflets growing from one stem, as the leaves of the walnut tree grow. The stalks are often of a purplish color. The leaflets are oval in shape and are pointed at the tip. The surface is smooth and green on both sides and they have no teeth. The autumn coloring is very brilliant. The flowers are whitish green and grow in loose clusters from a stiff middle stalk at the angles of the leaves. The fruit is a gray green berry growing in scant, drooping clusters. This gray drooping berry is the sumac poison sign, for the fruit of the harmless sumac is crimson and is held erect in those pyramidal clusters. The chasel, ponds extract, is used as a remedy for all of these poisons, but it is claimed that a paste made of cooking soda and water is better. Alcohol will sometimes be effective. Also a strong lie made of wood ashes. Salt and water will give relief to some. It seems to depend upon the person, whether the remedy, as well as the poison, will have effect. Yellow ladies' slipper. Growing in bogs and low woods from Maine to Minnesota and Washington, southward to Georgia and Missouri, there is a sweet-scented little yellow and brown flower called the yellow ladies' slipper, the plant of which is said to have the same effect when handled as poison ivy. This flower is an orchid. The stalk, from one to two feet high, bears a single blossom at the top, and the leaves, shaped and veined like those of the lily of the valley, grow ultimately down the stem. The plant does not branch. Like the ivy, the yellow ladies' slipper does not poison everyone. I know of no other wild plants that are poisonous to the touch. The following will poison only if taken inwardly. Deadly nightshade. To the nightshade family belong plants that are poisonous and plants that are not, but the thrilling name Deadly Nightshade carries with it the certainty of poison. The plant is an annual and you may often find it growing in a neglected corner of the garden as well as in waste places. It is a tall plant, the one I remember in our own garden reached to the top of a five-foot board fence. Its leaves are rather triangular in shape. They are dark green and the wavy edges are notched rather than toothed. The flowers are white and grow in small clusters. The fruit is a berry, round, black and smooth, with callux adhering to it. The berry clusters grow at the end of drooping stems. This must not be mistaken for the high bush blueberry, for to eat the fruit would be most dangerous. The antidotes for nightshade poison are ametics, cathartics and stimulants. The poison should be thrown off the stomach first, then strong coffee be given as a stimulant. Pokeweed pigeonberry. Pokeweed comes under the heading of poisonous plants, though its berries are eaten by birds and its young shoots are said to be almost equal in flavor and quite as wholesome as asparagus. It seems to be the large perennial root that holds the poison, though some authorities claim that the poison permeates the entire plant to a certain extent. The root is sometimes mistaken for that of edible plants and the young leaves for those of the marsh marigold, which are edible when cooked. It is a tall plant with a stout stem and emits a strong odor. You will find it growing by the wayside and in rocky places. The leaves are oblong and pointed at the tips and base. They have no teeth. The small white flowers are in clusters. The fruit is a small, flat, dark purple berry, growing in long, upstanding clusters on a central stalk. The individual stem of the berry is very short. The name inkberry was given to the plant because of the strong stain of the berry juice, which was sometimes used for ink. It is at home in various states, Maine to Minnesota, Arkansas and Florida. Poison Hemlock The poison hemlock is well known historically, being in use at the time of Socrates and believed to have been administered to him by the Greeks. It is quite as poisonous now as in Socrates' day, and accidental poisoning has come from people eating the seeds, mistaking them for anise seed, eating the leaves for parsley and the roots for parsnips. The plant grows from two to seven feet high. Its stem is smooth and spotted or streaked with purpleish red. It has large, parsley-like leaves and pretty clusters of small white flowers which grow, stiff-stemmed, from a common center and blossom in July and August. When the fresh leaves are bruised, they give out a distinctly mouse-like odor and they are very nauseating to the taste. Poison Hemlock is common on wayside and waste places in New York, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Ohio. It is also found in New England and Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, Louisiana and California. The treatment recommended by professionals is emetics, warmth of hands and feet, artificial respiration and the subcutaneous injection of atropine administered by a physician. Water Hemlock Water Hemlock is similar in appearance and in effect. It is found in wet places and on the borders of swamps. The remedies are the same as for Poison Hemlock. Gymsenweed The Gymsenweed is very common in Kentucky. I have not seen so much of it in the east and north, but it appears to grow pretty nearly over the whole United States. It is from one to five feet in height and an ill-smelling weed, though first cousin to the beautiful cultivated Datura, which is a highly prized garden plant. The stem is smooth, green, stout and branching. The flower is large, sometimes four inches long, and trumpet-shaped. There are several varieties of this weed. On some the flower is white. On others the five flaring, sharp-pointed lobes are stained with lavender and magenta. The callix is long, close-fitting, and light green. The leaves are rather large. They are angularly oval in shape and are coarsely notched. The fruit is a prickly egg-shaped capsule which contains the seeds. It is these seeds which are sometimes eaten with serious results, and children have been poisoned by putting the flowers in their mouths. A medics should immediately be administered to throw the poison off the stomach. Then hot, strong coffee should be given. Sometimes artificial respiration must be resorted to. In all cases of poisoning a physician should be called if possible. The habit of chewing leaves and stems without knowing what they are should be suppressed when on the trail. It is something like going through a drugstore and sampling the jars of drugs as you pass, and the danger of poisoning is almost as great. Toadstools. Unless you are an expert in distinguishing non-poisonous mushrooms from the poisoned toadstool, leave them all alone. Many deaths occur yearly from eating toadstools which have been mistaken for the edible mushrooms. End of Section 9. By Scientific Methodist. Chapter 9. On the Trail and Outdoor Book for Girls. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org, recording by Jackie Graves, Noblesville, Indiana. On the Trail and Outdoor Book for Girls by Lena Beard, Chapter 9. On the trail with your camera. What's the photograph and how? You cannot depend entirely upon your memory to recall the sights and adventures of the trail. It will only be half-equipped if you go without a camera and notebook. Several clicks of the camera will record the principal events while your notebook will fill in the detail. Selecting a camera. In selecting a camera, remember that every ounce in weight counts as two when along the trail and that the half to carry it in your hand is most troublesome and inconvenient. The folding camera, which can be hung over your shoulder with a strap, is therefore the best. And do not try to carry plates, they are too heavy. It is of little use to consult the clerk of a photograph supply shop about the style of camera you should buy. As a rule, he is not chosen for his knowledge of the goods and his advice may be worse than none. The better plan is to secure descriptive catalogs from dealer or manufacturer before investing and study them well. The catalogs will tell you the price, the size, the weight, and what kind of work each variety of camera will do and you will learn the advantages and limitations of many before deciding upon one. How to know your camera. The camera once bought and in your hands, the next thing to do is to become thoroughly acquainted with it. With your camera, you are entitled to a little book of instructions. Take your camera and the book, sit down alone, and give them your entire attention. Read the book carefully, and at the same time, carry out the instructions while the camera is unloaded, that is, without the film. If the size of the diaphragm can be changed, change it and look into the lens to see the effect. Also try adjusting the shutter and watch the lens for the effect of instantaneous and time exposures. Try the focusing scale, locate some image in the finder, and practice holding the camera pressed closely against your body, pointing neither up nor down, tipping neither to one side nor the other, but aimed directly at the object you were supposed to be photographing. Then try turning the key, which brings the film exposures into position. Loading the camera. Learn how to load and to unload first without unrolling your film. Afterward, adjust the roll in the camera and see that it is properly placed and will turn easily before you loosen the end of the film. If you detach the gummed paper, which keeps the film tightly wrapped before placing the roll in the camera, the whole film will spring loose from its spool and become light struck before you can adjust it. Count the turns of the key. With your first roll of films, it is well to learn and remember the number of turns you must give the key to bring a new exposure into place. With my camera, which takes a 4 by 5 picture, five turns of the key are necessary between the exposures. Knowing this, I count. And when the fifth turn is reached, I complete it slowly, watching carefully the while for the new number to appear in the little red celluloid window. In this way, even when hurried or excited, I do not lose an exposure by turning the key once too often. Always remember to place a new exposure directly after taking a picture to make sure that you will not take two on one film. In making ready for a new subject count again, for there are four things one must be sure of with most cameras before taking a photograph. And by counting, you will know if any have been omitted. One, see that a fresh exposure is in place. Two, see that the shutter is properly adjusted for instantaneous or time exposure. Three, see that the diaphragm stop is set at the proper opening for the light you will have. Four, see that the distance is correctly focused. There are cameras, however, that are of universal focus and do not need adjustment. These are convenient ones for the trail as they are always ready and can be used quickly. Being small, they are also light to carry. Be economical with your films. A very important thing to learn when taking photographs is to be economical with your films, and especially this is so when on the trail, for your supply is then necessarily limited. Merely for the sake of using the new toy, many amateurs will photograph subjects that are not of the slightest interest to anyone. And very often, when a scene or object does present itself that is well worthwhile, all the films will have been wasted and no picture can be taken. Plan your pictures to illustrate your trip. It is a good idea to plan your pictures so that they will illustrate your trip from beginning to end. A snapshot of your party starting on the trail, another of the country through which you pass, with perhaps one or two figures in it, and the remainder of the films used on objects of interest found on the way. If you can secure pictures of any wild animals you may see, they will make the series doubly interesting and valuable. When you go into camp, a view of the camp should be included. When the pictures are printed right on the back of each what it represents, where taken, and the date, they will then be valuable data as well as trustworthy reminders, backgrounds. Look for the best view of a subject before using your camera. There is always a choice. On one side may be much more pleasing or more characteristic than the other or may show interesting details more plainly. If you have studied drawing, you will be able to also find the view which makes the best composition. The background too must be considered and the position of the sun. The simpler the background, the better. Nearby foliage is not good for figures. It is too confused and the figures will mingle with it. Sometimes the adjustable portrait lens which can be slipped over the other will obviate that trouble by blurring everything not in exact focus. And this lens will allow you to stand nearer the object and so make it larger on the film. It is not intended for distant views and the camera should not be more than six feet from the subject when it is used. Quiet water makes an excellent background. Also distant foliage in hills, flat fields and meadows. These may be obtained for figures but often the very things you want to photograph most are in the woods with foliage close to and all around them. Then you must simply do the best you can under the circumstances. Color values in photographs. Another thing to remember is that unless in broad sunlight green will take dark and sometimes black and brown or tan. Being in the same color value in the photograph will mingle with and often be lost in the background. If you are photographing a tawny animal and most animals are tawny, try to get it when in the sunlight with a dark or flat background or else against a background lighter in color than the animal. For instance, a red squirrel or chipmunk will be lost amid or against the foliage of a tree but on a fence rail or fallen log it will stand out distinctly. If you have a chance at a beaver it will be near the water of course. Then the choice view will be where the water can form at least part of the background. If the shore is at the back it may be difficult when the print is made to find the beaver at all. In the interesting photograph shown here the beaver is against the light trunk of the tree which shows where he has nodded almost through. In all this position of the sun must be taken into account but the rule of always having the sun at your back. Like most other rules has its exceptions. I have found that so long as the sun lights up the object even when from one side I can secure a good picture but I never allow it to strike the lens of the camera and I make sure that the subject is not silhouetted against its background by having all the light at its back. Photographing wild animals. It is not easy to photograph wild animals after you have found them but you can do it if you are quick to see and to act and are also patient enough to wait for a good opportunity. You will often find deer feeding in sunlit places and can if you stalk them carefully approach near enough to get a good shot. If they happen to be in partial or light shadow open the diaphragm of your camera at its widest stop and try for an instantaneous exposure. Very good photographs are sometimes taken by that method and it is worth the equipment where time exposures are out of the question as in taking moving animals. A snapshot will be of no avail if the shadow is heavy however and a short time exposure may sometimes be used. Set your time lever at number one which means one second and the lever controlling the diaphragm at number 16 and by pressing the bulb once you will have a time exposure of one second. An important thing for you to realize in taking animal photographs is the fact that though the creature may seem quite near as you see it with your natural eye in the picture it will occupy only the relative space that it does on the finder. If it covers a quarter of the space on the finder it will cover a quarter no more and no less of the finished photograph. The wonderful pictures we see of wild animals are usually the work of professionals who have especially adapted cameras. But to take the photograph oneself makes even a poor one of more value. Shutter speed. To photograph objects in rapid motion such as flying birds the speed of your shutter must be at least one three hundredths of a second and you must have a fast lens but with the shutter speed of one one hundredth I have taken very good pictures of things moving at a moderate rate. A walking or slowly running animal for instance can be taken with a shutter speed of one one hundredth. You should find out the speed of the shutter when you buy your camera then you will not throw away films on things beyond its possibilities. You press the button and we'll do the rest doesn't work when moving objects are concerned. Those who go a gunning with the camera stalk their game as carefully as any hunter with the gun and for really good results the following method is the safest to adopt. Time and patience are required but one does not mind giving these the interest is so absorbing and the successful picture so well worth the while. Set your camera like a trap. Find the spot frequented by the animal or bird you are after. Wait for it to go away on its own accord while confident and unfrightened then set up your camera like a trap where the lens will point to the place the bird or animal will probably occupy upon its return. If it is a nest it will be easy for you can be sure that the bird will come back there and can adjust your camera to take in the entire nest. Where there is no nest, sight your camera upon some object between which and the lens the creature must come in order to be within focus and trample down any undergrowth that may obstruct the view. Make sure that your focus is the correct distance and that the film will take in the whole animal. You can provide for this by staking off the probable size of the animal at the place where you expect it to stand and then looking in the finder to see if both stakes are in focus. You will probably have to raise the camera from the ground and perhaps tip it a little. For this a low tripod is best but if you haven't that and very likely you will not a convenient log stump or stone will answer the purpose. If even these are not handy you can build up a stand of stones or small logs or pile earth into a mound. Whatever material you rise the stand must be made strong and firm. To have it slip or slide is to lose the picture. Make your camera perfectly secure and immovable on the stand. Then tie a long cord to the release, the small lever which works the shutter. The cord must be amply long enough to reach the ambush where you will hide while awaiting your game. The ambush may be a clump of bushes, a convenient rock or tree behind which you will be concealed. If there is no such cover near you can make one out of brush and branches. When the cord is carried from the camera to the ambush hide the camera with leafy branches leaving a good opening for the cord to pass through to prevent it from becoming entangled. Then hide to your cover and with the slightly slack cord in your hand await the coming of your game taking the picture. As the animal approaches the camera grasp your cord firmly and steady your nerves to act quickly and when it is in focus not before give a quick firm pull to the cord releasing it immediately and the thing is done. Don't be excited at the critical moment and make your shot too soon or jerk the cord too hard. If a bird is to be taken upon the nest and the nest is in shadow a short time exposure can be given or a bulb exposure. For bulb exposure set the lever that controls the shutter at B meaning bulb and the lever controlling the diaphragm at number 16. When the bird has settled upon its nest pull the cord, count three slowly and release it. The shutter will remain as long as the cord is held taut and will close when released. This method cannot be used for long time exposures. When you become more practiced in the art of wildlife photography you will know how much time to allow for the exposures. There will be some failures of course but one good photograph among several will repay you for all your trouble and will make you keen to try again. Photographing the trail. You can get a good picture of the trail with a snapshot when it is in the open but a forest trail must have time exposure. When your eyes have become accustomed to the dim of light in the woods it will not seem dark and you will be tempted to try a snapshot because it is easier but if you do you may certainly count at a lost film. It is not possible to hold your camera in your hands and succeed with a time exposure over one second. The beating of your heart will jar it a breath will make it move so some kind of arrest must be found as when taking the animals with bulb exposure. If the light is very dim first set the lever controlling the shutter at the point T time then set the lever for the diaphragm at number 16 press the bulb and allow from 15 to 20 seconds or even 30 seconds exposure. Timing without a watch. You can time it without a watch by counting it this way. One and two and three and up to the number of seconds required. One and is one second. When the seconds have been counted press the bulb again and if the camera has not moved you should have a good negative. No hard and fast rules can be given for this work because conditions vary you must rely some on your judgment and learn by experience. It is said that over exposure is better than under exposure and can be handled better in developing the films so when in doubt it is well to allow a little more time than you think should be necessary. Curious results sometimes come from under exposed films. I once had a print and outline like a drawing from a negative made in the Rocky Mountains. It did not look in the least like a photograph there were no shadows but it was a good illustration of the scene. Photographing flowers and ferns. If your camera will focus so that you can place it near enough to take small objects such as flowers and ferns another field of interest is open to you and you can add a record of those found on the trail to complete your series. A camping trip will afford better and more unhurried opportunities for photographing flowers than a one day's trail unless you carry a box or a basket with you for securing specimens that you can take back and photograph that leisure. Do not break the stems off the flowers or plants take them roots and all. Loosen the soil all around and under the roots so that which clings to the plant may be undisturbed and taken up with it. If the soil falls away cover the root with damp loom or mud and tie it up in a large leaf as an illustration. This method not only keeps it from wilting but will enable you to take a picture of the growing plant with all its interesting characteristics. If you put your plant with its clot of earth in a shallow bowl pour in as much water as the bowl will hold and keep it always full. It will remain fresh and vigorous a long while and may be transplanted to continue its life and growth after you have finished with it. Just here must come the caution not to tear up wild plants by their roots unless they are to serve a real purpose. Some of our most beautiful wildflowers are rarest ferns are now in danger of being exterminated because of thoughtless and careless people who in gathering them will not even take the trouble to break the stems. When the roots are gone there will be no more flowers and ferns. Look at the date on your film. Even the best photographer cannot take good photographs unless he has good films. On the box of every roll of films is stamped the latest date when it may be self-safely developed and it is foolish to try to have a film developed after that date has passed. When you buy your films be sure they are fresh ones and that the date ensures you ample time one year ahead is none too long. Do not open the box or take the wrappings from a roll of films until you are ready to load your camera. Then save both box and wrappings and when your films have been exposed use them for covering the roll again. Keep the wrapped and box rolls in a dark place until they can be developed. Dampness will spoil both films and plates. If you are in a damp climate or on a shipboard keep them in a tin box tightly closed. End of Chapter 9 On the Trail with Your Camera Recording by Jackie Graves Noblesville, Indiana Chapter 10 of On the Trail An outdoor book for girls. This is a Libythox recording. All Libythox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit Libythox.org On the Trail An outdoor book for girls by Lena Beard Chapter 11 On and in the Water Boats safe and unsafe canoeing, rowing, polling, raft making, swimming, fishing safe and unsafe boats. One soldam goes on the long trail or into camp without encountering water and boats of some kind must be used. Generally, rowboats or canoes. The safest boat on placid water is the heavy, flat-bottomed rowboat. We've all secured to the all locks. In my younger days we owned such a boat and no one thought in the least anxious when I'd put off for hours alone in the lake at our camp in Pike Country, PA. Especially as the creaking turn of the all locks could easily be heard at camp loudly proclaiming that I still live while I enjoy the luxury of solitary adventure. But a rod of this kind is not adapted to all waters and all purposes. And the safest boat on any water is the one best adapted to it and to the purpose of which the boat is used. Round-bottomed boats tip easily and should therefore not be used when learning to row. Though they are safe enough in the hands of those accustomed to their management, the best of oarsmen, however, cannot prevent her boat from capsizing if her passenger does not know how to enter or leave it or to sit still when aboard. Stepping in and out of a boat to step on the gun whale, the edge of the boat would naturally tip it and most likely turn it over. One should always step directly into the middle in order to keep the boat evenly balanced and in getting out step from the middle. Stepping on the side of the gun whale of a boat shows the ignorance of a tender foot. There are row boats that are neither round-bottomed nor flat but are shaped like the boat in photograph page 206. These are safer than the round-bottomed but are more easily capsized than the flat-bottomed boats. Canoes and canoeing. If you are to own a canoe, select it carefully. Consult catalogs of reliable dealers and if possible, have an experienced and good canoeist help you choose it. The pretty canoe made of wood will answer in calm waters and wear well with careful usage but sportsmen with the canvas covered canoe declaring it the best boat for cruising as it is light, easy to manage, will stand rough usage, will also carry greater loads. The best make has a frame of hardwood with cedar ribs and planking, spruce gun whales and brass bang plates to protect the ends. This canoe is covered with strong canvas treated with some kind of filler and then painted and varnished. There are usually two cane seats, one at the stern, the other near the bow. These are built in. Canoes vary in the shape of the bow some being higher than others. The high bow prevents the shipping of too much water but will also offer resistance to the wind and so impede the progress of the boat. A medium high bow is the best. One firm of camp outfitters advertises a canoe called the Sponson. The name being taken from the air chambers built along the outside rail which are called Sponsons. It is claimed that these air chambers make it next to impossible to upset the canoe and that even when filled with water it will support a heavy weight. Sponsons can also be purchased separately and can be adjusted to any sized canoe. For a novice, Sponsons would seem a good thing as they not only ensure safety but in doing away with the fear of an upset make learning to paddle easier. Then there are the guide canoes made especially for hunting and fishing. They are strong flat bottomed will carry a heavy load are easy to paddle or pull and will stand with water. These canoes are good for general use on the trail. The prices of a good canoe range from $28 to $40. One may go higher of course but the essentials of the canoe will be no better. A lower price means as a rule not so good about paddles. Girls and women generally require shorter paddles than men as they do not have the same reach of arm and you can take your choice of lengths. For the stern the paddle should be longer than for the bow. Paddles are made of red oak, maple, ash, spruce and cherry. Some authorities prefer spruce for ordinary usage but in rough water and in shooting rapids a harder wood is best. The weak part of a paddle is where the blade joins the handle and this part should not be too slender. If you use spruce paddles keep them smooth by trimming away all roughness and keep them well shallacked. Else they'll become water soaked. Paddles range in price from $1.50 to $3. Accessories A strong healthy girl would no more need cushions and canoe chairs than a boy but a backrest is not always to be despised. It is well to have a large sponge aboard for bailing and for cleaning. At a portage or carry the canoe is carried over land on the shoulders and though some guides scorn to use a carrier others are glad of them. There are several styles one being the neck yoke carrier another the pneumatic canoe yoke. The pneumatic yoke when not inflated with air can be rolled into a bundle three by six inches and when inflated it can also be used for a canoe seat a camp seat and even for a pillow. Its weight is £2 and the catalogue price is $3.25. Care of the canoe even the strongest canoe should be well cared for. To leave it in the water for any length of time when not in use is to run the risk of damage and loss. A sudden storm will batter it against shore send it a drift or fill and sink it. A canoe should always be lifted not dragged ashore it should be turned upside down on the bank of a support in the middle so that it would not be strained by resting only on the ends. Getting in the canoe never allow anyone to get into your canoe or to sit on it when it is out of the water. That is harder on it than many days of actual use When you are to get aboard your canoe bring it up broadside to the shore and put one foot exactly in the middle then carefully place the other beside it and sit down quickly but with care to keep your balance. If there is no one to hold the canoe for you use your paddles to steady yourself by pushing you down to the bottom on the side away from shore. This will keep the canoe from slipping away from under you while you are stepping in. One of the first things to learn in canoeing is to preserve your balance even a slight lurch to one side or the other must be avoided. Make every necessary movement cautiously and do not look backward unless absolutely necessary. Never attempt to change places of anyone while in the canoe if the change must be made land and change there. Upset Should there be an upset keep hold of your paddle it will help to keep you afloat then if you can reach your craft and hold to it while trying to climb upon it you can keep your head above water until help arrives or until you can tread water to shore. If you can swim you are comparatively safe and a girl who goes often on the trail should by all means be a swimmer. Paddling Some expert canoeists strongly advise kneeling in the bottom of the canoe while paddling for at least part of the time but the usual method is to sit on the seats provided at bow and stern or sit on the bottom. The kneeling paddler has her canoe in better control and becomes more one with it than one who sits. In shooting rapids and in rough weather kneeling is the safest when one knows how to paddle in that position it is a good thing to learn both methods. When you paddle close one hand firmly on the end of the paddle and the other round the handle a short distance above the blade then keeping your body steady dip your paddle into the water slightly in front of you and sweep it backward and downward toward the stern keeping it close to the canoe. You face the bow in a canoe remember and reach forward for your stroke. At the end of a stroke turn the paddle edgewise and slide it out of the water. For the next stroke bring the blade forward swinging it horizontally with the blade parallel to the water and slide it edgewise into the water again in front of you. Figure 34 shows the beginning of a stroke, figure 35 while the stroke is in progress and figure 36 the ending. During the stroke bring your upper hand forward across your face or breast or with a lower draw the blade through the water. It is well to begin as bow paddler for your duty there in smooth water is to watch obstructions such as hidden rocks and submerged logs or snags while the paddler at the stern must steer the canoe and keep it in a straight course. At the beginning learn to paddle as well as from one side as from the other. To be able to change sides is very restful and sometimes a quick change would prevent an accident. Like many other things the lack of paddling will come of experience will then require no more thought than keeping your balance on a bicycle and steering it. Loading a canoe. A top heavy canoe is decidedly dangerous that is why it is safest to sit or kneel on the bottom and in loading your camp stuff bear the fact well in mind. Pack the load as low in the canoe as possible with the heaviest things at the bottom but use common sense and do not put things that should be kept dry underneath where any water that is shipped will settle and soak them. Think again and put cooking utensils and lunch provinda where you can reach them without unloading the canoe. The packing should be done in such a way as to cause the canoe to tip neither at one end or at the other and certainly not to one side. Rowing. A rowboat is a safer craft than a canoe and rowing is not a difficult feat but there is a difference between the rowing of a heavy flat-bottomed boat and rowing a light skiff or round-bottomed rowboat. In rowing properly one's body does most of the work and strength comes more on the muscles of the back than those of the arms. In paddling you face the bow of the canoe. In rowing you are turned round and face the stern of your boat. In paddling you reach forward and draw your paddle back. In rowing you lean back and pull your oars forward. When beginning a stroke grasp the handles of your oars firmly near the ends. Lean forward with arms outstretched and elbows straight. The oars slanting backward and by bearing down on the handles of the oars lift the blades above the water. Then drop them in edgewise and pull straightening your body, bending your elbows and bending your hands together one above the other. As you finish the stroke bear down on your oars to lift the paddles out of the water again. Turn your wrists to bring the flat of the paddles almost parallel with the water but with the back edge lifted a little. Then bend forward and sweeping the oars backward. Turning the edge down, plunge them in the water for another pull. Turning the wrists at the beginning of a stroke feathers the oar. The forward edge of which is sometimes allowed to skim lightly over the surface of the water as the oar is carried backward. In steering with the oars you pull hardest on the oar on the side opposite to the direction you wish to take. Little practice and all this comes easy enough. The thing for a beginner to avoid is catching a crab. That is dipping the oars so lightly in the water as not to give sufficient hold which will cause them, when pulled forward, to fly up and send the oar sprawling on her back. In dipping too deeply there is danger of losing an oar by the suction of the water. Experience will teach the proper depth of the stroke. On some of the adroendat lakes the round-bottomed oar boats are used almost exclusively but the boat of a narrow flat bottom is safer and is both light and easy to row. A cedar row boat is the most desirable. The oars should be light for ordinary rowing. They are strong enough to prevent their snapping above the blade in rough water. Rafts. You can never tell just what will happen when you go on the long trail. That is one of its charms. Nor do you know what you will be called upon to do. The girl best first in the ways of the water as well as of the woods is a surest of safety and can be most helpful to her party. Possibly you may never be called upon to build a raft and again an emergency may arise when a raft will not only be convenient but absolutely necessary. When such an emergency does come it is not likely that you will have anything beside the roughest of building material and no tools beside your small axe or hatchet but with your axe you can chop off limbs of sufficient size for the raft from fallen trees and with ropes made of the inner bark of trees you can bind your small logs together in such a way as to hold them firmly. Do not use green wood, it will not float like the dry. Logs about 12 inches in diameter are the best but half that size will make a good raft. 6 feet by 12 is a fair size. The smaller the logs the larger the raft must be in order to carry any weight but it must cover a wider surface of water than isn't necessary for one made of large logs. One good size log will carry your weight easily but a small one will sink beneath you. If you have two long strong ropes you can use them for binding the logs together. If not you must make the ropes of fibre of some kind. Daniel C. Beard in his book Boat Building and Boating tells of making a very strong rope of the inner bark of a chestnut tree which has been killed by fire. A fibre torn off in long strips must be twisted by two persons or one end may be tied to a branch while you twist the other. When two are twisting one person takes one end the other takes the other end. Standing as far apart as possible each twists the fibre between her fingers turning it in opposite directions until when held slack it will double on itself and make a double twist. The ends are then brought together and the rope kept from snarling until it is bent at the middle and allowed to double twist evenly all the way to the end. The fibre rope will be a little less than half the length of the original strands. It should be about the size of heavy clothesline rope. The short lengths of rope must be tied together to make two long ropes. Use the square knot in trying to make sure that it will not slip. When the knot is wet it will be quite secure. Primitive weaving method. For tying the logs together use a primitive weaving method. Lay three lengths of rope on the ground one for the middle and one each for the end of the logs. Roll one log along the ropes until it rests across the middle of each rope. Then turn each rope over the log forming a bite bring the lower rope over the upper to form a loop and turn it back over the log. This leads the log with three loops of rope around it one end of each rope lying on the ground the other end turned back over the log. Now roll another log over the lower ropes up close to the first log bring down the upper ropes over the second log cross the lower ropes over the upper ones and turn them back. Draw the ropes tight and push the logs as closely together as possible. Unless your logs are straight there will be wide spaces between. Roll the third log over the lower ropes and make the weaving loopers with the other two. Always cross in the lower rope over the upper. Continue weaving in new logs until the raft is to required width then tie the ends of the ropes around the last log. Remember to keep the ropes on the ground always in a straight line without sliding them. Otherwise the sides of your raft will not be at right angles to the ends and it will be a crazily built as they're cranky and difficult to manage. Chop notches on the outside logs where the ropes are to pass over them and they will keep the rope from slipping out of place. Cut two more slender logs for the ends of the raft and lash them on across the others. The end log should extend a little beyond each side of the raft. Fasten a rope with a strong slip knot to one end of the cross log and wrap it over the log and under the first length rise log then over and under again to form a cross on top. When the rope is under the second time bring it up between the second and third log then down between the third and fourth log and so on to the end when you must make a secure fastening. These cross logs give additional strength. Keep the raft in shape and prevent it shipping too much water. If you will make a miniature raft following these directions carefully and the time comes for you to build a full sized one you will be quite familiar with the method of construction we'll know exactly how to go about it. For the little raft use small straight branches about 12 inches long. Twist your slender rope of five if you can get it or string if you cannot and weave it round the sticks just as you would weave the rope around the logs finishing it off with the two end sticks with the end logs. Polling If you have a raft you must know how to pull it and at times it is necessary to pull other kinds of craft. Select a straight pole, a strong green wood, eight feet or more in length. The length of the pole will depend upon the depth of the water but it must be long enough to reach bottom. Trim off all the small barters and make it as smooth as possible. When the water is deep and calm a pole may sometimes be used as a paddle to send a raft along but its real purpose is to push from the bottom. In polling you must necessarily stand near the edge of the raft and must therefore be careful not to lean too far over the water lest you lose your balance and fall in. Polling as a primitive goes you please method of propelling a craft. It's almost free from rules except those suggested by the common sense of the polar. Like the early pioneers you simply do the best you can under the circumstances and are alert to take advantage of every element in your favor. Whether it is a current you pull for it and then allow your raft to float with it provided it goes in the direction you wish to take and is not too swift. In this case you use your pole for steering which may sometimes be done from the stern making a rudder of the pole. At others from the side and at times reaching down to the river bed if the current runs the wrong way be careful to keep out of it as much as possible. Shallow water near the shore is usually the most quiet and safest for a raft. Here you can generally pull your craft upstream when the water is deep enough to float it and is not obstructed by rocks, logs or snags. A raft is not safe where there is a swift current and there should always be strong arms to manage it. Swimming. If you realize that your body is buoyant not a dead weight in the water and that swimming should come as naturally to you as the wild creatures it may help you to gain the confidence so essential in learning to swim. If you are not afraid of the water you will not struggle while in it and the air in your lungs will keep you afloat while you learn to make the movements that will carry you along. You will not sink if you are quite calm and move only your hands underwater with a slight paddling movement. Keep in mind they are the inch above water but add so much to the weight to sink you lower. To throw up your arms is the surest way of going straight to the bottom. Do not be afraid to allow the water to come up and partially cover your chin. All sorts of contrivances have been invented to keep a person afloat while learning to swim but they all tend to take from rather than to give confidence but it is natural to depend entirely upon them and to feel helpless when they are taken away. According to my own experience the best method is to have a friend place a hand under your chin while her feet are touching bottom and to walk with you while you learn to make the swimming movements. This will keep your head above water and give you a sense of security and you will then strike out confidently. The support rendered is so slight you learn to manage your own weight in the water almost immediately while you have the feeling that someone upholds you and the friendly hand may be withdrawn at intervals to allow you to try entirely alone. You see that after all it is the feeling of being supported more than the actual support that counts and if you can convince yourself that you need no support you won't need it. It is best to start by swimming toward land instead of away from it. Know that you are not going beyond your depth but again in the shore is a great help in conquering fear. Movements in swimming If you are learning alone beginning quiet shallow water only deep enough to float you waist high is sufficiently deep. Assume the first position for swimming by throwing your body forward with arms extended and palms of hands together at the same time lifting your feet from the bottom with a spring. This should bring your body out perfectly straight in the water. Feet together and arms ready for the first movement. Now separate your hands turn them palm outward and swing your arms around in a half circle until they extend straight up from the sides pushing the water back of your hands. In the second movement bend your elbows and bring them down with palms of hands together under your chin. At the same time draw your legs up under your body with knees and feet still how close together. The third movement is to send your arms shooting straight ahead while your legs separating describe a half circle and your feet pushing against the water force you forward and then come together again in the first position. This is a point to be remembered. Always thrust your hands forward to open the way and your feet back to push yourself through it at the same time. It is like a wire spring being freed at both ends at once each and springy away from the middle. When you push the spring together that is when in taking the second movement you draw in your hands and feet do it slowly then take the third movement letting the spring out quickly thrusting out your hands in front and your feet at the back of the sudden movement pushing your feet strongly against the water and stretching yourself out as far as you can reach floating. Some people can float who cannot swim others can swim but are not able to float that is they think they are not and do not seem willing to try but it is quite necessary everyone should know how to rest in the water and learning to float is very essential. The hand of a friend will help you in this isn't learning to swim but for floating it is held under the back of your head instead of under your chin lie on your back of legs straight before you feet together arms closed at your sides and head thrown back trust the water to bear you up and all that is necessary to keep you afloat is a rotary motion of your hands under water after a time all movement may be given up and you will lie easily and quietly as on a bed it is said that it is easier for women and girls to float than for men because their bones are lighter and some learn to float the first time they enter the water all of which is very encouraging to girls breathe deeply but naturally while floating for the more air that is in your lungs the more buoyant will be your body and the higher it will float if your body is inclined to roll from side to side spread out your arms under water until you steady yourself if your feet persist in sinking extend your arms above your head under water and this will maintain the balance do not try to lift your head but keep it well back in the water if your nose and mouth are out that is all that is necessary let your muscles relax and lie limply to regain your feet after floating bring your arms in front and pull on the water with scooped hands whilst raising your body from the hips diving you will learn to dive merely for the joy of the quick plunge into cool waters but there are times when to understand diving may mean the saving of your own or someone else's life no matter how suddenly or unexpectedly you are cast into the water by accident you will retain your self-possession be able to strike out and swim immediately one should never dive into unknown water if it can be avoided but as on the trail all water is likely to be unknown investigate it well before diving and look out for hidden rocks do not dive into shallow water that is dangerous if you are to dive from the banks and distance above the water stand on the edge of your toes reaching over it extend your arms raise them and duck your head between with your arms forming an arch above your ears covered by your arms lock your thumbs together to keep your hands and separating when they strike the water bend your knees slightly and spring from them but straighten them immediately so that you will be stretched full length as you enter the water as soon as your body is in the water curve your back inward lift your head up and make a curve through the water to the surface breathing breathe through your nose always when swimming as well as when walking to open your mouth while swimming is usually to swallow a pint or two of water exhale your breath as you first your hands forward inhale it as you bring them back blow your hands from you treading water in treading water you maintain an upright position as in walking someone says the tread water is like running upstairs rapidly try running upstairs and you will get the leg movement while the water is up to your neck bend your elbows and bring your hands to the surface to keep the palms resting down the water the principle is the same as in swimming when you swim you force the water back of your hands and feet and so send your body forward when you tread water you force the water down of your hands and feet and so send your body or keep it up it is even possible to stand quite still in deep water when you learn to keep your balance all you do is to spread out your arms at the sides on a line of your shoulders and keep your head well back you may go below the surface once or twice until you learn but you'll come up again and the feet is well worthwhile what an outdoor girl should strive for is to become foley at home in the water so that she may enter it fearlessly and know what to do when she is there fishing just here would seem to be the place to talk of fishing but I'm not going to tie to tell you how to fish that would take a volume there are so many kinds of fish there are so many ways of fishing one way is to cut a slender pole tie a fish line on the small end tie a fish hook to the end of the line bait it with an angle worm stand on the bank drop the hook and bait it to the water and await results another way is to put together a delicate quivering fishing rod carefully select a fly adjust it stand on the bank or in a boat and cast the fly far out on the water the dexterous turn of the wrist she may catch fish in either way but in some cases the pole and angle worm is a surest a visitor stood on the bank of our Pike County Lake and skilfully sent his fly skimming over the water while the boy of the family catching perch of his home cut pole and angle worms is told to watch and learn he did watch politely for a while then turned again to his own affairs once more someone said look at Mr J boy and learn to cast a fly but the boy placidly fishing returned I'd rather know how to catch fish it was true the boy had caught the fish and the skilful angler had not all of it which goes to prove that if it is fish you want just any kind of fish and not the excitement of the support a pole like the boys will probably be equal to all requirements but there are black bass in the lake and had one of them been in that particular part of it no doubt the fly would have tempted him an experience and skill of Mr J supplemented by his long flexible rod his reel and landing net would have done the rest while the boy had little chance of such a bite and almost none of landing a game fish like the bass if you want to fish every girl on the trail should know how take it up in a common sense way and learn from an experienced person own a good serviceable rod and fishing tackle and let it be your business to know why they are good make up your mind long patient trying weights to early and late excursions and to some disappointments take a fisherman's luck cheerfully a kind of thing through like a true sportsman there's one thing to remember which sportsman sometimes forget an exam to the game and that is not to catch more fish than you have used for one need not be cruel even to cold-blooded fish no need one selflessly grab all one can get merely for the sake of the getting without a thought for those who are to come after we have all heard of good fishing places which have been fished out and could not be if the fisherman had taken only as many as they could use this rule holds good all throughout the world take what you need it is yours the rest belongs to others end of chapter 10 chapter 11 of on the trail an outdoor book for girls this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org recording by Jennifer Henry on the trail an outdoor book for girls by Lena Beard chapter 11 useful knots and how to tie them square knots hitching knots other knots every outdoor girl should know what knots to use for various purposes and how to tie them but only those which will be found useful on the trail are given here terms used in knot tying there are three different kinds of bends that are given a rope in the process of tying a knot and each bend has its own name you must learn these in order to understand the directions for knot tying they are the bite the loop and the round turn the bite figure 46 is made by bending the rope so that the sides are parallel the loop figure 47 is made by lapping one rope of the bite across the other the round turn figure 48 is made by carrying one rope of the loop all the way around to the other side making half of the loop double square knot this is probably what you would at first call a hard knot and so it is a hard knot to come untied of itself or to slip but it is easy to untie when necessary the hard knot most people tie is not quite the same as the square knot though it does resemble it the ordinary hard knot is what is known as the granny knot a slurring name which means a failure the granny knot will not always stay tied it often slips and it cannot be trusted when absolute security is needed begin the square knot with the single first tie figure 49 you see the end x turns up over the other rope while the end o laps under the rope now bring the two ends together lapping x over o figure 50 then pass x back under o making the single tie once more now compare what you have done with figure 51 notice in the drawing that the ends of rope x are both over the right hand bite and the ends of rope o are both under the left hand bite draw the square knot tight and it looks like figure 52 you cannot make a mistake in tying the square knot if you remember to notice which end is on top or laps over the other rope when the first single tie is made figure 49 and then be sure to lap this same end over the other end in making the second tie which finishes the knot figure eight knot use the figure eight knot to make a knot on the end of a rope or to prevent the end of the strands from untwisting form a loop like figure 53 near the end of the rope bringing the short end over the long rope then pass the short end under the long rope once as shown by dotted line and carry it up over and through the loop figure 54 pull it up tightly to bring the end square across the rope figure 53 this knot is not difficult to untie bowline knot to form a loop that will not slip and yet may be easily untied use the bowline knot one when the loop is not fastened to anything use the overhand method of tying it first measure off sufficient rope for the loop you wish to make and hold the place with your left hand this place is indicated by the arrow in figure 56 then with your right hand throw the short end of the rope over the long rope figure 56 still holding the short end with your right hand with the left hand bring the long rope up to form a loop over the end figure 54 now with your right hand take up the end draw it farther through the loop and pass it behind the long rope above the loop from right to left figure 58 bring the end forward again and slip it downward through the loop figure 59 draw the knot tight and it cannot slip no matter how great the strain 2 use the underhand method when the loop is passed around something or through a ring this loop may be put around the neck of a horse or cow without danger of injury for it will not slip and tighten it can also be used in place of the hitching tie slip the rope through the ring or around the object from left to right while you hold the long rope in your left hand take a half hitch around the long rope passing the end over the long rope then under it this makes a loop like figure 60 transfer this loop from the short rope to the long rope by holding loosely or giving slack with the left hand and pulling up with the right a little practice will enable you to do this easily figure 61 shows the loop transferred to the long rope with the short end passing through it at this stage carry the short end over then under the long rope below the loop figure 62 then up and through the loop as in figure 63 tighten the knot by pulling on both the long rope and the short end sheep shank knot it is sometimes necessary to shorten a rope temporarily and not desirable to cut it and the sheep shank knot solves the problem it is used by sailors who do not believe in cutting ropes it will stand a tremendous strain without slipping but will loosen when held slack and can be untied by a quick jerk of the two outside ropes forming the bites begin by bending the rope to form two bites as in A figure 64 carry the single rope over at the top of the bend then under to form a half hitch as in B do the same with the other single rope at the bottom of the bend C and draw both ends tight D with a little practice this can be done very quickly if the rope is to be permanently shortened pass the end through the first and second bites at the bend as in E and the knot will hold for any length of time the parcel slip knot this is the simplest of all knots to start with in tying up a parcel begin by making a knot about one inch from the end of your twine using the single tie like F figure 65 if this does not make the knot large enough use the figure eight knot the single tie is sufficient in ordinary cases wrap your twine once around your parcel lapping the long twine over the knotted end as in G bring the knotted end over the long twine forming a bite then over and under its own twine with the single tie H draw the tie up close to the knot at the end the knot prevents it from slipping off now the long twine may be drawn tight or loosened at will and will hold the first wrap in place while the twine is being wrapped around the package in a different place cross tie parcel knot when you have two or more parallel twines on your parcel and have begun to bring down the cross line secure it to each twine in this way bring the long twine down and loop it under the first twine to form a bite as in I figure 66 then carry the long twine over itself forming a loop J then under the first twine as in K draw tight and proceed to the second twine making the same cross tie when you have carried your cross line entirely around the parcel tie it securely to the first twine where it began and finish with a single tie knot making a knot on the last end of the twine close to the fastening to keep the end from slipping through Fisherman's knot the Fisherman's knot is used by Fisherman to tie silkworm gut together it is easily untied by pulling the two short ends but it never slips lay the two ropes side by side L figure 67 then make a loop around one rope with the other rope passing the end under both ropes M bring the end over and into the loop to make a single tie N tie the end of the second rope around the first rope in the same manner N and draw both knots tight O halter slip or running knot the halter or slip knot is often convenient but should never be used around the neck of an animal for if either end is pulled it will slip and tighten thereby strangling the creature first form a bite then with one end of the rope make a single tie around the other rope figure 68 half hitch if you have anything to do with horses or boats you must know how to make the proper ties for hitching the horse to a post or a boat to a tree stump or anything else that is handy the half hitch is a loop around a rope with the short end secured under the loop figure 69 this answers for a temporary but not a secure fastening timber hitch when you want a temporary fastening secure yet easily undone make a timber hitch figure 70 pass the rope around an object take a half hitch around the rope and pass the short end once more between the rope and the object hitching tie if the hitching tie is properly made and the knot turned to the right of the post the stronger the pull on the long end of the rope the tighter the hold and the loop will not slip down even on a smooth plain post if the knot is turned to the left or is directly in front the loop will not pull tight and will slide down for the reason that the loop will tighten the hitching tie should never be used around the neck of a horse as it might pull tight and the animal be strangled in making the hitching tie first pass the rope from left to right around the post tree or stump bring it together and hold in the left hand the left hand is represented by the arrow figure 71 with the right hand throw the short end of the rope across the ropes in front of the left hand forming a loop below the left hand figure 72 slip the right hand through this loop grasp the rope just in front and pull it back to form a bite as you make a chain stitch in crocheting figure 73 down through this last bite pass the end of the rope and pull the knot tight figure 74 end of chapter 11 chapter 12 of On the Trail an outdoor book for girls this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org recording by Christine Lehmann Recita, California On the Trail an outdoor book for girls by Lena Beard chapter 12 accidents sprains bruises burns cuts sunstroke drowning one learns quickly how to take care of oneself while on the trail and serious accidents seldom occur in fact every member of the party takes pride in keeping herself free from accident it is so like a tender foot to get hurt however it is well to be prepared in case accidents do occur and this chapter is intended to forearm you that you may not stand helplessly by when your aid is needed sprains and bruises the best immediate treatment for ordinary sprains and bruises is the application of cloths dipped in very hot water this takes out the soreness and prevents inflammation as soon as one application cools a little a hot one should take its place as hot as can be born without scalding the flesh very cold water can be used when hot is not obtainable for a sprained ankle or wrist continue this treatment for a while and then bind smoothly and firmly with the clean cotton bandage keep as quiet as possible with the sprained ankle and if the accident occurs when on a walk the fireman's lift may be used for carrying the injured person to camp illustration the fireman's lift fireman's lift to be able to use the fireman's lift may be to save a life as it can be employed when there is but one person to do the carrying with practice any girl of ordinary strength can lift and carry another of her own size or even larger in order to make the lift easy instruct the patient to relax all her muscles and become perfectly limp then turn her on her face stand over her body with one foot at each side face toward the patient's head lean forward and place your hands under her arms then gently raise her to her knees next slide your hands quickly down around her body at the low waistline lifting her at the same time to her feet immediately grasp her right wrist with your left hand and pass your head under her right arm and your right arm under one or both of her knees shifting the patient's hips well on your shoulders rise to a standing position and carry patient away cuts the accidents that most frequently happen are simple cuts and bruises for a slight cut wash the wound in lukewarm water to remove all dirt or foreign matter then press the lips or sides together and hold them in place with strips of court plaster or surgeon's adhesive plaster do not cover the entire wound with the plaster but put strips across at right angles with the cut leaving a space between every two strips and using only enough plaster to keep the cut closed cover the hurt part with a bandage to protect it from further injury illustration aids in first aid when an artery is cut when an artery is cut the wound is more serious and the bleeding must be stopped immediately when the blood comes from an artery it is bright red in color and flows copiously in spurts or jets the blood in the arteries is flowing away from the heart therefore you must stop it between the cut and the heart it is the arteries in the arms and legs that are most likely to be injured in the arm the large artery runs down the inner side of the upper arm in the leg the artery runs down the inner side of the upper leg the tourniquet to stop the bleeding press the artery above the wound firmly with your fingers while someone prepares a tourniquet use a handkerchief a necktie or anything of the kind for a tourniquet tie it loosely around the limb and in the bandage place a smooth stone or something that will take its place adjusting it just above your fingers on the artery then slip a strong slender stick about 10 inches long under the bandage at the outer side of the arm or leg and turn the stick around like the hand of a clock until the stone presses the artery just as your fingers did tie the stick above and below the bandage to keep it from untwisting do not forget that the tourniquet is cutting off circulation and for this to continue very long is dangerous it is not safe to keep it on more than one hour without loosening if the hand or foot grows cold and numb before that time loosen the tourniquet and rub briskly to restore circulation should the wound begin to bleed again when the tourniquet is loosened be ready to tighten at once in case of an accident of this kind summon a physician if one can be reached quickly if not take the patient to the nearest doctor for the artery must be tied as soon as possible and only a physician or skillful trained nurse can do that part of the work emergency stretchers loss of blood is too weakening to permit of the patient walking and the exertion may start the wound bleeding again so a stretcher of some kind must be contrived in which she may be carried you can make a good emergency stretcher of two strong poles of green wood one large blanket and the ever-useful horse blanket safety pins the poles should be about six feet long of a size to clasp easily in your hand and as smooth as they can be made with hurried work they should at least be free from jagged stumps or branches and twigs begin by folding the blanket through the middle over one of the poles then pin the blanket together with the large safety pins with the pins about six inches apart to hold the pole in place that finishes one side for the other lap the two edges of the blanket over the second pole and pin them down like a hem the stretcher will be of double thickness and will hold the injured person comfortably if a serious accident should occur some distance from camp and there are no blankets to use do not hesitate to appropriate for a stretcher whatever you have with you when there is nothing else cut your khaki skirt into strips about 12 inches wide and tie the ends to two poles the poles need not be smooth except at the ends leaving spaces between burns and scalds personally I have repudiated the old method of treating simple burns and scalds and instead of applying oil or flour have discovered for myself that simply holding a slightly burned finger or hand in a running stream of cold water not only gives instant relief but prevents the pain from returning in any severity care of the injured part to prevent the skin from breaking and causing a sore is the only thing left to be done however here are the ordinary remedies for burns any of the following things spread over a piece of linen or soft cotton cloth are said to be good olive oil carbolized Vaseline fresh lard cream flour and baking soda for serious burns a physician should be called heat prostration and sunstroke this will seldom occur in a camp of healthy girls whose stomachs and blood are in good order but it is best not to expose oneself to the fierce rays of the sun during a period of intense heat or directly after eating in case anyone is overcome and complains of feeling faint and of dizziness and throbbing head take her where it is cool in the shade if possible lay her down loosen her clothing and apply cold water to her face and head she will probably be able to walk when she revives but if not carry her home or into camp do not give whiskey brandy or any stimulants cinder or foreign substance in the eye as a rule all that is necessary to remove something in your eye is to take the eyelashes of the upper lid between your thumb and forefinger and pull the lid down over the lower one the lower lashes thus shut in combined with the tears that flood the eye will clean the eye in most cases if the cinder or other substance is embedded in the upper lid roll back the lid over a match the sulfur end taken off then moisten a corner of a handkerchief and with it remove the cinder if this treatment does not avail and the substance cannot be removed put a drop of olive oil in the eye close it and cover with a soft bandage then go to a physician do not put anything stiff or hard into the eye fainting fainting occurs most often in overheated and overcrowded places where the air is impure the proper treatment is to lay the patient flat on her back with the head lower than the rest of the body and feet raised then loosen the clothes at waist and neck sprinkle the face and neck with cold water and hold smelling salts or ammonia to the nostrils insist upon giving her all the fresh air possible it is good also to rub the limbs with the motion upward toward the body drowning Schaefer method illustration restoring respiration secure a doctor if possible but do not wait for him do not wait for anything what you do do instantly as soon as the rescued person is out of the water begin treatment to restore respiration that is to make her breathe if you can do this her life will probably be saved not until the patient breathes naturally must you work to bring warmth and circulation to the body to promote circulation before the patient breathes naturally may endanger her life first quickly loosen the clothes at waist and neck then turn the patient face downward on the ground with face either downward or turn to one side arms extended above the head and with chest raised slightly from the ground and resting upon your folded skirt also place something beneath her forehead to raise her nose and mouth from the ground this will allow the tongue to fall forward if it does not grasp it with handkerchief and pull forward this will permit the water to run out and will provide room for breathing as in cases of fainting so with drowning patient she must have all the air possible for she is being suffocated with water so do not allow a crowd to form around her keep everyone back except those assisting in the actual work of restoration with the patient in the position described kneel by her side or better still astride of her and let your hands fall into the spaces between the short ribs with your fingers turned outward and your weight falling upon the palms of your hands press steadily downward and forward to expel the air from the lungs hold this position a fraction of a second count four then gradually release the pressure to allow the air to enter again through the throat count four and again press down continue this treatment for a while then using another method slip your hands under the patient at the waistline and lift her up sufficiently to allow her head to hang down as in illustration lower her gently and lift again do this several times you will find that the movement will force the water from the lungs out of the mouth and help to produce artificial respiration return to the first method and continue the treatment until the breath comes naturally it may be an hour or two before there are any signs of life such as a gasp or slight movement then the breath must be carefully aided by more gentle pressure until it comes easily without help do not give up hope and do not stop working the work may be continued many hours if done in relays that is several girls taking part each one in her turn remember however the treatment must be continuous and no time be allowed to elapse when the change is being made after respiration begins with returning breath the first corner in recovery has been turned but the after treatment is very important to restore circulation begin by rubbing the limbs upward with a firm pressure this sends the blood to the heart warmth must now be supplied by blankets heated before a fire and hot stones or bricks may be placed at the thighs and at the soles of the feet or the patient should be wrapped in a warm blanket placed on a stretcher carried to camp or to a house and put to bed here hot water bottles may be used and as soon as it is possible for her to swallow if nothing else can be obtained give a little strong hot coffee unsweetened and without milk lastly keep the patient quiet and let her sleep nosebleed the simplest method of stopping the nosebleed is to hold something cold on the back of the neck a large key will do and pinch the nostrils together also cool the forehead with water and hold the arms above the head this is usually effective end of chapter twelve recording by Christine layman