 Sir, Akshat is not joining the class. He is not joining the class, I know. So we will send him the YouTube link. Yeah, he is going to the center. Yeah, so we will send him the YouTube link whenever it's ready. So we are live now. So the topic that we will discuss today is polymers and biomolecules. See this chapter, if you guys can just put yourself on mute that helps because then I keep on hearing an echo. So just put on mute whenever you are breaking up. Whenever you feel that you want to ask something you can just unmute yourself and ask. See Akshat is going to take this on YouTube. So you are breaking up. Yeah, so that's why you guys put yourself on mute. That's what I am saying. Sir, you are breaking up. You put yourself on mute Vihan. I will be audible. Vihan and Deereen, just mute yourself. Yeah, excellent. I think now you will be much better. You will be able to hear me much better. You will feel distortions. Just unmute yourself and let me know. I am also going to put this as a comment so that you guys actually are able to see this. If you are not able to still hear me, just unmute yourself and speak up. Okay, so that's for all. Now, so what I was saying is that today we are going to look at two topics. One is biomolecules and polymers. And the second topic that we look at is actually polymers. The second topic that I want to look at today is P block elements. Okay, now let's begin with biomolecules and polymers. So this entire chapter of biomolecules and polymers is basically whatever organic capacity that we have. Yeah, go on. Vihan. Sir, you're still breaking up. Yeah, I can hear you probably. Yeah, you were saying? Yeah. Okay. I'm going to allot an extra bandwidth to this in a second. Hopefully that changes things. Give me a minute. Yeah, Vihan, I've closed all the tabs now. I think this should really work. Are you able to? Okay. Vihan, is it better audible now? Are you okay? Yes, sir. Okay. Now you can mute. We'll continue. I think I've given a better bandwidth here now. So what I was saying is that once we've understood organic compounds and all the functional groups, it makes sense. And we've also seen a lot of users of these organic compounds for different practical industries, practical purposes. One of the major applications of, because they are organic compounds is also the entire bio industry that is medicine and the entire life sciences. So the intent of this chapter is to give you an overview of this. This chapter is very important for guys who actually attend for the need because this is actually the fundamental basis of how life sciences work and what are the different compounds that are important for life sciences. Okay. So let's understand what are the different aspects that we're going to learn in this chapter. So some of the most fundamental aspects of biochemistry are carbohydrates, proteins, which in turn also sometimes end up understanding as lipids. And the last one would be fatty acids. Okay. Is someone just joined? Can you mute yourself? Yeah. Yeah. And the fatty acids. Okay. Now, what we look into all of these and then going further, this chapter actually deals with polymers. Now, if you really look at the breakage of this chapter, what we understand is firstly, these are the four or five points that we understand of all of these four compounds. The first thing that we understand is what is its structure. Okay. In structure, we understand what is its isomers, isomerism. We understand, you know, the optical variances that it brings and therefore the different reactions that it affects because of isomers. Okay. The second thing that we actually understand is its preparations. Okay. Like any other organic chapter, this same chapter is also dealt with all of these. So we understand its preparation. Understand is what are its tests or reactions? Both of them generally end up being the same. So what are the reactions it performs? Or what are the tests that we can do to have these reactions working? And the last thing that we actually have in all of these is, you know, some specific cases. For example, we are going to talk about how are carbohydrates different from fructose, as in glucose different from fructose and its effects. Okay. So some specific cases is what I would mention as a general miscellaneous topic, you can say, for all of these four compounds. The same is also with, if you look at with polymers, all of these four things are also very important with polymers. We understand how what are the structures of polymers? How are they prepared and what are their reactions? Now, what we'll do is we'll break down the chapter into a couple of sections. The first section, of course, being carbohydrates. And let's begin with that. So let's say, so let's call it as section A. And in section A, we are only going to talk about carbohydrates. Okay. Now, when you see carbohydrates, basically we are talking about compounds that has aldehyde and ketonic groups. Okay. Generally, the formula for carbohydrates would be something like C X H 2 O Y. Okay. This is the corresponding formula. So they are basically hydrates of carbon and therefore the name. So this group actually turns out to be in hydrate or what we call as water group and a carbon with it. So and hence we call these all of these compounds as carbohydrates. So if you look at C 6 H 12 O 6, this is nothing but O 6. If you actually look at, can you please mute? Can you mute at your end, please? Yeah. Thank you. If there's something to ask about, just ask up or else you can just comment. Guys, if the comment is not visible to me, I think you can help someone who wants to put up a question. Okay. So this is your glucose or fructose. This is C 6 H 12. Similarly, if you look at sucrose, you will find it is C 12 H 22 O 11, which I can also write as C 12 H 2 O 11. Okay. Now, please note there is a common question that is asked whether X and Y are related. May not be. So you cannot deduce a general formula saying that they are not very far apart. For example, if you have carbon as 6, your Y would be around 6. If you have carbon as 12, your Y is generally around 11 and something of that sort. So it purely depends on what an hydrate do you get? If you remember, acetic an hydrate and all of that, which means how many water molecules were you able to take out? So for example, this is nothing but twice of glucose, twice of glucose minus one of water, and hence you get C 12 and 11 of H 2 O. So twice of glucose minus one of water. So how many water molecules you are taking out? That is how many Y you are decreasing out of the molecule will end up giving you a C X H 2 Y, H 2 O Y kind of a structure. Okay. Now, generally carbohydrates have been the classification of carbohydrates has been this is the second point that we are talking about in the same chapter. So see this entire chapter being theoretical, you can actually block out points. When I say block out points, which means that you will be able to actually end up giving some blocks. So the first block is understanding. Here's the second block. The second block of block point would be classification. So what are the different classifications that are there of all of these? The first one are monosaccharides. Monosaccharides. Okay. So I'm just going to write the first name normally completely. The second one, what we call is as oligosaccharides. So oligo S. And the last one, what we call as polysaccharides. Okay. This is the classification of carbohydrates. In monosaccharides, you have N that is equal to from 3 to 7. Okay. So whenever when I say N, N is the number of carbon atoms that you have in the, you know, carbohydrate. So for example, this X value, you know, N or X, you can also say this X value is from 3 to 7 carbons. All of those molecules which have from 3 to 7 are all monosaccharides. In oligosaccharides, you generally have multiple monosaccharides that are combined with each other. Okay. So when 2 to 9, 2 to 9 monosaccharides combine, we end up getting different oligosaccharides. So oligosaccharides can also be termed as in general as disaccharides, disaccharides or polysaccharides. Right. So when, so for example, when I say disaccharides, it means two monosaccharides combined with each other. So sucrose is actually a disaccharide and sucrose molecules have combined. Okay. So oligo is a general term above mono, but oligo also can further split up into di, tri, tetrasaccharides and beyond a certain limit, then you actually end up being polysaccharides. So if you really ask me what is the separation of olisaccharides and polysaccharides, there is not such a distinct separation between them. Of course, but beyond tri-saccharides and tetrasaccharides, you end up not calling them as pentasaccharides, but simply as polysaccharides. Generally for molecules where two to nine monosaccharides, two to nine monosaccharides. Now, please note, we are not defining this with the carbon number. We are defining it with how many monosaccharides are getting combined to form oligosaccharides. So whenever two to nine monosaccharides are combined, we call them as oligosaccharides. Beyond that, we would call that as polysaccharides. Okay. Now, so let's now understand after this classification. The third point is we will go and understand what monosaccharides are about. So third block point would be understanding monosaccharides in much more detail. Okay. Now, if you really look at, as mentioned to you, there are two types of groups that are, you know, found in the carbohydrate. So one group is what we call as aldoses and the ketosis group. So what do you mean by aldoses group? Majorly, aldehyde group is present and all central carbons are asymmetrical. So let me just write it for you. So when I say aldoses group is present, okay, we mean that there are aldehyde groups in the carbon in the molecule and most of the central carbon atoms are asymmetrical, which means chiral carbon atoms. Okay. So what we, if you remember the star carbon atoms that we have been saying is all central carbon atoms. And when we say ketosis, the definition of ketosis is the ketone group is present, the ketone group is present and except for the second carbon atom, all are chiral. So there are chiral atoms except for second carbon atom. Now, what do we mean by this? In the structure, when you have, for example, let me draw glucose as one monosaccharide, right? So if I'm drawing six carbon atoms, one, two, three, five and six in this except for the second carbon atom. Now, depending on what group are you starting from, if you're starting from here, which is an aldehyde group, okay, which is an aldehyde group, if you start from here, this would be the second carbon atom. If this is an aldehyde group, this is the second carbon atom. In ketosis, you'll find that the second, you know, you don't have aldehyde group, but you have a ketone group. Now, we are going to see this distinction even better in a few minutes, but just understand that aldoses have the aldehyde group and all carbon atoms are chiral, central carbon atoms, whereas ketoses have a ketone group, whereas except for the second we have the other atoms to be chiral, chiral except for second carbon atom, okay? Now, having said this, let's look at one molecule in depth to understand the differences between aldosis and ketosis. Now, glucose, we all know this is C6H12O6 and there is a question as to what is the structure of glucose, you know? Does it have aldehyde? Does it have alcohol group? Does it have ketonic group? All of those. Now, there is a very you'll find that, you know, this is a strange case of biomolecules that glucose, also as it is understood as a straight-chain molecule, there is enough evidence which says that glucose is not straight-chain, but it is actually cyclic. I wouldn't say a debate, but it's like between the resonance structures. Sometimes glucose actually behaves like a straight-chain compound, sometimes it behaves like a cyclic compound. Can we call it as a resonance of a straight-chain and a cyclic compound? No. The reason is it is not a common structure of the straight-chain and cyclic overlap together, but these are two different structures which are found in different cases altogether behaving like that, okay? For example, let's look at the differences, okay? So when I have glucose as a straight-chain compound, I have the molecule looking something like this. I have C-H-OH four times of these and I have another C-H-2-OH, okay? So I have an aldehyde group, I have C-H-OH which has four times here and then I have an alcoholic group. Now, there are multiple evidences for this straight-chain molecule and then there is another type of molecule which we find where I actually have a C-H-OH, okay? And this carbon that is there at the topmost section, okay? There is a carbon. This carbon actually has an oxygen that is completely related to I can keep on drawing here C-H-OH for another three times, okay? And then I have another carbon here which actually ends up meeting this oxygen at the top, okay? And I have a C-H-2-OH here. So this is the cycle structure. If I have to draw it in planar molecule it will look something like this. So it's actually in hexagon, okay, where this is something that comes out of the screen. So it's a planar molecule and there is an OH at the top, there is a hydrogen at the bottom, another hydrogen here, OH here and H-N-OH here, okay? This is where an oxygen comes in. Note this is not a carbon. This is where an oxygen comes in and then you have C-H-2-OH and a hydrogen here. Again an H-N-OH here, okay? So the straight chain molecule which would have a very simple C-H-OH, this oxygen actually ends up meeting the fourth oxygen in the row. So this is the first, if we start one from here, then the fifth one actually in the row. Which is how it, I've shown here, okay? So the topmost aldehydic oxygen actually is the fifth molecule in the row. This is the aldehydic oxygen that was there of this carbon. This C-H-2-OH is completely above and meets the carbon at the fifth link in the chain. These are the two different structures that are found in nature and there are evidences that both of them actually exist and they do not exist as a resonance structure. Please note I'm saying this again, not like benzene where it is very difficult to separate out two resonance structures. You can just talk about their energies. Here it is actually possible to separate out these two structures and they behave very differently. Some of the reactions that actually give the structure evidence for a straight chain compound is, for example one is the reduction reaction. So when I say reduction reaction, it is basically using hydrogens and when I use hydrogens I end up getting sorbitol. And sorbitol is an absolutely straight chain compound that we know of. So basically this aldehydic group gets reduced. If it would have been a straight chain compound, its reduction actually breaking ring is very difficult. You know that breaking ring in cyclohexanes for reduction is tough. So reduction is not possible here directly. In your reduction is possible and we actually end up getting reduced compound which is sorbitol which is nothing but two hydrogens basically attached to glucose. So you end up getting CH2OH at the top. So I'm just going to write this as CH2OH then CHOH four times and another CH2OH. So this is sorbitol. So this is the first evidence. I'm going to talk only about two more evidences. We can deal with this topic entirely also in the same level. But just to have an understanding. So one is reduction. The second is actually hydrogen iodide. Hydrogen iodide if you add, you end up getting n-hexane. So all of these oxygen when you add hydrogen you basically end up reducing all the oxygens. So you end up adding everywhere hydrogens and you get what we call as n-hexane which is C6H14. Okay. Hydrogen iodide with red phosphorus. You know that hydrogen red phosphorus takes out any and all the oxygens that are there in a molecule. Hydrogen being a cyclic have been able to so take out I'm going to draw those as with pink I'm going to be able to take this oxygen out this oxygen out, this out, this out I will be able to take out four oxygens but not the one that is in the cyclic structure. So red phosphorus actually shows that it is actually a straight chain compound. Now let me talk about two of open chain structures or cyclic structures. If you really look at the cyclic nature of the compound we will find that it actually shows the chirality of molecules that is very important. So for example we have plus and minuses so one of the evidences here is dextro and lever rotatory if you know that plus and minus rotations of optical molecules is very clearly seen. So the chirality that is shown by the ring chain and the chirality that is shown by this is something that are different. So I'm able to deduce that there could be a ring chain compound that is also possible. So let me give you one more if I'm able to share. So if we have a ring because of this structure I have two types of cis and trans structures. If you can appreciate you have CH2OH that is bounded either above the plane or below the plane. This CH2OH in conjugation with these OH minuses can be on the same side or on different side because of this oxygen. In a straight chain molecule I do not have to worry about this. In a straight chain molecule this CH2OH being bonded by single bonds can rotate. So it can only show optical activity but it will not show the cis-trans isomerism. But in a cyclic structure it shows cis-trans isomerism and therefore that is another proof or evidence of having a cyclic nature. Cis-trans isomerism possible. Cis-trans isomerism is not possible in a straight chain molecule. Yeah. Prithvi are you asking something? Yes sir can you repeat this point please? Yes. So what I'm saying is see when you have a cyclic structure which is like an hexagon you have CH2OH either on the same side of OH or on the opposite side because of the cyclicity of the molecule you can always find either cis or trans structures of CH2OH. For example in this scenario the diagram that I've drawn CH2OH is on the opposite side of OH OH. The same OH OH can actually be on the same side of CH2OH also. This cis-trans is not possible in a straight chain molecule. It is only possible in a cyclic molecule. The cyclicity is like a double bond like we have trans-trans between an alkene where you have a CH3 here and a CH3 here. This is one molecule and the second molecule of course is when you have CH3 on the opposite side. You have CH3 here and you have a CH3 here. So cis-trans is possible because of the double bond where rotation along the molecule along the bond is restricted. Similarly rotation along the single bond is restricted because of the cyclicity of the molecule. Here the rotation is not restricted. So the CH2OH does not have a side like cis-trans. That actually is also an evidence of a cyclic molecule. Okay? Now one of the major reactions that is also there is that glucose pentacetate you know does not react with hydroxide amine indicating that there is so if you instead of drawing this structure I'm just going to write the name for you. When we do glucose pentacetate and if we react it with hydroxyl amine hydroxyl amine okay? Generally hydroxyl amines if you have a CHO group it will take out the CHO group it will react with that CHO group but here there is no reaction that happens okay? Which means that the glucose does not have a acetate group okay? So this CHO group itself is absent. This means okay? So had there been a CHO group hydroxyl amine would have reacted to give some reaction but here there is no reaction implies there is no aldehyde group so there is no CHO group itself. Now why is there no CHO group? Because only in the cyclic structure will you be able to justify that there is no presence of a CHO group because this oxygen which is the aldehyde oxygen actually is in the cyclic structure. So therefore there is a problem with it okay? So these are the three I have spoken about two reductions you can go on further as well there is oxidation mechanisms so there are a lot of evidences of straight-chain molecule but these are the major three evidences of ring-chair molecule also. So again just repeating for the third time is that that does not mean that both of these are resonantly present together it is just found that both of these reactions are at the same point of time happening which means that sometimes it is actually a cyclic structure sometimes it is a straight-chain molecule when and how only reaction conditions define okay? So that's about a monoseccharides and we have what we just spoke about was a detailed analysis of glucose structure. Now coming back in monoseccharides we said what are the aldoses and ketosis? Aldoses are where you have aldehyde structure instead of aldehyde structure when you have a ketonic structure which I will show you in a minute we will okay we call them as ketosis we have seen this structure this is only about glucose because glucose is the aldehyde structure and in glucose we found that there are straight-chain as well as ring compounds now we are going to look at ketosis structure and hence we will look at the molecule fructose okay? So if you really see at fructose the formula for fructose also is C6H12O6 but the structure is like this it is CH2OH and there is a ketonic group there is no aldehyde group you have a CHOH this you can say thrice thrice of these and then you end up having another CH2OH what is the difference? in the glucose molecule this COH was at the top okay? and there was CHOH 4 times and then there was CH2OH here the ketonic group is the second and you have terminal carbons having alcoholic carbons and not any aldehyde carbons so this is a ketose group okay? so this is a ketose group simply again means that except the second all the other are chiral I told you all the central carbons are chiral so all of these three carbons are central carbons and they are all of them chiral molecules chiral items chiral carbon items okay? so this is fructose the other name for fructose also you say as leviolose okay? this also comes from its you know dextrorotatory dextrorotatory or leviorotatory if you remember okay? so d rotation d fructose okay? d fructose or simply a leviopructose okay? now what are the important things that you need to know about fructose definitely it reduces felling solution okay? so all the although it does not have an aldehyde group this is one of the major reactions that fructose does give and it also reduces actually tolan's reagent if you remember felling solution ketose do not give this reaction only aldehydes give but this is one major reducing property of fructose and this is because it is said because of the alpha hydroxy ketonic group so you remember the reduction is whenever you have an alpha hydroxy ketonic group what do you mean by alpha hydroxy for the ketone at the alpha carbon you know you have a hydroxy group okay? whenever you have such kind of structures you will realize that the felling and tolan's both of these steps are given so remember this as one important point so all I am trying to do is give you some major important points from all of these molecules that you need to remember so this is felling solution and tolan's reagent reactions which is given by fructose okay? of course if you reduce fructose further down with NAHG you will end up getting sorbitol manitols so as we have done earlier you know just giving hydrogens so anything that has CH2OH sorbitol I will give you one more time you have HCOH okay? this you will get four times and you will again get a carbon CH2OH okay? this is CH2OH sorry so this is sorbitol you change the structure of sorbitol in terms of the you know the bonding that is there in the carbons here you will end up getting manitols so monitalan's sorbitol are nothing but each other so both of them you end up getting when you reduce okay? and of course if you reduce with HI red phosphorus you will end up getting hexane okay? and hexane okay? like we have been doing earlier okay? so that's quite a you know information for you even fructose gives both cyclic and straight chain this thing isomer so I am just going to mention the point here the structure of the ambiguity still remains like it is with glucose we get both straight chain straight chain molecule as well as cyclic molecule okay? so that's about monosaccharides you know what are major questions that generally come on monosaccharides is isomerism only this we have dealt with in detail for optical, optical isomers as well as for you know geometrical ones optical, geometrical confirmational not very important but optical and geometrical isomers are very important so most of the questions generally are themed in isomerism we are going to revise optical isomerism at some point of time which is when we will see in detail how chirality and etc matters we have done that once but we will look at them one more time now let's look at oligosaccharides that's our I think let me see what is the point number so in monosaccharides we saw monosaccharides was our third block after that I would say glucose take glucose as the fourth block I'm going to put this as the fourth block four block glucose and its structure and the fifth block would be fructose so let me take this as the fifth block of ideas the sixth block that we are going to take is oligosaccharides okay? oligosaccharides oligosaccharides okay? now this oligosaccharides basically are as I mentioned you know two to nine monosaccharides together so sucrose is the smallest oligosaccharide that you can or you can also call sucrose as disaccharide because there are two monosaccharides that are joined with it just to give you some examples both all sucrose maltose and lactose okay they have the same formula maltose and lactose have the same formula and all of them are disaccharides so I'm just going to write disaccharides okay? disaccharides they end up giving all of these end up giving glucose and fructose okay? so different combinations of glucose and fructose and their structure and different structures will end up so they are all isomers basically sucrose, maltose, lactose are all isomers okay? now the bond between two monosaccharides is called as glycosidic bond okay? glycosidic bond so when two monosaccharides mono plus mono they are bonded this bond is what we call as glycosidic bond okay? to give in the end a disaccharide okay? another information bit okay? yeah now let's go to the next is I'm just going to give you one more example of trisaccharide so raffinose is an example of a trisaccharide its formula is C18H32O16 so if you really hydrolyze this you end up getting glucose, fructose and galactose so you get glucose plus fructose plus galactose so galactose is another disaccharide okay? glucose and fructose are of course monosaccharides right? and so on and so forth right? now what are the important disaccharides right? so maltose is one important disaccharide and I'm just going to tell you its importance structure etc might not be that relevant but what are the important points of maltose okay? so one is that of course maltose yeah tell me raffinose is a trisaccharide or disaccharide? it's a trisaccharide thank you okay now maltose is one important disaccharide it's found in seeds, in cereals of course it is also commercially used you know prepared majorly by hydrolysis of starch okay? so in starch if you simply hydrolyze with an enzyme diastase you know you get maltose it's also used in the manufacture of malted milk so uses I'm going to tell you some uses so uses is you know you can use it in malted milk in its manufacture and a lot of infant food a lot of infant food is made out of these that's maltose just remember it's found in seed cereals it's you know commercially from hydrolysis of starch so you get maltose and it's also used in malted milk and infant food these points should be sufficient for you to remember the second one is lactose I think you have been very familiar with this of course it is found in milk of all animals okay so found in milk and it's also sometimes called milk sugar this is the one that actually gives sweetness to milk okay so this is the one that gives sweet like glucose and fructose gives sweetness to sugarcane the sweetness in milk is comes from lactose now it's actually a reducing sugar and therefore felings and toluens reagent you know test is given by it okay so I'm going to say this is felings tests toluens tests are given okay there are two types of you know products that lactose gives on hydrolysis so lactose on hydrolysis actually gives D glucose and D galactose D glucose so this is after H2O and D galactose most of this what I'm sharing with you is pure information pieces you know anyways this recording is there with you and all these pdf also I will show so you can have all of these pieces with you so that's not a problem but some information pieces that you should just keep to yourself even if you read across it okay now let's look at sucrose this is another disaccharide firstly it is optically active okay so optically definitely active it's sweeter than other sugars except fructose that's another point just for info but not very important it has a non reducing nature this is very important so its nature is non reducing which means that it does not contain any free aldehydeic or ketonic group so no aldehydeic slash ketonic group okay and therefore it does not form cyanohydrene oxazone does not reduce felings solution or tolerance reagent and it's always it's very stable towards alkalis also because we know that there is no acetic hydrogen that is present right so it is stable towards alkalis no failing solution test no tolerance reagent test whenever you hydrolyze a sucrose you end up getting glucose and fructose this is very common I think time and again we have studied this also so you hydrolyze this you end up getting glucose and fructose okay yeah so that's a quick look at sucrose now let's look at polysaccharides I would say this is the next ideation bit so one second oligosthic concept bit probably let me check yeah so it was sixth now we will end up going to the seventh concept bit which is polysaccharides okay now now starch is one of the most important polysaccharides so remember polysaccharides we said 2 to 9 as oligosaccharides generally polysaccharides in general would start from n equal to 6 6 monosaccharides so beyond monosaccharides also it is alternately called as either oligosaccharides or polysaccharides both of them right but 6 is the minimum generally is what we refer to as the general formula is C6H10O5n okay this is only for carbohydrates please note in the initial thing we said Cx and H2Oy when we are talking about polysaccharides it is I have removed one water molecule and as you increase the number of monosaccharides every time you add a straight chain compound you are removing one water molecule so therefore you can say that the general formula is C6H10O5n they definitely are linear and therefore we are able to deduce this formula these are the initial discussions so they are linear polymers and they are highly branched as well they definitely have glycosidic bonds all of these monosaccharides when they bond with each other they have multiple glycosidic bonds okay and they are not called as sugars please note they are not sweet in taste also so this is where the differences start they are not sweet neither called as sugars nor sugars sugars is a general term this is derived from sweetness so sucrose maltose, lactose, glucose, fructose all of those are sugars all of them they are sweet except for one compound which is insulin and insulin is actually sweet in taste okay so this is one compound which is sweet in taste for polysaccharides now let's look at a couple of very important polysaccharides first important polysaccharide is starch okay now we have seen sucrose in the previous situation we have also seen maltose starch is actually a taste list powder and it is insoluble in water you know it's insoluble in water and that is why you know starch actually forms wide threads or meshes or nets which is basically useful in our laundry etcetera right soluble starches can definitely be obtained by heating ordinary starch only with HCl for about 24 hours okay so if you want to make it soluble you basically heat it with HCl 10% HCl for a very long time generally approximately to a day or over a day and you end up getting starches that is soluble so that's one hydrolysis of starch is you know with dilute acids yields of maltose, glucose and dextreme okay so it's so let me write it this way so it's hydrolysis will end up giving glucose maltose and also compounds which are called as dextreme okay now this when we and if we hydrolyze this with enzymes for example an enzyme typically used is diastase diastase we end up getting only maltose okay so this is also one of the preparations of maltose okay now so this is about starch I think this should be enough we will look at one more type of starch which is animal starch which is also called as glycogen so that was starch in general and when we generally get animals we call that as glycogen it's also named as animal starch it is found in all animal cells mainly in the liver okay so this is a liver starch it's also called as liver starch or animal starch because it is found in the liver this is where reserve quantities of food materials is stored so whenever energy consumption depletes this is what is broken down to get energy for us this actually gives the difference between this and the other starches on hydrolysis this actually ends up giving only glucose and hence it is an important compound to know as we said these are the reserved energy storages okay the reserved energy storages in our body or in animals for that matter okay and then we'll come to the last starch that is important which is cellulose now you know that cellulose in tree barks, in plants most of this we have found in fact all these cell walls generally are made up of cellulose so cotton would are two important sources of cellulose for practical uses again this is a very fibrous compound one very different thing from starch also is fibrous generally if you put it in water etc you get all this fibrous structure of starch cellulose also is quite fibrous okay and you know this is one compound which if we hydrolyzed with dilute H2SO4 we end up getting D-glucose okay H2SO4 you end up getting D-glucose okay there are a lot of industrial applications for cellulose which you can remember for example we use it in manufacture of paper in silk even in cotton of course cotton is its prime resource and we also use it in making cotton celluloid artificial ivory ivory materials okay ivory materials so this is one of the uses of cellulose okay now all this is important now beyond this is just you know so we are we are just coming to the end of carbohydrates that is a section A it's taken us a lot of time but good to know this content what are the important of carbohydrates first main source of energy this is the main primary source of energy in body primary source of energy second also the fuel of body it's also the cell wall of most of the plant cells okay all plant cells are made up of you know cellulose then the third important point is the exoskeleton of insects which we call as chitin I think you must have heard this name somewhere chitin which is also the exoskeleton of insects is also all carbohydrates okay the fourth one is the fourth very important point is it's also the structural component of DNA RNA so DNA RNA structural component is carbohydrates okay so these are the some of the uses of carbohydrates the test for carbohydrates is tolens reagent giving silver mirror test and failing solution which gives red PPT so both of them carbohydrates actually give all carbohydrates end up giving these tests okay I think someone dropped in I don't know I'm not sure okay so I'm just going to pause here for a minute and I would like to hear you guys are you able to connect is this going well yes sir okay that's Sundar yes sir okay so is the reception good are you able to hear my voice and all better everything yes that's clear sir tell me sir does sucrose give failing solution and tolens reagent test yes most of the carbohydrates give fillings and tolens reagent test sucrose also does give both of these tests but it's a non reducing agent so you know sucrose also yes yeah sorry after the hydrolysis yes sucrose itself does not give I'm sorry you're right there sucrose does not give sucrose is the only one which does not give it does not give cyanohydrin or aldehyde and ketonic tests you're right there okay sir thank you yeah good so let's go to the next we'll go to the section B which is proteins or amino acids okay section B proteins flash amino acids okay now so basically amino acids are all those which have one or more amino groups and of course it does it needs to have one or more carboxyl groups also in the same molecule so by definition if we say it needs to have amino plus carboxyl groups okay a very common chemical structure would be something like this an H2 a carbon maybe in another alkyl group here and you would have a carboxyl group and hydrogen here so this is one amino acid okay the simplest probably you can say I wouldn't say simplest but yes one amino acid now this R can change R can either be a hydrogen if R is an hydrogen all these amino acids you call them as glycine okay it's the simplest amino acid that is possible if R is equal to CH3 you call it as alanine okay and if you have you know R as CH2OH you call that a serine so these are different words but this is like the core structure of an amino acid okay now if you really see what is the beauty of amino acids is it has a basic group which is CH2OH and also has an acidic group which is COH so this is something that is very strange is that this is basic in nature it also gives the lone pairs whereas this is completely acidic in nature and it actually gives out the hydrogen that is available right and therefore amino acids are both acidic and basic at the same time and hence we call them as amphoteric okay so they are also amphoteric substances okay amphoteric in nature since it is this because of this special structure that we have we call them by the name as zwitterion we have we have discussed this multiple times earlier also references have come in why a zwitterion because at one end it has an acidic ion whereas the other end it can actually produce a basic ion so if you have to have a zwitterion structure you will have this is the zwitterion structure COO-H okay so this is called as a zwitterion structure okay the nature still remains zero you have to please note that although it has polarities very highly forget polarities it has ions itself you know you have still the net charge of the molecule to be zero okay so that's a quick overview of what amino acids are let's look at its classification this is a I've lost the count of the block concepts but this is a new block concept so I'm making two stars here so let's look at its classifications so now amino acids can be classified into two major types depending on its uses actually so here we no more do it on structure or anything we always talk about uses so we call them as essential amino acids and of course the second one would be non-essential amino acids what are essential ones so they are eight of them and just remember that there are eight of them I can actually give you the names but not necessarily I don't think so that anyone would go into that so leucine, isoleucine, lysine, methionine, et cetera there are a couple of them and then there are non-essential ones which are alanine, aspergin, asperitic acid many of them nearly 25 amino acids have been obtained from hydrolysis of proteins okay so if someone asked so how do we really get these amino acids we basically actually hydrolyze you know proteins to get them okay so currently known amino acids are about 25 of them which are synthesized in the body so 25 amino acids are synthesized currently right also those amino acids which can actually be you know given through which must be supplied through diet and which cannot be synthesized or have to be you know can be taken out of body which are the non-essential ones they are also called as dispensable ones okay so these non-essential ones have to be given through food because you know the quantity of these actually keep on depleting with time whereas essential ones can be synthesized and therefore they are also called as indispensable this can be synthesized in the body okay now so let's look at a few more important points of amino acids now that we have known this structure of course there are the central carbon atom in this structure is chiral this carbon atom is chiral because it is attached to four different groups so of course you will end up getting alpha dextrorotary and leviorotary and can reprotation you know molecules of amino acids the zeterine structure is resonating so therefore a lot of salts can be formed with zeterine structures there is something called as an isoelectric point which means that at a definite pH the acid can basic properties of these amino acids must be balanced and this pH should exist as a neutral dipolar ion so for example let me draw this so let's say you have amino acid with NH3 plus now we are trying to hydrolyze this so at some point of time you are going through NaOH HCl so if more of rather the arrow should be sorry if you end up giving HCl you will end up forming ammonium ion and this is the zeterine structure that you will have there won't be an hydrogen in the zeterine this is minus and NH3 plus and if you end up giving more of the base to it NaOH you will get RCH2 COO minus with an NH2 molecule so this is more on the basic side so there has to be one pH at which the zeterine actually exist as a neutral molecule and both of them are present where you have NH4 plus this should be NH4 plus so you have NH4 plus as well as CH3 COOH sorry it will be NH3 only because it was NH2 with another hydrogen yeah this was right you have NH3 plus as well and you have COO minus so at some pH you basically end up getting the neutral zeterine quantity this is called as an isoelectric point okay this is called as an isoelectric point why it is called as an isoelectric point is because this ion actually does not migrate to either the cathode or anode if you put electrodes inside the solution and try to understand whether it has a negative charge or a negative charge this one actually migrates towards cathode whereas here it will migrate towards anode so as you try and change the pH of the solution going from acidic to basic they will come a point that the migration simply drops to zero and since the migration drops to zero this is the point where you say that the pH has got to such an extent where zeterion is in its most neutral form there is still polarity and still ionic structure in the molecule has an effective zero charge on the entire molecule inside the molecule there exists but outside there is none and this point where the pH actually comes to this zero movement of the zeterion is what we call as the isoelectric point okay now very similar to carbohydrates this is the next point to understand what we call as the peptide bond so very similar to carbohydrates two or more monosaccharides as they combine to form disaccharides so two or more amino acids link to each other and like we had the the bond between two monosaccharides glycosidic bond in amino acids we call it as the peptide bonds so when two amino acids connect to each other the bond that goes between both of them is called as the peptide bond so amino plus another sorry another amino acid end up giving higher molecules this bond is what we call as the peptide bond okay now there can be three different types of peptide bonds one of course is di tri and polypeptide so when two amino acids join to each other we call it as a dipeptide bond when we have more than two amino acids joining we call it as a tripeptide bond and when we have more than two we call it as polypeptide so if you have to write types of peptide bonds you can have di now please note dipeptide means two amino acids joining together so now then you would have a tripeptide and then you have a polypeptide okay so let's look at how typically a peptide bond would be formed so let's say I have NH2 and I have CRH COOH this actually will react with the basic group of NH of the next amino acid RH CH so this dehydration that happens between two amino acids results in which is something which is like the amide group okay this is a peptide bond the COOH is what we call as a peptide bond and this can actually continue to a large extent it can go on and on and on okay now let's talk about preparation of amino acids so that's about peptide bonds and so we understand what amino acids are what are different groups we understand the zwitterian structure which is an important aspect to be known in the amino acids now let's understand the preparations of amino acids okay one of the most basic ways to prepare an amino acid is by a nucleophilic substitution if you remember HVZ reaction HVZ halogenation alpha-halo acids are can be prepared you know by HVZ so basically you end up getting CH3 CHX which is a alpha-halo acid and you simply pass ammonia in excess you end up getting an amino acid CH NH3 plus COO- now this X can be generally chlorine or even bromine is okay okay now this can be prepared by HVZ okay or basically by you know malonic esterin synthesis or things like that right so you remember we took an acetic acid and we put Cl2 or bromine with phosphorus to end up getting this right and and further this alpha-halo acid can be put with ammonia to get amino acid so this is the first way of preparation which is through direct aminolysis direct aminolysis of alpha-halo acids the second way of preparation of amino acids is from potassium thalamide if you remember this reaction also we have seen in quite a depth during our classes so with potassium thalamide also which this modification is sometimes also called as Gabriel synthesis of amines if you remember Gabriel synthesis of amines okay now what do we do here is basically we use potassium thalamide I told you that potassium thalamide has this nose you know the nose of the thalamide which is the nitrogen why do we call it is the nose because this nose actually goes and picks out just the halogen from it maybe I can draw the structure for you if you recall thalamides so this is the benzene ring that it has this is the nitrogen that it ends up going to and you have two ketonic groups this is minus and plus so this is like the nose of thalamide okay this nose of thalamide actually takes out the halogen from an you know a ester okay so you have a halo ester which is this is basically ethyl chloracetate so this nose will take out the halogen to end up giving a compound this is nitrogen CH2 COO C2H5 okay now this CH2 C2H5 then further can basically be hydrolyzed okay so if you can simply hydrolyze this you will end up getting glycine hydrochloride okay so you hydrolyze this with KOH H2O HCl KOH H2O or HCl H2O all of that you will end up getting C2H sorry you end up getting COOH okay attached to CH2 and NH3 plus okay NH3 plus CL minus maybe you can put this as well when you put KCl in it okay so this is this is one way of preparation the second way of preparation of amino acids which is basically from potassium thalamide now there are multiple variations you can do with this of course you can change chlorine to bromine you can change the ester group so this is a primary ester so instead of one COO C2H5 group you can bring you can remove another hydrogen and put another COO C2H5 group so that's one variation so I'm going to just write the variations here for your convenience so one variation is CL and BR the second variation is the alpha hydrogen alpha hydrogen can be replaced with multiple groups that's the second variation that you can do can we do any other yeah no in hydrolysis not much okay good so these are the two methods of preparation of amino acids the reactions now let's look at some reactions of amino acids what are the good reactions of amino acids so first reaction is with nitrous acid HNO2 so you take an amino acid you react it with HONO which is nothing but HNO2 you end up getting CR H COOH plus nitrogen so whatever amino group you had you selectively were able to take it out and substitute it with an hydroxyl group okay so in the the CNH2 group that you had here has been taken out and selectively replaced by an hydroxyl group with HNO2 okay so this is one reaction of course HNO2 is acidic so it leaves alone the acidic side of the molecule the second reaction that you can think about is formaldehyde the reaction with formaldehyde okay so this is another interesting thing in amino acid formaldehyde being acidic in nature actually attacks only the basic side of the amino acid and it takes out the basic side to give CH2 double bond and the hydrogen from the basic side and CR H COOH okay so this is one reaction then I'm just going to talk about this one more in fact both of them are important so let me just draw DNFP reaction you must have heard this as a reagent and a lot of reactions it's also called as singer's reagent singer's reagent okay this reagent is basically a reagent which tests the amino group okay it can test amino group very well basically how it looks like is something like this so you have a nitro you have a fluorine and you have an anotogrup now you remember because of two nitrogen also at meta positions are actually going to destabilize this ring a bit and then there is fluorine in it so when you have a amino acid that is bonded to okay you end up getting Na2 CO with Na2 CO3 you end up getting yellow colored dinetrofinil amino acid okay so basically just the fluorine moves out so you have your Na2 and Na2 intact the ring is highly destabilized now because a lot of withdrawing groups and yeah mine okay so this is yellow colored PPT that you get you know which is also an amino acid dinetrofinil not a PPT but actually a solution okay and then there is ninhydrin you know ninhydrin are also used as selective agents if you remember in chromatography etc ninhydrin is used to identify what are the components between different dyes okay so how does the ninhydrin look like, a ninhydrin looks like this sorry this is a benzene ring and you have a pentyl ring with benzene sorry let me draw it again okay you have a lot of hydroxyl and carboxyl groups now this again reacts with amino acid to actually give you what we call as Ruhmann's purple violet colored PPT so when it reacts with the same compound above okay you will end up getting what we call as Ruhmann's blue or Ruhmann's purple actually it's a very specific color and very much used in the industry sorry double bond oxygen double bond oxygen okay so this is called as Ruhmann's purple or violet colored PPT is given out okay so this is I'll write it for you okay you know amino acids for you the preparation methods is something that you need to understand I'm going to just spend a small time maybe another 5 minutes on proteins and then we'll go to the next section which is nucleic acids then we'll see polymers so this is now let's look at proteins another concept block so these are basically large number of amino acids joined together through peptide linkages you end up getting polypeptides and they are called as proteins so proteins are nothing but also called as polypeptides okay when we say large there is no such distinction again here but generally more than about 4 or 5 of them so beyond 5 generally we call them as proteins now this is one of the most important because a lot of animals have lived since our evolution stages who generally did not have fat etc proteins is something that comes to the usage so even if you don't have fat it's okay but if you don't have proteins your tissues etc will simply not repair now you know they will break down you will not be able to sustain and hence it is one of the most important aspects of you know living mechanism it does give energy but resource of energy primary source of course being carbohydrates now what are the different configurations of proteins proteins generally are of 4 types primary secondary so what are the types the types are primary secondary tertiary and quaternary now primary basically refers to the number, nature and sequence of amino acids so how many amino acids are present what is this nature in what sequence are they present what is its conformations how many polypeptide bonds or chains are there are they in the linear structure these are basically all of these distinction is basically based on function function and nature so they are not based on structure if you remember carbohydrate classification was based on structures and amino acid classification was based on the number of bonds that is there here the classification actually based on functions and the nature of the proteins primary means they are something that are very fundamental they have certain sequence which is generally straight chain so all simple amino acids are generally primary structure assets the second structure have you know they are hydrogen bonding between themselves but also peptide bonds so I can say these are very simple simple mostly straight chain then they also have single polypeptide chains formed by single polypeptide bonds single single peptide bonds okay the secondary ones are the ones which actually also have hydrogen bonding between them and hence the structure starts becoming complex from the secondary molecules these hydrogen bonds of course are between the amino group hydrogens and the oxygen atom of carboxylic groups there are multiple ways that we can actually look at the secondary structure some of them are called as alpha helix structure some are beta pleated structure so some are simply you know the secondary structures are sometimes like this or simply like you know webs okay webs okay so this is called as alpha helix structure and this is called as beta pleated structure pleated as in the you know the pleats that we have for our pants so how they are pleats you know which are in their saree which are in sarees or which are also there in you know in your trousers okay so from there that's where this comes from okay now let's look at more proteins the tertiary structure now in this tertiary structure you have hydrogen bonds you have your peptide bonds but there are also some hydrophobic bonds okay so let me write tertiary separately so in tertiary structures you have hydrogen bonds you definitely have peptide bonds but there are some hydrophobic bonds also which means these are basically your organic molecules if you remember your missiles and your detergent and your soap that we had studied there are long chain of you know organic molecule which generally would not react with you know any water molecule these are non-polar side chains also and they are also sometimes present between different amino acids okay these bonds for example to give you an example you know it is intertuning of two molecules with each other some branches getting hooked up in other molecules all of those are generally hydrophobic in nature there are some ionic bonds also that are present ionic bonds this is because the entire molecule can completely become a circle and therefore the plus from NH and the minus from oxygen can actually form an intermolecular or intramolecular ionic bonds this sulphur that you know group that is there attached then you can have a disulfide bond so a lot of multiple types of bonds are formed majorly these four A, 1, 2, 3 and 4 bonds which give you it and quaternary means that you know this is the most stable structure but here there is no restriction so quaternary is the final stage of bond formation there is no restriction on the amount of bonds that are formed so you will find a mixture of not only ionic but sometimes you will also find coordinate covalent bonds you will find intermolecular bonding you will find helix structure hydrophobic bonds peptide bonds hydrogen bondings all of them are present okay all of them together will form your quaternary structures okay now let's look at some uses of you know proteins some uses now first one it is the primary component of the plasma membrane that we have in our blood so the plasma of the blood is basically made of proteins all enzymes all enzymes are basically proteins this is very important and if you know that these are also the enzymes through which we create you know ethanol in industrial purposes we also yeast you know whatever are secreted through yeast are again enzymes which are again proteins all our hormones are basically again proteins you know these are some lesser known facts you know then all our antigens and antibody antibodies that we have antigens antibodies are again also proteins antigens slash antibodies okay these are definitely they are important in muscle regulation repair wear and tear of the body repairing of the cells etc okay muscle repairs is what I would say okay so that's proteins for you now you know giving the positive of time I'm just going to quickly brief through is someone dropping out okay now let's look at a section C which is the third section which is basically our nucleic acids nucleic acids okay now what are nucleic acids these are basically made up of three units and what are those units it is a base plus a sugar plus a phosphoric acid okay phosphoric acid now this is this is how then how we have found it in nature itself okay nucleic acids basically are you know all of those nucleic substances which are present in the nucleus of cells they are also very important in the maintaining of the very core functions like RNA DNA okay they definitely are very macro molecules you know with very high molecular weak and definitely present in all the living cells now nuclear acids are basically of two types one is pentose nucleic acids and second are deoxy pentose okay so you can say pentose nucleic acids and second you can say deoxy pentose okay now pentose are also what we call as RNAs ribonucleic acids and here we call this as DNAs which are basically deoxy ribonucleic acids okay so ribonucleic acids and deoxy ribonucleic acids what is the difference between them of course the structure is one of the differences but also the pattern through which they are you know linked to each other I mean part of the structure but also you know the optical isomerism that that exists this is the major reason of distinction between these two there are majorly two sugars that are found in nucleic acids one is called as D ribose and second is two oxy D ribose okay so D ribose is what is formed here in RNAs and therefore they form ribonucleic acids and two oxy D ribose is the sugar that is formed okay so this is the sugar that is formed when we say sugar you know out of these base sugar and phosphoric acid the central part this sugar is what we are talking about now bases are also of two types which have been isolated by the hydrolysis of these you know nucleic acids they are called as purines and pyrimidines okay so purines are bases which are basically have adenine and guanine substances in it you know and adenine guanine and cytosine are present in RNAs and DNAs as well okay so let's say purines and pyrimidines okay these are the two types of bases that we have found both of them are present in RNA DNA both of them lead to different types of compounds important purine bases are what we call as you know ATCG you must have studied in your biology so adenine and guanine okay guanine these are the two basic bases that are formed of purines and pyrimidines there are multiple of them which are uracil thymine and cytosine so if you remember ATCG in that ATCG there are two from AG are from pyrimidines right and this is what forms yeah what's the first pyrimidine what's the first pyrimidine uracil uracil u r a c i l i'll read it again okay thank you yeah uracil i hope that helps yeah now now DNA itself also is made up of three units one is of the nitrogen base second is dioxyribose and phosphoric acid now the nitrogen base in the DNA which comes from purine is I'm going to just mark them these two are the ones that go to DNA when it is formed and the pyrimidine base that comes is these two that goes to DNA again okay so ATCG is what is what goes to DNAs to form them right and then of course DNA would have a sugar which is dioxyribose that I've already mentioned so this sugar is what DNA is made up of and then the final component that the DNA need is the phosphoric acid which is H3PO4 okay so H3PO4 this sugar and these protein these bases is what forms the nucleic acid of DNA okay or DNA itself you know the structure of DNA is you know we have the helix structure you know we have spoken about it what are the important functions of DNA self-replication okay so we are just going to look at RNA and DNA more in nucleic acids what we need to understand is DNAs and RNAs I'll try and finish it in this page okay so double helix structure is how it is the important points for DNA is it has a double helix structure second it has made up of two chains of polynucleosides so it has two chains of poly nucleotides okay then what are its functions self-replication is one of the most important this is how your entire life starts you know the new species actually begins with replicating of DNA and this is also hence the key to heredity you know it's also the root of all reproduction you know so it's basically the genesis of the entire life as we know it okay the second major important function of it is protein synthesis okay so it is this DNA which actually synthesizes proteins that are responsible for everything from your hormones to you know your you know the plasma etcetera that we saw you know in in the previous section so all nitrogen based sequences you know in proteins also are made by DNA okay now what are the most important factors of RNA now RNAs are made of nucleotides which are generally from 75 to sometimes a few thousand okay generally about 75 to a couple of thousand nucleotides basically you know form one RNA so it is much more complex polymer than what DNA is of course you know RNA can also exist as single stranded molecule rather than double standard like helix so it's not like an helix here it is more of a single strand okay it's a single strand molecule so basically meaning a long chain and you can have different pairs in it you know you can have amino acid pairs with you know with bases U, G etcetera okay so that's how does it differ from DNA is with its pyrimidine components in terms of thionine and cytosine so once those structures differ you know you end up getting a different RNA molecule now RNA has three types basically there are depending on its function also so one is called as messenger RNAs mRNA okay second are called as transfer RNAs tRNA tRNA mRNA and the third one what we call is ribosomal RNA that is rRNA okay so messenger, transfer and ribosomal okay now just to know these three types I think details about that might not be that important of course now let's look at enzymes quickly so that's probably a new topic maybe a couple of words on enzymes and vitamins so we know that enzymes are proteins right and these are also bio catalysts and as we have studied the same stuff in surface chemistry also there are two types of activities that it does specificity and the second we have studied as activity or we can also call let's call it as activity so when we say specificity it actually goes to a certain molecule and takes it out and makes the reaction happen there and activity means in general it just helps on promoting the reaction rates and reaction speeds it is not very specific about a certain action right so this is what enzymes are these are bio chemical reactions and they increase the rate sometimes up to 10 to the power 20 times a common enzymes that you know of is zymase, invertase, diatase that we just spoke about a few minutes ago these efficiencies are these enzymes have some very humongous amount of efficiency okay so we should speak about this efficiency because the rest points probably you are very aware of now one molecule of enzyme can actually convert millions of substrate molecules per second okay so one can up to 10 to the power 6 substrate atoms you remember the lock and key mechanism in which we said that the enzyme goes and fits into the substrate and then starts forming the products one molecule per second okay can convert up to 10 to the power 6 substrate so you can imagine that like it's like a huge factory you know all these substrates getting onto these enzymes it's fitting into the enzymes creating the products and moving on and very rapidly this is happening also very rapidly so that's one of the most important aspects of enzymes but the unfortunate part about enzymes is it loses its nature at very high temperatures and therefore its efficiency completely drops down if the temperatures are high this is also one of the reasons that forget high temperatures but even if you get fever and all some of the body functions become very weak because at those temperatures enzyme activity is completely reduced okay so general temperature for enzymes outside but which is used in industries for example like xymase and invertase the temperature range is about 40 to 60 degree Celsius just for your info this is where optimally the enzymes which are used industrially can function very well okay so that's like a quick point on enzymes you can always go back to the recording and understand more on whatever I spoke about than the notes let's look at vitamins going forward now vitamins are those organic compounds which we need in small amounts in our diet but basically they help all you know getting rid of all the diseases their deficiency actually causes these diseases so if you don't have these compounds in our body we might suffer from something to give you a very easy example everyone knows that vitamin A if you don't have vitamin C we get night blindness if you don't have vitamin C we get bleeding gums which is curvy vitamin D which comes from the exposure of sunlight we get rickets vitamin E which generally what we get from wheat cotton oils etc if you don't get vitamin E the fragility of our RBCs, red blood cells etc goes down vitamin K is something that's also very important which helps in clotting of the blood which comes from green vegetables so there are both types of vitamins which are a few are water soluble a few are fat soluble so I can just speak on this and not much for me to really write on all of these so water soluble and fat soluble vitamins are present so water soluble are those which actually are you know mostly the B complex ones the B complex vitamins are generally water soluble even vitamin C is water soluble fat soluble are ADEK ADE and K so basically soluble in acids fat soluble means fatty acids so they are generally soluble in acids so that's like vitamins this actually covers all parts of our biomolecule section the only section that's remaining is polymers so let's look at polymers I just want to pause here for a minute because I think it's been quite a stream of doing how are you all let's let's sync yeah Sundar I think you are giving me an echo all the time how about Vihan, Prithvi, Direen are you guys there yes sir sir which category do vitamins fall under I am not able to hear either of you sir yeah so vitamins is a separate category right so what category does vitamins fall under vitamins, vitamins is a completely separate category they are simple organic molecules they are neither proteins nor amino acids nor carbohydrates they are simple organic compounds which are essential in the body in small amounts okay yeah do you want to take a small break or something or should we continue because it's just another it's not very far as well I think another 15 minutes of work and then we will finish polymers as well what do you guys think so we can continue so when is class till when is what when is class till the class is still one but since we started slightly late we can continue it till one ten but do you also have another class going on if you know of yes sir we do yeah okay so let's continue and I'll finish polymers and so that we are done with officially you know with this chapter also and all the information is there with you in the same breath okay so let's look at polymers yeah someone saying something okay now polymers why was this just let's understand why is this topic included with biomolecules is because we are talking about macromolecules in biomolecules which is all very large very high molecular weight compounds and polymers although they are not directly related to biological substances they still are organic compounds and given the property of carbon to form multiple chains we consider polymers in this chapter which basically can be an extension of macromolecules okay now if you look at polymers nothing but small small compounds joining together to form large compounds now what are those small compounds called as those small compounds are called as monomers the easiest example that I can give probably the smallest monomer that we have is ethylene basically ethylene when multiple of such molecules join let's say CH2 double bond CH2 CH2 what we find is that this can work out we end up getting CH2 CH2 single bond CH2 CH2 CH2 yeah so a huge chain can be formed and this is what we call as basically polymer okay something formed from monomers to polymers now what are the different classifications of polymers they are classified as natural and synthetic natural is what we find in nature and synthetic is what we prepare okay what are natural polymers polymers basically jute one second let me write it down so natural ones are basically jute synthetic ones are rayon even actually nucleic acids are natural polymers so nucleic acids and polysaccharides proteins they are all all natural proteins they are all natural polymers and rayon polyester all these are synthetic ones polyester occurrence there is another classification that we can do based on their structure okay so on structure classification on structure is basically linear sorry this is linear and you can also have branched polymers and you can have cross linked cross linked okay so it's very easy to understand what is a linear polymer basically all of them are straight chain branched means there are some side change there are some side chains but the side chains are not connected to each other cross linked means side chains are there and they are also connected to each other side chains plus connections okay I'll show you an example so basically you are having this this is a straight chain branch chain is you are having this you are also having this you can also have your branches this branch can also have some branch so how many types the branches go doesn't matter but there is still one single branching what are cross chains you are having this you are having this but this is also connected now to the main chain there is a parallel chain that is happening here if you see even if there is a branching out to the fourth say so this is the first branch this is the second branch third branch on the third branch I am having another branch none of those branches are interconnected to each other which is called as cross linked okay so this generally becomes a three dimensional polymer sometimes and they are very stuff very hard very brittle very rigid backlight is one example okay backlight if you have heard of the backlight okay then a branch chain example could be glycogen okay glycogen is one straight chain so remember I am also talking about proteins therefore one of the one of the long macromolecule from organic substances okay linear chain can be any fibers you know all normal fibers are linear chain generally okay fibers plastics they are generally all linear chain molecules okay now there is a stereochemical classification also for polymers one which we call as isotactic where these methyl groups are present on one side of the polymer okay so let's say we have a polymer which is something like this okay this is a polymer now in this polymer any methyl group that is present okay they are so this is the hydrogen this is CH3 other hydrogen CH3 hydrogen CH3 so this is isotactic because all the methyl groups are present only on one side one side as in this pattern is is constant okay this pattern okay here you will end up getting hydrogen hydrogen you can also have CH3 here that's okay but I am just putting hydrogen to reduce the complexity so all the CH3 are only facing towards let's say my right okay so this is called as an isotactic isotactic polymer this is the first type the second type is where we call as syndiotactic okay now in syndiotactic what happens is let me write it for you the CH3s are not on the same okay so let me draw yeah so here you have a hydrogen you have a CH3 here you will have a CH3 on this side okay now you can completely have CH3 again CH3 on this side here it is this way but here the side change in the orientation is present okay this is called as syndiotactic okay and when they are simply random okay when they are simply random not in alternate so here you will have alternate so here you will again get a CH3 here okay now this is syndiotactic and see last one would be a tactic which is basically random configuration sometimes it is on one side sometimes it is another so whenever it is all randomly spaced no pattern okay then it is called as a tactic okay now polymers how do we synthesize polymers preparations the way of preparation is basically addition polymerization okay so first one is addition addition polymerization so what do you do you simply take a lot of propylene and or propene or ethene or butene and you simply add a catalyst like O2 so O2 can be one catalyst you can have organic peroxides you can have organic peroxides as catalysts okay peroxides and you simply end up getting from monomer you end up getting a polymer okay very simple as that so in addition polymerization small amount of organic peroxide can be is generally used as a free radical initiator yeah now the second one is condensation polymerization this is also a classification of how polymers are made depending on their preparation type so condensation means you use two long chain molecules and simply condense them and when you condense them basically what do you do you end up getting a water molecule out so an anhydride is produced so one example of that could be a pterilene okay so pterilene is one molecule which is produced out of condensation it is it is condensed of two molecules which is one is terephthalic acid terepthalic acid and the second molecule that is condensed with is ethylene glycol ethylene glycol okay just giving you the names no need to get into structures maybe if you find time we can have some more of it but without that I think this should be sufficient right so one are addition polymers and second are condensation polymers another type of you know classification that we can actually have is this is the last type of classification that we can look at is homopolymers and hetero polymers homopolymers which means that the repeating group is same same repeating group okay and second one is hetero polymers okay which means basically different repeating groups okay so different repeating groups okay now now let's look at how we really prepare all of these right so I have already shared with you one way that is with using oxygen or you know peroxides organic peroxides the second so let's some of the important preparations that you should know is polythylene preparation okay so just remain remember that NCH2 double bond CH2 gives basically CH2 single bond CH2 N when you have traces of O2 okay at let's say 1500 atmosphere and 150 to 200 degrees Celsius okay the second way to prepare the second important molecule that you should know about is polypropylene and how do you prepare that is basically same mechanisms that we have studied here all that you need to do is use the catalyst which is Ziegler-Natta catalyst if you remember ZIE Ziegler-Natta catalyst sorry okay and the temperatures generally you have okay you need two more promoters also for it catalysts for it plus TICL4 and you end up getting polypropylene polystyrene again all that you need to remember so polypropylene means propylene getting into different into a polymer polystyrene of course yes polypropylene is there any temperature that is required see all of these temperatures generally are above 200 degrees Celsius okay not clearly mentioned but you can consider safely beyond 200 degrees Celsius right now polystyrene is basically when you start from styrene and styrene is nothing but C6H5 CH double bond CH2 this is styrene then what is the catalyst that you require is benzoil peroxide benzoil peroxide okay polystyrene is also called as styrofoam or what we know okay or simply styron you know some interesting part some of these polymers can actually be prepared at home you know you actually get benzoil peroxide easily available in the market and styrene also is pretty much available and so if someone is interested you know you can actually try making them out these experimentations are nice to know about right one more important compound that you should know about is plexiglass okay it has different names it is sometimes also called as lucite or it is also called as polymethyl methacrylate polymethyl methacrylate okay basically what is methyl methacrylate methyl methacrylate is this CH2 double bond C COOCH3 and CS3 you all know that the polymerism always happens at the double bond right so this is where the polymerization will happen and what is the acetyl peroxide or H2O2 okay so you can simply end up getting CH2C okay you have your CH3 and you will have your COOCH3 N times okay now right so PVC is another one polyvinyl chloride I am just going to give you the initial product PVC the initial product is CH2 double bond CHCl and the catalyst is benzoil peroxide under pressure okay now some of these polymers are also rubbers you know rubbers basically they are called because they have the ability to stretch you know take stresses onto themselves for example styrene and butadiene okay so first rubber let me write it for you rubbers so first rubber is what we call as BUNA S rubber okay which is basically a product of styrene plus butadiene alternately bonded okay styrene and butadiene alternately bonded so therefore name comes from BUNA S BUNA is from butadiene and S from styrene then nitrile nitrile is uh this is N butadiene okay which means 1 3 butadiene or 1 3 butadiene you can also name that number right so neoprene neoprene is another one neoprene that you should also know of neoprene we have studied this N number of times so chloroprene becomes neoprene what is chloroprene CH2 double bond CH CCL double bond CH2 okay so this molecule when it repeats it becomes neoprene this is chloroprene this is chloroprene okay so these are these are some important polymers that you should actually know about uh okay what else uh yeah now uh resins is something that you should also uh remember so what is so bechelite bechelite basically which is a uh three dimensional uh polymer is basically a resin okay so uh basically phenol and formaldehyde okay now next that you all need to understand is resins okay so resins are basically 3D polymers okay one such is your bechelite which we just saw a few minutes ago okay so it is made up of phenol plus formaldehyde uh the structure is something like this so all the phenols and formaldehydes actually open up to give you uh structure like this CH2 so okay all OH will remain OH OH and this is a three dimensional structure so CH2 again a benzene ring here CH2 again a benzene ring here okay very much like your rangolis Diwali time so therefore okay the OH will now come at the bottom here CH2 and so on so forth okay so this is your bechelite structure some resins that you also should know uh nylon 6 that is also something that's important uh it's it's a nylon it's no more resins so what is nylon? nylon is nothing but a synthetic polymer so if you have a synthetic polymer that's basically nylon okay one major nylon that you should know of is nylon 6 okay so it is a homo polymer of caprolactam so I'll draw caprolactam for you caprolactam is nothing but basically a cyclohexane with a ketonic group on it and when you use NH2OH as the catalyst you end up getting auxine this is not a catalyst actually it's a it's a way to prepare auxines okay so this is auxine this is cyclohexanone cyclohexanone and when we do a rearrangement to this you end up getting an octahedral compound N so one two three four five six seven seven a seven ring member this on hydrolysis so this is what we call as caprolactam caprolactam again if you see this name it comes from carboxylic acid and the ammonia group okay so basically from amino acid this when it you know forms amino acids we get NH2 CH25 COOH okay this is alpha amino caproic acid epsilon amigo not it alpha epsilon amigno caproic acid okay this polymerizes this polymerizes end up giving nylon six which is what we use in most of the industrial home household purposes okay five C double bond O NH CH25 C double bond O and this keeps on repeating okay so that's nylon six for you okay yeah so I think we are most we are there okay there are most of the topics have been covered now there is nothing majorly that is remaining unless you have a specific doubt I am going to mail you this pdf of this of this chapter also and this recording of this entire thing will be there on the youtube so whatever we have been doing here we will do this on youtube as well so I am just going to stop broadcasting now thank you so much for your time but stay on the link we will talk post this youtube stopping the youtube broadcast