 Section 9 of Anquiry into Human Faculty and its Development by Francis Galton This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information on the volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 30 Domestication of Animals Before leaving the subject of nature and nurture, I would direct attention to evidence bearing on the conditions under which animals appear first to have been domesticated. It clearly shows a small power of nurture against diverse natural tendencies. The few animals that we now possess in a state of domestication were first reclaimed from wilderness in prehistoric times. Our remote barbarian ancestors must be credited with having accomplished a very remarkable feat which no subsequent generation has rivaled. The utmost that we of modern times have succeeded in doing is to improve the races of those animals that we receive from our forefathers in an already domesticated condition. There are only two reasonable solutions of this exceedingly curious fact. The one is that men of highly original ideas like the mythical Prometheus arose from time to time in the dawn of human progress and left their respective marks on the world by being the first to subjugate the camel, the llama, the reindeer, the horse, the ox, the sheep, the hog, the dog or some other animal to the service of man. The few species of animals are fitted by their nature to become domestic and that these were discovered long ago through the exercise of no higher intelligence than is to be found among barbarous tribes of the present day. The failure of civilized man to add to the number of domesticated species would on this supposition be due to the fact that all the suitable material when domestic animals could be derived has been long since worked out. I submit that the latter hypothesis is the true one for the reasons about to be given and if so the finality of the process of domestication must be accepted as one of the most striking instances of the inflexibility of natural disposition and of the limitations thereby imposed upon the choice of careers for animals and by analogy for those of men. My argument will be this, all savages maintain pet animals. Many tribes have sacred ones. The kings of ancient states have imported captive animals on a vast scale for purposes of show from neighboring countries. I infer that every animal of any pretensions has been tamed over and over again and has had numerous opportunities of becoming domesticated but the cases are rare in which these opportunities have led to any result. No animals fitted for domestication unless it fulfills certain stringent conditions which I will endeavour to state and to discuss. My conclusion is that all domesticated animals of any note have long ago fallen under the yoke of man. In short that the animal creation has been pretty thoroughly though half unconsciously explored by the everyday habits of rude races and simple civilisations. It is a fact familiar to all travellers that savages frequently capture young animals of various kinds and rear them as favourites and sell or present them as curiosities. Human nature is generally akin. Savages may be brutal but they are not on that account devoid of our taste for taming and caressing young animals. Nay, it is not impolable that some races may possess it in a mere marked grief in ourselves because it is a childish taste with us and the motives of an adult barbarian are very similar to those of a civilised child. Improving this assertion I feel embarrassed with the multiplicity of my facts. I have only space to submit a few typical instances and must therefore beg it will be borne in mind that the following list could be largely reinforced yet even if I inserted all I have thus far been able to collect I believe insufficient justice would be done to the real truth of the case. Guactive animals do not commonly fall within the observation of travellers who mostly confine themselves to their own encampments and abstain from entering the dirty dwellings of their natives. Neither do the majority of travellers think tamed animals worthy of detailed mention. Consequently the anecdotes of their existence are scattered sparingly among a large number of volumes. It is when those travellers are questioned who have lived long enough and intermittently with savage tribes that the plentitude of available instances becomes most apparent. I proceed to give anecdotes of animals being tamed of various parts of the world that dates when they were severely beyond the reach of civilised influences and where therefore the pleasure taken by the natives in taming them must be ascribed to their unassisted mother-wit. It will be inferred that the same rude races who were observed to be capable of great fondness towards animals in particular instances would not unfrequently show it in others. North America. The traveller Hearn, who wrote towards the end of the last century relates to the following story of moose or elks in the more northern parts of North America. He says I have repeatedly seen moose at Churchill as tamed shape and even more so. The same Indian that brought them to the factory had in the year 1770 two others so tamed that when on his passage to Prince of Wales Fort in a canoe the moose always followed him along the bank of the river. At night or on any other occasion when the Indians landed the young moose generally came and fawned on them as the most domestic animal would have done and never offered to stray from the tents. So John Richardson in an obliging answer to my inquiries about the Indians in North America after mentioning the bison and carls, wolves and other animals that they frequently capture and keep said, It is not unusual I have heard for the Indians to bring up young bears, the women giving them milk from their own breasts. He mentions that he himself purchased a young bear and adds, Third faces are fond of pets and treat them kindly and in purchasing them there is always the unwillingness of the women and children to ever come rather than any dispute about price. My young bear used to rob the women of the berries they had gathered but the loss was born with good nature. I will again quote Hearn who is unsurpassed for his minute and accurate narratives of social sands among the Indians and Eskimos. In speaking of wolves he says they always burrow underground to bring forth their young and though it is natural suppose and very fierce at most times yet I have frequently seen the Indians go to their dens and take out the young ones and play with them. I never knew a northern Indian hurt one of them. On the contrary they always put them carefully into the den again and I sometimes seen them paint the face of the young wolves with vermilion or red ochre. South America. Uluha an ancient traveller says though the Indian women breed fowl and other domestic animals in their cottages they never eat them and even conceive such a fondness for them that they will not sell them, much less kill them with their own hands. So that if a stranger who is obliged to pass the night in one of their cottages will fowl their refused part with it and he finds himself under the necessity of killing the fowl himself. At this his landlady shrieks dissolves into tears and wrings her hands as if it had been her only son. Till seeing the mischief pass many she wipes her eyes and quietly takes what the traveller offers her. The care of the South American Indians as Kuyloa truly states is by no means confined to fowls. Mr Bates the distinguished traveller and naturalist of the Amazons has favoured me with a list of 22 species of quadrupeds that he has found tame in the encampments of the tribes of that burly. It includes the Tapir, the Agiltee, the Guinea pig and the Pecari. He has also noted five species of quadrupeds that were in captivity but not tamed. These include the Chaguay, the Great Antejo and the Armadillo. His list of tame birds is still more extensive. North Africa the Ancient Egyptians had a positive compassion for tamed animals such as antelopes, monkeys, crocodiles, panthers and hyenas. Mr Goodwin, the eminent Egyptologist, informed me that they anticipated their zoological taste completely and that some of the pictures referring to tamed animals are among their very earliest monuments. These 2,000 or 3,000 years BC. Mr Mansfield Parkayans, past many years in Abyssinia and the country of the Ubranile, watched me word and answer to my inquiries. I am sure that Negroes often capture and keep alive wild animals. I have bought them and received them as presents. Wild cats, jackals, panthers, the wild dog, the two best lions now in the zoological gardens, monkeys in Urul and of all sorts, and mongus. I cannot say that I distinctly recollect any pets among the lowest orders of men that I met with, such as the Denkers, but I am sure they exist in this way. When I was on the White Nile and a Khartoum, very few merchants went up the White Nile. None had stations. They were little known to the natives, and I returned without some live animal bird which they had procured from them. While I was at Khartoum, there came an Italian wild beast showman after the One World Style. He met a two of the towns up to Do and Fezogli, Khartofan and the peninsula, and collected a large number of animals. That's my opinion distinctly is that negroes do keep wild animals alive. I am sure of it, though I can only vaguely recollect them in one or two cases. I remember some chief in Abyssinia, but a pet lion, which he used to tease, and I've often seen monkeys about huts. Equatorial Africa The most remarkable instance I have met with in modern Africa is the account of a menagerie that existed up to the beginning of the reign of the present king of the Wahomans, on the shores of Lake Nayanzar, Sunnah. The great despot of that country reigned till 1857. Captains Burton and Spick were in the neighborhood in the following year, and Captain Burton thus describes Journal, RG, SOC, 29 282, though poor he received as soon as collection. He had a large menagerie of lions, elephants, leopards and similar beasts of despot. He also kept for amusement 15 and 16 albinos, and so greedy was he of novelty that even a cock of peculiar form of cover would have been ordered by its owner to feed his eyes. Captain Spick, in his subsequent journey to the Nile, passed many months at Uganda, as a guest of Sunnah's youthful successor Memtissi. The fame of the ordinary menagerie was fresh when Captain Spick was there. He wrote to me as follows concerning it. I was told Sunnah kept buffaloes, antelopes and animals of all colors, meaning sorts, and equal quantities. Memtissi, his son, no sooner came to the throne than he indulged in shooting them down before his admiring wives. Now he is only one buffalo and a few parrots left. In Kulka, near Lake Chad, antelopes and ostriches both kept tame, as I was informed by Dr. Baath. South Africa. The instances are very numerous in South Africa, where the boers and half-cars amuse themselves in rearing zebras, antelopes and the like, but have not found many instances among the native races. Those that are best known to us are mostly nomad and in a chronic state of hunger and therefore disinclined to nurture captured animals as pets. Nevertheless, some instances can be adduced, living stone of loose to an extreme fondness for small, tame, singing birds, Page 324 and 453. Doctor, now Sir John Kirk, who accompanied him in later years, mentions well, that do not breed in confinement and are merely kept as pets. In the Shire Valley, and Mr. Oswell has finished me with one similar anecdote. I feel whoever satisfied that abundant instances could be found if properly sought for. It was a frequency with which I recollect to have heard of tamed animals when I myself was in South Africa, though I never witnessed any instance. That first suggested to me the arguments of the present paper. Sir John Kirk informs me that, as you approach the host or Portuguese settlements, pets of all kinds become very common, but that the opportunity of occasionally selling them to advantage may help to increase the number. Still, the more settled life has much to do with it. In a confirmation of this view, I will quote an early writer. Biga Feta, Akeloot, Cole, William II, 562, on the South African Kingdom of Congo, who found a strange middle of animals in captivity, long before the demands of semi-civilization began to prompt their collection. The King of Congo, on being Christianized by their Jesuit missionaries in the 16th century, signified that whoever had any idols should deliver them to the lieutenants of the country. And within less than a month, all the idols which they worshiped were brought to the court, and certainly the number of these toys was infinite. For every man adored what he liked without any manners or reason at all. Some kept serpents of horrible figures, some worshiped the greatest goats they could forget, some lipids and other monstrous creatures, some held in veneration certain unclean fowls etc. Neither did they content themselves with worshiping the said creatures when alive, but also adored the various skins of them and they were dead and stuffed with straw. Australia, Mr Woodfield recalls the following touching anecdote in a paper communicated to the Ethnological Society that occurring in an unsettled part of West Australia, where the natives rank as the most race upon the earth. During the summer of 1858-9, the Mergeson River was visited by great numbers of kites, the native country of these birds in Sharks Bay. As other birds were scarce, we shot many of these kites, merely for their sake of practice. The natives eagerly devouring them as fast as they were killed. One day a man and woman, natives of Sharks Bay, came to the Mergeson, and the woman immediately recognized that birds were coming on their country, and assured us that the natives there never kill them, but that they are so tame that they will perch on the shoulders of the women and eat from their hands. On saying one shot, she wet bitterly. Not even the offer of the bird could assuage her grief, for she absolutely refused to eat it. No more kites were shot while she remained among us. The Australian women habitually feed the puppies they intend to rear from their own breasts and show an affection to them equal, if not exceeding that to their own pets. So Charles Nicholson informs me that he is known an extraordinary passion for cats to be demonstrated by Australian women at Fort Phillip. New Guinea Group, Captain DeVillon, is reported. Bennett, naturalist in Australia, page 244, say of the island of New Britain near Australia that the natives consider cassowaries to a certain degree sacred and rear them as pets. They carry them in their arms and attain a great affection for them. Buxley informs me that he is seen sucking pigs nursed at the breasts of women, apparently as pets, in islands off New Guinea Group. Polynesia, the savage and cannibal Fijians were no exceptions to the general rule, for Dr. Seaman wrote me a word that they make pets at the Flying Fox, that, the lizard, and the paraquette. Captain Wilkes in his exploring expedition, page 122, says a pigeon in the Sun Moon Islands is commonly kept as a plaything, and particularly by the chiefs, whenever officers unfortunately on one occasion shot a pigeon which caused great commotion, but the bird was a king pigeon, and to kill it was thought as greater crime as to take the life of a man. Mr. Ellis, writing of these islands, Polynesian researchers, page 11, page 285, says, Eels are great favourites and are tamed and fed till they attain an enormous size. Teowari, had several in different parts of the island, these pets were kept in large holes, two or three feet deep, partially filled with water. I have been several times with the young chief, when he has sat down by the side of the hole, and by giving them a shrill sort of whistle, as brought out an enormous ale which has moved about the surface of water, and eaten with confidence out of his master's hand. Syria I will conclude this branch of my argument by quoting the most ancient allusion to a pet that I can discover writing through some of the Egyptian pictured representations of considered older. He is a parable spoken by the prophet Samuel King David, that is expressed in the following words. The poor man had nothing safe one little euland, which he had brought and nourished up, and it grew up together with him, and with his children. He did eat off his own meat, and drank off his own cup, and lay in his bosom, and was to him as a daughter. We will now turn to the next stage of our argument. Not only do savages brew animals as pets, but communities maintain them as sacred. The ox of India, and the brute gods of Egypt occur to us at once. The same superstition prevails widely. The quotation already given from Pigefeta is in point. The fact is too well known to readers of travel to make it necessary to devout space to its proof. I will therefore simply give a graphic account written by M. Jules Jarad of Wida in West Africa. I visited the temple of serpents in this town, where 30 of these monstrous deities were asleep in various altitudes. Each day at sunset, a priest brings them a certain number of sheep, goats, vows, etc., which are slaughtered in the temple and then divided among the gods. Subsequently during their night the priests spread themselves about the town, entering the houses in various quarters in search of further offerings. It is forbidden under penalty of death to kill, wounded, or even strike one of these sacred serpents or any other of the same species, and only the priests possess the privilege of taking hold of them, for the purpose of reinstating them in the temple should they be found elsewhere. It would be tedious and unnecessary to reduce more instances of wild animals being nurtured in the encampment of savages, either as pets or as sacred animals. It will be found on enquiry that few travelers have failed altogether to observe them. If we consider the small number of the cabins, they severely visited in their line of march compared with the vast number that I spread over the whole area, which is always been inhabited by rude races. We may obtain some idea of the thousands of places at which half unconscious attempts at domestication are being made in each year. These thousands must themselves be multiplied many thousand fold. If we endeavour to calculate the number of similar attempts that have been made since men like ourselves began to inhabit the world, my argument strong as it is, emits of being considerably strengthened by the following consideration. The natural inclination of barbarians is often powerfully reinforced by enormous demand for captive live animals on the part of their more civilised neighbors. A desire to create vast hunting grounds and menageries and theatrical shows seems naturally to occur to the monarchs who reside over early civilisations, and travelers continually remark that whenever there is a mark of alive animals, savages will supply them in any quantities. The means they employ to catch game for their daily food really emits of their taking them alive. Pitfalls, steak nets and springs do not kill. If the savage captures an animal unhurt and it can make more by selling it alive than dead, it would doubtless do so. It is well fitted by education to keep a wild animal in captivity. His mode of pursuing game requires more intimate knowledge of the habits of beasts than is ever acquired by sportsmen who use perfect weapons. Savages oblige to steal upon his game and to watch like a jackal for the leavings of large beasts of prey. His own mode of life is akin to that of the creatures he hunts. Consequently, the savage is a good gamekeeper. Captured animals thrive in his charge and he finds it informative to take them a long way to market. The demands of ancient Rome appear to have penetrated northern Africa as far or farther than the steps of our modern explorers. The chief centres of import of wild animals were Egypt, Assyria and other eastern monarchies, Rome, Mexico and Peru. I have not yet been able to learn what were the habits of Hindustan or China. Modern menagerie of luck now is the only considerable native effort in those parts with which I am acquainted. Egypt. The mutilated statistical tablet of Karnak translated R. Soklit 1847 page 369 and 1863, page 65, refers to an armed invasion of our media by Thothner's Third and the payment of a large tribut of antelopes and birds. When Potomly, Philadelphius, fitted the Alexandrians Athenias, volume 5, the Ethiopians brought dogs, buffaloes, bears, lynxes, a giraffe and a rhinoceros. Doubtless this description of gifts was common. Live beasts are the one article of curiosity and amusement that barbarians can offer to civilised nations. Assyria Mr. Fox Talbot thus translates Journal Asiatic Society, volume 19, 124, part of the inscription on the black obelisk of Asharaq Baal found in Nirvana and now in the British Museum. He caught in Hammers Toils a blank number of Tishani, Turaki, Nali and Yadi. Every one of these animals he placed in separate enclosures. He brought up their young ones and encountered them as carefully as young lambs. As to the creatures called Burkish, Atrati, Drumandaris, Tishani and Dagari, he wrote for them and they came. The Drumandaris he kept in enclosures where he brought up their young ones. He entrusted each kind of animal to men of their own country to tend them. They were also curious animals of the Mediterranean Sea which the King of Egypt sent as a gift and entrusted the care of men of their own land. The very choicest animals were there in abundance and birds of heaven with beautiful wings. It was a splendid menagerie and all the work of his own hands. The names of the animals were placed beside them. Rome. The extravagant demands of the amphitheater of ancient Rome must have stimulated the capture of wild animals in Asia, Africa and then wild parts of Europe to an extraordinary extent. I will quote one instance from Given. By the order of probus a vast quantity of large trees torn up by the roots were transplanted into the midst of the circus. The spacious and shady forest was immediately filled with a thousand ostriches, a thousand stags, a thousand fellow deer and a thousand wild boars. In all this variety of game was advanced to the roots of impetuosity of the multitude. The tragedy of the succeeding day consisted in the massacre of a hundred lines and equal number of lionesses, two hundred leopards and three hundred bears. Further on we read of a spectacle by the younger guardian of twenty zebras ten elks, ten giraffes, thirty African hyenas, ten Indian tigers, anosaurus, a hippopotamus and thirty two elephants. Mexico. Gomara, the friend of the executor of Hermann Cortes states, there were here also many cages made of stout beams, in some of which were lions, pymas, tigers, jaguars and other ounces in other's wolves. Nor was there any animal in four legs that was not there. They had for their rations deer and other animals of the chase. There were also kept in large jars of tanks, snakes, alligators and lizards. In another court there were cages containing every kind of birds of prey, such as vultures, a dozen sorts of falcons and hawks, eagles and owls. The large eagles received turkeys for their food. Our Spaniards were astonished by seeing such a diversity of birds and beasts, nor did they find it pleasant to hear the hissing of the poisonous snakes. The roaring of the lions, the shul cries the walls while the groans of the other animals given to them for food. Peru. Garculaso de la Vega, commentarius, reels, volume ten, son of a Spanish conqueror by an Indian princess born in bread and Peru writes, while the strange birds and beasts which the chase presented to the Inca were kept at court, both for grandeur and also to please the Indians who presented them. When I came to Costco, I remembered there were some remains of places where they kept these creatures. One was the Serpa Conservatory, another where they kept the pumas, chakras and bears. Syria and Greece. I could have said something on Solomon's apes and peacocks and could have quoted length of menace in order given by Alexander the Great. Pliny, natural history, William 8, 16, towards supplying materials for Aristotle's studies in natural history, but enough has been said to prove what I maintain. Namely that numerous cases occur year after year and age after age which every animal will note is captured by its capabilities of domestication unconsciously tested. I would accept in a more strident sense that it was probably intended to bear the Texas and James who read at a time when a vast variety of multitude of animals were constantly being forwarded to Rome and to Antioch for amphitheatrical shows. He says, James 7, every kind of beast and of birds and of serpents and of things in the sea is tamed and has been tamed of mankind. I conclude from what I have stated that there is no animal worthy of domestication that is not frequently being captured, and might ages ago have established itself as a domestic breed and are not being deficient in certain necessary particulars which I shall proceed to discuss. It is numerous and so stringent as to leave no ground for wonder that out of the vast abundance of the animal creation only a few varieties or a few species should have become the companions of man. It by no means follows that because a savage cares to take home a young fawn to amuse himself, his family and his friends that he will always continue to feed or to look after it. Such attention would require a steadiness of purpose thrown to the ordinary character of a savage but herein lie two shrewd tests of the eventual destiny of the animal as a domestic species. Hardiness, it must be able to shift for itself and to thrive, although it is neglected since if it wanted much care it could never be worth its keep. The hardness of our domestic animals is shown by the rapidity with which they establish themselves in new lands. The goats and hogs left on the islands by the earlier navigators throw excellently on the whole. The horse has taken possession of the pamphlets and their sheep in Oxford Australia. The dog is hardly repressible in the streets of an oriental town. Fondness of man. Secondly it must cling to man, notwithstanding occasional hard usage and frequent neglect. If the animal had no natural attachment to our species it would fret self to death or escape and revert to wildness. It is easy to find cases where the partial or total non-fulfillment of this condition is a corresponding obstacle to domestication. Some kinds of cattle are too precious to be discarded but very troublesome to look after, such are the reindeer to the laps. Mr Campbell of Islay informed me that the tamest of certain herds of them look as if they were wild. They have to be caught with a soot to be milked. If they take fright they off to the hills. Consequently the laps are forced to accommodate themselves to the habit of their beasts and to follow them from snow to sea and from sea to snow at different seasons. The North American reindeer has never been domesticated owing I presume to this cause. The Peruvian herdsmen would have had great trouble to endure had the llama and alpaca not existed for their congeners, the hyuna, the huanoku and the fukunua are hardly to be domesticated. Zubras speaking broadly are unmanageable. The Dutch boers constantly endeavour to break them to harness and though they occasionally succeed to a degree, the wild, mulish nature of the animal is always breaking out and liable to bulk them. It is certain that some animals have naturally a greater fondness for men than others and as a proof of this I will gain a quote hern about the moose who are considered by him to be the easiest to tame and domesticate at any of the deer tribe. Formerly the closely allied European elks were domesticated in Sweden and used to draw slidges as they are now occasionally in Canada but they have been obsolete for many years. Hern says the young ones are so simple that I remember to have seen an Indian paddle his canoe up to one of them and take it by the pole without experiencing the least opposition the poor harmless animals seeming at the same time as contented alongside the canoe as if swimming by the side of its dam and looking up in our faces with the same feel as innocence that a house lamb would. On the other hand a young bison will try to dash out its brains against the tree to which it is tied in terror and hatred of its captors. It is interesting to note the causes that conduced to a decided attachment of certain animals to man or between one kind of animal and another is notorious that attachments and aversion exist in nature. Swallows, rooks and stalks, frequent dwelling houses, ostriches and zebras heard together so do bisons and elks. On the other hand deer and sheep which are both gregarious and both eat the same food and graze in the same enclosure avoid one another the spotted Danish dog, the spits dog and the cat all have a strong attachment to horses and horses seem pleased with their company but dogs and cats are proverbially discordant. I presume that two species of animals do not consider one other companionable or clubbable unless their behaviour and their persons are reciprocally agreeable. A phlegmatic animal would be exceedingly disquieted by the close companionship of an excitable one. The movements of one beast may have a character that is unpleasant to the eyes of another. His cries may sound discordant. His smell may be repulsive. Two herds of animals would hardly intermingle unless their respective languages of action and a voice were mutually intelligible. The animal of which above all others is a companion to man as a dog and we observe how readily their proceedings are intelligible to each other. Everyone on bark of the dog, each of his fawning, savage or timorous movements is the exact counterpart of what would have been the man's behaviour had he felt similar emotions. As man understands the thoughts of the dog so the dog understands the thoughts of the man by attending to his natural voice, his countenance and his actions. A man irritates a dog by an ordinary laugh. He fights him by an angry look before he calms him by a kindly bearing. But he is a spontaneous hold over an ox or a sheep. He must study their ways and tutor his behaviour before he can either understand the feelings of those animals or make his own intelligible to them. He has no natural power at all over many other creatures who for instance ever succeeded in frowning away a mosquito or in pacifying an angry wasp by a smile. Desire of comfort It is a motive which strongly attaches certain animals to human habitations even though they are unwelcome. It is a motive which few persons who have not had an opportunity of studying animals in savage lands are likely to estimate it at its true value. The life of all beasts in their wild state is an exceedingly anxious one. From my own recollection I believe that every antelope in South Africa has to run for its life every one or two days upon an average and that he starts or gallops under the influence of a false alarm many times in a day. Those who have crouched at night by the sight of pools in the desert in order to have a shot at the beasts that frequent them see strange scenes of animal life. How the creatures gamble at one moment and fight another. How a herd suddenly holds in strained attention and then breaks into a maddened rush. As one of them becomes conscious of the stealthy movements or rank sent of a beast to prey. Now the early life and death excitement is a keen delight to most wild creatures but must be peculiarly distracted to the comfort living temperament of others. The latter are alone suited to endure the cross habits and dull routine of domesticated life. Suppose that an animal which has been captured in half-tank received ill-usage from his captors, either his punishment or through mere brutality, and that he rushed indignantly into the forest with his ribs aching from blows and stones. If a comfort loving animal he will probably be no gainer by the change or his serious alarms and no less ill-usage awaits him. He used the roar of the wild beasts and the headlong gallop of the frightened herds, and he finds the buddings and kicks further animals harder to endure than the plurals from which he fled. He has the advantage of being a stranger for the herds of his own species, which he seeks for companionship, constitute so many cliques into which he can only fight a mission by more fright, by more fighting with their strongest men than he has the spirit to undergo. As a set-off against these miseries the freedom of a savage life has no charms for its temperament, so the end of it is that with a heavy heart he turns back to the habitation he had quitted. When animals thoroughly enjoyed the excitement of wild life, I presume they could not be domesticated. They could only be tamed for they would never return to the joys of the wilderness after they had once tasted them through some external wandering. Galenas, or guinea fowl, are so little care for comfort or indeed for man that they fall but a short way within the frontier of domestication. It is only in inclement seasons that they take contentedly to the poultry yards. Elephants, from their size and power, are not dependent on man for protection. Hence those that have been reared as pets from the time they were calves and have never learned to dread and obey the orders of a driver, are peculiarly apt to revert to wilderness if they once are allowed to wander and escape to the woods. I believe there's tenacity together with the cost of maintenance and the comparative uselessness of the beasts are among the chief causes why Africans never tamed them now, though they have not wholly lost the practice of catching them when full grown and of keeping them in prison some days alive. Mr. Wynwood reads a count of captured elephants seen by himself near Glastowne in Quatorial, Western Africa is very curious. Usefulness to man. To proceed with the list of requirements which a captured animal must satisfy before it is possible it could be permanently domesticated. There is very obvious condition that it should be useful to man. Otherwise in growing to maturity and losing the pleasing youthful ways which had first attracted his captors and caused them to make a pet of him, he would be repelled. As an instance in point I will mention seals. Any years ago I used to visit Shetland when those animals were still common and I heard many stories of there being tamed. One will suffice. A fisherman caught a young seal he was very affectionate and frequented his hut, fishing for itself in the sea, and lengthy grew self-wielded unwieldy. He used to push the children and snap at strangers and it was voted a nuisance, but the bearable could not bear to kill it on account of its human ways. One day the fisherman took it with him in his boat and dropped it in a stormy sea far from home. The stratagem was unsuccessful. In a day or two the well-known scuffling sound of the seal as it dropped to the hut was again heard. The animal had found its way home. Some days after the poor creature was shot by a sporting stranger who saw it basking and did not know it was tamed. Now had the seal been a useful animal and not troublesome, the fisherman would dabblers have caught others and set a watch over them to protect them and then hit their bread freely and were easy to tend. He is likely he would have produced a domestic breed. The utility of the animals as a store of future food is undoubtedly the most durable reason for maintaining them, but I think it was probably not so early emotive as the chief's pleasure in possessing them. There was a feeling under which the menageries described above were established. Whatever despot of savage tribes is pleased with becomes invested with a sort of sacredness. His tamed animals would be the care of all his people and would become skillful herdsmen under the pressure of fear. It would be much as their lives were worth if one of the creatures were injured through their neglect. I believe that the keeping of a herd of beasts with the sole motive of using them as a reserve for food, there was a means of barter. It's a late idea in the history of civilization. He has now become established among the pastoral races of South Africa, owing to the trafficking of the cattle traders, but it was by no means prevalent in Damara land when I travelled there in 1852. I then was surprised I observed the considerations that induced the chiefs to take pleasure in their vast herds of cattle. They were valued for their statelyness and colour, far more than for their beef. They were as the deer of an English squire or as a stud of a man who has many more horses than he can ride. An ox was almost a sacred beast in the Damara land, not to be killed except on momentous occasions, and then as a sort of sacrificial feast in which or the bystand shared. The payment of two oxen was hush money for the life of a man. I was considerably embarrassed by finding that I had the greatest trouble in buying oxen for my own use with the ordinary articles of barter. The possessor would hardly part with them for any enumeration. They would never sell their hands in as beasts. One of the ways in which the value of tame beasts would be soon appreciated would be that of giving milk to children. It is marvellous how soon goats find our children and tempt them to suckle. I have had the milk of my goats when in camping for the night in African travels, drain dry by small black men, who had not the strength to do more than crawl about but nevertheless came to some secret understanding with the goats and fed themselves. The records of many nations had legends like that of Romulus and Remus, who are stated to have been suckled by wild beasts. These are surprisingly confirmed by General Sleiman's narrative of six cases where children were noted for many years by wolves in Ode. Journey through Ode in 1849-50, Plain 1, page 206 Breeding freely. Domestic animals must breed freely under confinement. This necessity limits very narrowly the number of species which might otherwise have been domesticated. It is one of the most important of all the conditions that have to be satisfied. The North American turkey reared from the eggs of the wild bird, is stated to be unknown in the third generation in captivity. Our turkey comes from Mexico and was abundantly domesticated by the ancient Mexicans. The Indians of the Upper Amazon took total and placed them in lagoons for using seasons of scarcity. The Spaniards who first saw them called these total Indian cattle. They would certainly have become domesticated like cattle if they had been able to breed in captivity. Easy to tend. They must be tended easily. When animals reared in the house or suffered to run about in the companionship of others like themselves, they naturally revert to much of their original wildness. It is therefore essential to medication that they should possess some quality by which large numbers of them may be controlled by a few herdsmen. The instinct of gregariousness is such a quality. The herdsmen of a vast troop of oxen grazing in a forest, so long as he is able to see one of them, knows pretty surely that they are all within reach. If oxen are frightened and gallop off, they do not scatter, but remain in a single body. When animals are not gregarious, they are to the herdsmen like cattle in necklace of beads whose string is broken, or as a handful of water escaping between the fingers. The cat is the only non-gregarious domestic animal. It is retained by his extraordinary adhesion to the comforts of the house in which it is reared. An animal may be perfectly fitted to be a domestic animal and be peculiarly easy to tend in a general way, and yet the circumstances in which the savages are living may make it too troublesome for them to maintain a breed. The following account taken from Mr. Scott Nin's paper on the natives of King George's Sound in Australia and printed in the first volume of the Journal of Geographical Society is particularly to the point. He says In the case of the hunters are assisted by dogs which they take when young and domesticate, but they take little pains to train them to any particular mode of hunting. After finding a litter of young, the natives generally carry away one or two to rear. In this case it often occurs that the mother will trace and attack them, and being large and very strong she is rather formidable. At some periods food is so scanty as to compel the dog to leave his master and provide for himself when a few days he generally returns. I have also evidence that this customer's comment to the wild natives of other parts of Australia. The gregariousness of all our domestic species is, I think, the primary reason why some of them are extinct in a wild state. The wild herds would intermingle with the tame ones. Some would become absorbed and others would be killed by hunters who used the tame cattle as their shelter to approach the wild. Besides this, comfort loving animals would be less suited to fight the battle of life with the risk of the brutal creation, and that is therefore to be expected that those varieties which are best fitted for domestication would be as soon as extinguished in a wild state. For instance, we could highly fancy the camel to endure in a land where there were large wild beasts. Selection. The irreclaimably wild members of every flock would escape and be utterly lost. The wilder of those that remained would assuredly be selected for slaughter. Whenever it was necessary that one of the flock should be killed. The tame as cattle, those that seldom ran away, that kept the flock together and led them home once would be preserved alive longer than any of the others, as therefore these would become the parent's stock and be quith of domestic aptitudes to the future herd. I have constantly witnessed this process of selection among the pastoral savages of South Africa. I believe it to be a very important one on account of its rigor and its regularity. It must have existed from the earliest times, and have been a continuous operation, generation after generation down to the present day. Exceptions. I have already mentioned the African elephant, the North American reindeer, and the parent, but not real exception of the North American turkey. I should add the ducks and geese in North America, but I cannot consider them in the light a very strong case, for a savage who constantly changes his home is not likely to carry aquatic birds along with him. Beyond these few, I know of no notable exceptions to my theory. Summary. I see no reason to suppose that the first domestication of any animal, except the elephant, implies the highest civilization among the people who established it. I cannot believe it to have been the result of a preconceived intention followed by elaborate trials to administer it to the comfort of man. Neither can I think it arose from one successful event made by an individual who might thereby justly claim the title of benefactor to his race. But on the contrary, that a vast number of half unconscious attempts have been made throughout the course of ages that are ultimately by slow degrees after many relapses and continued selection, and on several domestic breeds become firmly established. I will briefly rinse state what appears to be the conditions under which wild animals may become domesticated. One, they should be hardy. Two, they should have an inboard liking for man. Three, they should be comfort loving. Four, they should be found useful to the savages. Five, they should breed freely. Six, they should be easy to tend. It would appear that every wild animal has had its chance of being domesticated, and those few would fulfill the above conditions were domesticated long ago, but that the large remainder who fail sometimes in only a small particular are destined to perpetual wildness so long as their race continues. As civilization extends, they are doomed to be gradually destroyed off the face of the earth as useless consumers of cultivated produce. A further slight differences in natural dispositions of human races and in one case lead irresistibly to some particular career. And in another case, they make their career an impossibility. End of Section 9, Section 10 of enquiries into human faculty and its developments by Francis Galton. This is the LibriVox recording. All the LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org recorded by Leon Harvey. Chapter 31 The Observed Order of Events There is nothing as yet observed in the order of events to make us doubt that the universe is bound together in space and time as a single entity. And there is a concurrence of many observed facts to induce us to accept that view. We may therefore not unreasonably profess faith in a common and mysterious whole and of the laborious advance under many restrictions of that infinitely small part of it which falls under our observation, but which is in itself enormously large, and behind which lies the awful mystery of the origins of all existence. The conditions that direct the order of the whole of the living world around us are marked by their persistence in improving the birthright of successive generations. They determine a much cost of individual comfort that each plant or animal shall, on the general average, be endowed at its birth with more suitable natural faculties than those of its representative in the preceding generation. They ensure in short that the inborn qualities of the terrestrial ten-entry shall become steadily better adapted to their homes and to their mutual needs. This effect, being understood, is not only favorable to the animals who live long enough to become parents, but is also favorable to those who perish in earlier life, because even they are on the whole better off doing their brief career than if they've been born still less adapted to the conditions of their existence. With someone before our imagination in a single mighty host, a whole number of living things from the earliest date at which terrestrial life can be deemed to have probably existed to the latest future of which we may think it can probably continue. And if we cease to dwell on the miscarriages of individual lives or of single generations, we shall plainly perceive that the actual ten-entry of the world progresses in a direction that may in some sense be described as the greatest happiness of the greatest number. We also remark that while the motives by which individuals in their lowest stages are influenced are purely self-regarding, they broaden as evolution goes on. The word self is to be wholly personal, and begins to include subjects of affection and interest. And these become increasingly numerous as intelligence and depth of character developed, and as civilization extends. The sacrifice the person desire for repose to the performance of domestic and social duties is an everyday event with us, and other sacrifices of the smaller to the largest self are by no means uncommon. Life in general may be looked upon as a republic where the individuals are for the most part unconscious that while they are working for themselves, they are also working for the public good. We may freely confess ignorance of the outcome in the far future of that personal life which we each cling passionately in the joyous mourning of our affections, by which as there is no other interest fail does not seem so amily desirable in itself. We know that organic life can highly be expected to flourish from this earth of ours for so long a time as it has already existed, because the sun will, in all probability, have lost too much of its heat and light by then, and will have become to grow dark and therefore cold, as other stars have done. The conditions of existence here, which now apparently in their prime, will have become rigorous and increasingly so, and there will be retroaggression towards lower types until the simplest form of life shall have wholly disappeared from the ice bound surface. The whole living world will then have waxed and waned like an individual life. What we can discover with our organisms here are capable of attaining the average development of organisms in other of the planets that are probably circling around most of the myriads of stars, whose physical constitution, wherever it has yet been observed spectroscopically, does not differ much from that of our sun. But we perceive around us a countless number of abortive seeds and germs. We find out of any other group of a thousand men selected at random, some who are crippled, insane, idiotic, born incorrectly imperfect in body or mind. And it is possible that this world may rank among other worlds as one of these. We are as yet understand nothing of the way in which our conscious selves are related to the separate lives of the billions of cells of which the body of each of us is composed. We only know that the cells form a vast nation, some members of which are always dying and others growing to supply their places, and that the continual sequence of these multitudes of little lives has its outcome in the lighter and conscious life of the man as a whole. Our part of the universe may possibly, in some distant way, be an angelus to that of the cells in an organized body, and our personalities may be the transient but essential elements of an immortal and cosmic mind. Our views on the object of life have to be framed so as not to be inconsistent with the observed facts on which these various possibilities are conferred. It is safer that they should not exclude the possibilities themselves. We must look on the slow progress of the order of evolution and the system of routine by which it has thus far advanced as due to antecedents and to inherent conditions of which we have not as yet the slightest conception. It is difficult to withstand as a suspicion that the three dimensions of space and the fourth dimension of time may be four independent variables of a system that is near the space nor time but something that is wholly unconceived by us. Our present enigma as to how our first cause could itself have been brought into existence are the tortoise of the fable that bears the elephant that bears the world is itself supported may be wholly due to our necessary mistranslation of the four or more variables of the universe limited by inherent conditions into the three unlimited variables of space and one of time. Our ignorance of the goal and purpose of human life and the mistrust we have to feel of the guidance of the spiritual sense on account of its pro-routiness to accept illusions as realities want us against deductive theories of conduct. Putting these then at least for the moment on to one side we find ourselves face to face with two great indisputable facts that everywhere force themselves on the attention and compel consideration. The one is that the whole of the living world moves steadily and continuously towards the evolution of races that are progressively more and more adapted to their complicated mutual needs and to their external circumstances. The other is that the process of evolution has been hit the road apparently carried out with what we should reckon in our ways of carrying our projects great waste of opportunity and of life and little if any consideration for individual mischance measured by our criterion of intelligence and mercy which consists in the achievement of results with our waste of time or opportunity where unnecessary pain and with the equitable results of pure mistake. The process of evolution on this earth so far as we can judge has been carried out neither with intelligence nor with entirely with the routine of various sequences common called laws established or necessitated we know not how. An incalculable amount of lower life has been certainly passed through before that human organization was attained of which we in our generation are for the time the holders and transmitters. This is no main heritage and I think it should be considered as a sacred trust for to gather with man intelligence of a sufficiently higher order to produce great results appears as far as we can infer from the varied records of the prehistoric past to have first dawned upon the tenetry of the earth. Man has already shown his large power in the modifications he has made on the surface of the globe and the distribution of plants and animals. He has cleared such vast regions of forest that his work that way does not look like the earth America alone during the past half century would be visible to an observer as far off as the moon. He is dug and drained. He has exterminated plants and animals that were mischievous to him. He has domesticated those that serve his purpose and transplanted them to great distances from their native places. Now that this new animal man finds himself somehow in existence endowed with little power and intelligence he ought I submit to position and begin to assume a deliberate part in furthering the great work of evolution. He may infer the course it is bound to pursue from his observation of that which it has already followed and he might devote his modicum of power, intelligence, and kindly feeling to render its future progress less slow and painful. Man has already furthered evolution very considerably, half unconsciously and for his own personal advantages but he has not yet risen to the conviction it is his religious duty to do so deliberately and systematically. Chapter 32 Selection of Race The fact of an individual being naturally gifted with high qualities may be due either to his being an exceptionally good specimen of a poor race or an average specimen of a high one. The difference of origin will betray itself in his descendants. They will revert towards the typical centre of their race, deteriorating in the first case and often the second. The two cases, though theoretically distinct, are confused in reality, owing to the frequency with which exceptional personal qualities can note the departure of the entire nature of the individual from his ancestral type and the formation of a new strain having its own typical centre. It is hardly necessary to add that it is in this indirect way that natural selection improves a race. The two events of selection and difference of race ought however to be carefully distinguished in broad practical considerations while the frequency of their concurrence is borne in mind and allowed for. So long as a race remains radically the same, the stringent selection of the best specimens to rear and breed from can never lead to any permanent result. The attempt to raise a standard of such a race is like the labour of Sisyphus enrolling his stone uphill, let the effort be relaxed for a moment and the stone will roll back. Whenever a new typical centre appears it is as though there were a first set upon the lower surface of the stone on which it is capable of resting without rolling back. It affords a temporary sticking point in the forward progress of evolution. The causes that check the unlimited improvement of highly bred animals so long as a race remains unchanged are many an absolute. In the first place there is an increasing delicacy of constitution, the growing fineness of limb and structure end after a few generations in fragility. Overbred animals have little stamina, they resemble in this respect the weedy, cold, soft and rude from first class racers. One can perhaps see and turn away why this should be so. Each individual is the outcome of a vast number of organic elements of the most various species, just as some nation might be the outcome of a vast number of casts of individuals. Each cast monopolising a special pursuit. Then there is a number of the membler casts, the bakers, the bricklayers and the smiths and the nation would soon come to grief. This is what is done in high breeding certain qualities are bred for and the rest are diminished as far as possible where they cannot be dispensed with entirely. The next difficulty lies in the diminished fertility of highly bred animals. It is not improbable that its cause is of the same character as that of the delicacy of their constitution. Together with infatilities combined some degree of sexual difference or when passion is shown is not unfrequently of some specimen of a course of type. This is certainly the case with horses and dogs. It will be easily understood that these difficulties which are so formidable in the case of plants and animals, which we can mate as we please and destroy when we please would make the maintenance of a highly selected breed of men an impossibility. Whenever a low race is preserved under conditions of life that exact a high level of efficiency it must be subjected to rigorous selection. The few best specimens of that race can alone be allowed to become parents and not many of their descendants can be allowed to live. On the other hand if a higher race is substituted for the low one all this terrible misery disappears. The most merciful form of what I venture to call eugenics would consist in watching for the indications of superior strains in races and in so favoring them that their progeny shall at number and gradually replace that of the old one. Such strains are of no infrequent occurrence. It is easy to specify families who are characterized by strong resemblances and these features and character are usually repotent over those of their wives or husbands in their joint offspring and who are at the same time as prolific as the average of their class. These strains can be conveniently studied in the families of exiles which for obvious reasons are easy to trace in their various branches. The depth that most countries owe to the race of men whom they received from one another as immigrants whether leaving their native country of their own free will or as exiles on political or religious grounds have been often pointed out and may I think be a counter for as follows. The fact of a man leaving his compatriots or so irritating them that they compelled him to go is fair evidence that either he or they or both feel that his character is connected to theirs. Exiles are also in the whole men of considerable force of character that quite may would endure and succumb. He would not have energy to transplant himself or to become so conspicuous as to be an object of general attack. We may justly infer from this that exiles are on the whole men of exceptional and energetic natures as especially from such men as these and new strains of race are likely to proceed. Chapter 33 Influence of Man Upon Race The influence of man upon the nature of his own race has already been very large but has not been intelligently directed and has in many instances done great harm. Its action has been by invasions and migration of races, by war and massacre, by wholesale deportation of population, by emigration and by many social customs which have a silent by widespread effect. There exists a sentiment for the most part quite unreasonable against the gradual extinction of an inferior race. It rests on some confusion between the race and the individual, and that the destruction of a race was equivalent to the destruction of a large number of men. It is nothing of the kind when the process of extinction works silently and slowly through the earlier marriage of members of the superior race, through their greater vitality, under equal stress, through their better chances of getting a livelihood, or through their pre-potency in mixed marriages. That the members of an inferior class should dislike being an elbow out of the way is another matter. But it may be somewhat brutally argued that whenever two individuals struggle for a single place, one must yield, and that there will be no more one happiness on the whole. If the inferior yield to the superior, then conversely, whereas the world will be permanently enriched by the success of the superior, the conditions of happiness are however too complex to be disposed of by a priority argument. It is safest to appeal to observation that there could be easily shown that when the differences between the races is not so great as to divide them into obviously different classes, and where their language, education, and general interests are the same, the substitution may take place gradually without any unhappiness. Thus the movements of commerce have introduced fresh and vigorous blood into various parts of England. The newcomers have intermarried with residents, and their characteristics have been repotent in the descendants of the mixed marriages. I referred in the earlier part of the book to the changes of type in the English nature that have occurred during the last few hundred years. These have been affected so silently that we only know them by their results. One of the most misleading of words is that of the Abujanis. Its use dates from the time when the cosmogeny was thought to be young and life to be a very recent appearance. Its usual meaning seems to be derived from the supposition that nations disseminated themselves like immigrants from a common centre about 4,000 years, say 120 generations ago, and henceforward occupied their lands undisturbed until the very recent historic period with which the narrated deals when some innovating hosts drove out the Abujanis. This idyllic view of the march of events is contradicted by ancient suppolitical remains, by language, and by the habits of those modern barbarians whose history we know. The absence of a criterion to distinguish between races and some races, and our ethnological ignorance generally, makes it impossible to offer more than a very offhand estimate of the average variety of races in the different countries of the world. I have, however, endeavoured to form one of the most popular races in the world. The absence of a criterion to distinguish between races and some races, and our ethnological ignorance generally, makes it impossible to offer enough, however, endeavoured to form one, which I give with much hesitation, knowing how very little it is worth. I registered the usually recognised races inhabiting each of the upwards of 20 countries, and at the same time formed at least half percent of the population. It was, I am perfectly aware, a very rough proceeding, so rough that the United Kingdom I ignored the prehistoric types and accepted only the three headings of British, low Dutch, and Norman French. Again, as regards India, I registered as follows forest tribes, numerous, Dravidian, three principal divisions, early Aryan, Tartara, numerous including Afghans, Arab, and lastly, European, non-account to their political importance, notwithstanding the fewness of their numbers. Proceeding in this offhand way, and after considering the results, the broad conclusion to which I write was that on the average, at least three different countries would be found in only moderately sized districts on the Earth's surface. The materials were far too scant to enable any idea to be formed of the rate of change in the relative numbers of the constituent races in each country, and still lists to estimate the circular changes of types in those races. It may be well to take one or two examples of it in mixture. Spain was occupied in obvious historic times by at least two races, of whom we know very little. It was afterwards colonised here and there by fornicans in its southern ports, and by Greeks in its eastern. In the 3rd century BC it was invaded by the Carthaginians who conquered and held a large part of it, but were afterwards supplanted by the Romans, who ruled it more or less completely for 700 years. It was invaded in the 5th century AD by a succession of German tribes, and was finally completely overrun by the Visikoths who ruled it for more than 200 years. Then came the invasion of the Moors who rapidly conquered the whole of the peninsula up to the mountains of Asturias where the Goths still held their own, and when they issued from time to time they ultimately recovered the country. The present population consists of the remnants of one or more tribes of ancient herbarians, of the still more ancient Basques, and of relics of all the invaders who have just been named. It is besides a notable proportion of Gypsies and not a few Jews. This is obviously a most heterogeneous mixture, but to fully appreciate the diversity of its origin, the several elements should be traced further back towards their sources. Thus the Moors are principally descendants of Arabs who flooded the northern provinces of Africa in successive waves of emigration eastwards, both before and after the Higirah, partially combining with the Berbers as they went and partially displacing them from the little districts and driving them to the oasis of the Sohara, whence they in their turn displaced the Negro population whom they drove down to the Sudan. The Gypsies, according to Sir Henry Rawlinson, came from the Indo-Skathic tribes who inhabited the mouths of the Indus and began to migrate northward, on the 4th century onward. They settled in the Kaldi and Marshals, assumed to dependence and defied the caliph. In AD 831, the grandson of Harun Al-Rashid sent a large expedition against them, which, after slaughtering 10,000, deported the whole of the main of First Baghdad and that's onwards to Persia. They continued unmanageable in their new home and were finally transplanted to the Silesian frontier in Asia Minor and established there as a military colony to guard the passes of the Taurus. In AD 962, the Greeks, having obtained some temporary successes, drove the Gypsies back more into the interior. Once they gradually moved towards a helispont under the pressure of the advancing Siljukians during the 12th and 13th centuries, they then crossed over to Europe and gradually overspread it, whence they are now estimated to number more than 3 millions. It must not be supposed that emigration allowed scale implies even a moderate degree of civilisation among those who emigrate, because the process has been frequently traced among the more barbarous tribes, to say nothing of the evidence largely derived from ancient burial places. My own impression of the races in South Africa was one of a continual state of firmament and change of the rapid development of some clan here and of the complete or almost complete suppression of another clan there. The well known history of the rise of the Zulus and the destruction of their neighbours is a case in point. In the country with which I myself was familiar, the changes have been numerous and rapid in the preceding few years and there were undoubted signs of much more important substitutions of race and bygone times. The facts were briefly these. The land was inhabited by pastoral tribes of the Brown Bantu race who were in continual war with various whole-term nations of fortune and the several tribes had special characteristics that were readily appreciated by themselves. On the tops of the ascribed hills lived a fugitive black people speaking a vile dialect of Hottendot and families of yellow bushmen found in the lowlands wherever the country was unsuited for the pastoral demurrers. Lastly, the steadily encroaching Namakwa's superior Hottendot race lived on the edge of the district. They had very much more civilisation than the bushmen and more than the demurrers and they contained a large infusion of Dutch blood. The interpretation of all this was obviously that land had been tenanted a long time ago by Negroes that an evasion of bushmen drove the Negroes to the hills and that the supremacy of these lasted so long that the Negroes lost their own language and acquired it out of the bushmen. Then an evasion of the tribe of Bantu races had planted the bushmen and the Bantu's after endless struggles amongst themselves were being pushed aside at the time I visited them by the incoming Namakwa's who themselves are a mixed race. This is merely a sample of Africa. Everywhere there are evidences of changing races. The last 300 or 400 years, say the last 10 generations of mankind have witnessed changes of population on the largest scale by the extension of races long resident in Europe to the temperate regions of Asia, Africa, America and Australasia. Siberia was barely known to the Russians of nine generations ago but since that time it has been continuously overspread by their colonists, soldiers, political exiles and transported criminals. Already some two thirds of the population are slaves. In South Africa the settlement of the Cape of Good Hope is barely six generations old. During that time a curious and continuous series of changes has taken place resulting in the substitution of an alien population for the Hotentots in the south and the Bantu's in the north. One third of it is white consisting of Dutch, English, descendants of French Huguenot refugees, some Germans and Portuguese and the remainder is a strange medley of Hotentot, Bantu, Malay and Negro elements. In North Africa Egypt has become infiltrated with Greeks, Italians, Frenchmen and Englishmen during the last two generations and Algeria with Frenchmen. In North America the change has been most striking from a sparse Indian population of hunters into that of the present inhabitants of the United States and Canada. The former of these with its total of 50 millions inhabitants already contains more than 43 millions of whites. Chiefly of English origin that is more of European blood than is to be found in any one of the five great European kingdoms over England, France, Italy, Germany and Austria and less than that of Russia alone. The remainder are chiefly black, the descendants of slaves imported from Africa in the dominion of Canada with its much smaller population of 4 millions there has been a less but still complete swamping of the previous Indian element by incoming whites. In South America and then upwards to Mexico inclusive the population has been infiltrated in some parts and transformed in others by Spanish blood and by that of the Negroes whom they introduced so that not one half of its population can be reckoned as a pure Indian descent. The West Indian islands have heard their population absolutely swept away since the time of the Spanish conquest except in a few rare instances and African Negroes having substituted them. Australia and New Zealand tell much the same tale as Canada. A native population has been almost extinguished in the former and is swamped in the latter. Out of the pressure of an immigrant population of Europeans which is now 12 times as numerous as the Mauris, the time during which this great change has been effected is less than that covered by three generations. To this brief sketch of changes of population in very recent periods I might add the wave of Arab admixture that is extended from Egypt and the northward provinces of Africa into the Sudan and that of the Yellow Rises of China who have already made their industrial and social influence felt in many distant regions and who bid fair hereafter when certain their particularly religious fancies shall have fallen to decay to become one of the most effective of the colonising nations and who may, so trust, extrude hereafter the coarse and lazy Negro from at least the metalliferous regions of tropical Africa. It is clear for what has been said that men of former generations have exercised enormous influence over the human stock of the present day and that the average humanity of the world now and in future years is and will be very different to what it would have been if the action of our forefathers had been different. The parent and man of varying the future of human stock vests a great responsibility in the hands of each fresh generation which has not yet been recognised at its just importance nor deliberately employed. It is foolish to fold the hands and to say that nothing can be done in as much as social forces and self-interest are too strong to be resisted. They need not be resisted. They can be guided. It is one thing to check the course of a huge steamed vessel by this shock of a sudden encounter when she is going at full speed in the wrong direction and another to cause her to change her course slowly and gently by a slight turn of the helm. Now a ship may be made to describe a half-circle and to end by following a course exactly opposite to the first without attracting the notice of the passengers. Chapter 34 Population Overpopulation and its intended miseries may not improbably become a more serious subject of consideration that it ever yet has been owing to improved sanitation and consequent diminution of the mortality of children and to the filling up the spare places of the earth which are still void and able to receive the overflow of Europe. There are no doubt conflicting possibilities which I need not stop to discuss. The check to overpopulation mainly advocated by Malthus is a prudential delay in the time of marriage but the practice of such a doctrine would surely be limited and if limited it would be most prejudicial to the race as I pointed out in her mandatory genius but may be permitted to do so again. The doctrine would only be followed by the prudence and self-denying. It would be neglected by the impulsive and self-seeking. Those whose race we especially want to have and leave fuel descendants while those whose race we especially want to be quit of would crowd the vacant space with their progeny and the strain of population would fence forward be just as pressing as before. There would have been a little relief during one or two generations but no permanent increase of the general happiness while the race of the nation would have deteriorated. The practical application of the doctrine of deferred marriage would therefore lead indirectly to most mischievous results that were overlooked owing to the neglect of considerations bearing on race. While criticizing the main conclusion to which Malthus came I must take the opportunity of paying my humble tribute or admiration to his great and original work which seems to me like the rise of a morning star before a day of free social investigation. There is nothing whatever in his book that would be in the least offensive to this generation but he wrote in advance of his time and consequently aroused a valiant attacks notably from his fellow clergymen whose doctrinaire notions upon the paternal dispensation of the world were rudely shocked. The misery check as Malthus called all those influences that are not prudential is an ugly phrase not fully justified in no doubt includes death through inadequate food and shelter through pestilence from overcrowding through war and the like but it also includes many causes that do not deserve so hard a name. Population decay is under conditions that cannot be charged through the presence or absence of misery in the common sense the word. There exists when native races appear before the presence of the incoming white man when after making the fullest allowances for imported disease for brandy drinking and other assignable causes there is always a large of effect not clearly accounted for. It is certainly not wholly due to misery but rather to listlessness due to discouragement and acting adversely in many ways. One notable result of dullness and apathy is to make a person unattractive to the opposite sex and be unattracted by them. It is antagonistic to sexual affection and the result is a diminution of offspring. There exists strong evidence that the decay of population in some parts of South America under the oaks and tyranny of the Jesuits which crushed what little adversity the people possessed was due to this very cause. One cannot fairly apply the term misery to apathy. I should rather say that strong affections restrained from marriage by prudential considerations more truly deserved that name. Chapter 35 Early and Late Marriages It is important to obtain a just idea of the relative effects of early and late marriages. I attempted this in hereditary genius but I think the following is a better estimate. We are unhappily still deficient in collected data as regards the fertility of the upper and middle classes at different ages but the facts collected by Dr. Matthew Duncan as regards to lower orders will serve purpose approximately by finishing the required ratios though not the absolute values. The following are his results from returns kept at the line in hospital of St. George in the Near East. A table is displayed on the page with two columns, the age of mother at her marriage and average fertility. The meaning of this table will be more clearly grasped after a little modification of its contents. We may consider the fertility of each group to refer to the medium age of that group as by writing 17 instead of 15 to 19 and we may slightly smooth the figures but then we have another table displayed on the page with two columns, age of mother at marriage and approximate average fertility which shows that the relative fertility of mothers married at the ages of 17, 22, 27 and 32 respectively his has 6, 5, 4 and 3 approximately. The increase in population by a habit of early marriages further augmented by the greater rapidity with which the generations follow each other. By the joint effect of these two causes the large effect is in time produced. Let us compute a single example taking a group of 100 mothers married at the age of 20 whom we will designate as A and another group of 100 mothers married at the age of 29 whom we will call B. We shall find by interpolation that the fertility of A and B respectively would be about 8.2 and 5.4. We need not however regard their absolute fertility but would differ in different classes of society but will only consider the relative production of such female children as may live and become mothers and we will suppose a number of such descendants in the first generation to be the same as that of A and B mothers together namely 200 then a number of such children in the A and B classes respectively being in the proportion of 8.2 to 5.4 will be 115 and 85. We have next to determine the average lengths of the A and B generations which may be roughly done by basing it on the usual estimate of an average generation irrespectively of sex at a third of a century or say of an average female generation at 31.5 years. We will further take 20 years as being 45 years earlier than the average time of marriage and 29 years as 4.5 years later than it so the length of each generation of the A group will be 27 years and that of the B group will be 36 years. All these suppositions appear to be perfectly fair and reasonable while it may easily be shown that any other suppositions within the bounds of probability will lead to results of the same general order. The least common multiple of 27 and 36 is 108 at the end of which term of years A will have been multiplied 4 times over by the factor and B 3 times over by the factor 0.85. The results are given in the following table. A table is displayed in the page of three columns descending which include after number of users below and two columns split between the number of female descendants who themselves become mothers with columns A and B. The general result is that the group B gradually disappears and the group A more than supplanted. Hence the race's best fitted to occupy the land are encouraged to marry early. They will breed down the others in a very few generations. Marks for Family Merit It may seem very reasonable to ask how the results proposed in the last paragraph is to be attained and to add that the difficulty of carrying so lordable a proposal into effect lies wholly in the details and therefore that until some working plan is suggested the consideration of improving the human race is utopian. But this requirement is not altogether fair because if a persuasion of the importance of any end takes possession of men's minds sooner or later means are found by which that end is carried into effect. Some of the objections offered at first will be discovered to be sentimental and have no real importance. The sentiment will change and they will disappear. Others that are genuine are not met but are in some way turned or eluded. And lastly through the maturity of many minds directed for a long time towards the achievement of a common purpose many happy ideas are sure to be hit upon that would not have occurred to a single individual. This being premised it will suffice to frankly sketch out some sort of basis for eugenics. It being now an understanding that we are provisionally agreed for the sake of argument that the improvement of race is an object of first class importance and that the popular feeling has been dedicated to regard it in that light. The final object would be to devise means for favouring individuals who bore the signs of membership of a superior race. The proximate aim would be to ascertain what those signs were and these we will consider first. The indications of superior breed are partially personal, partially ancestral. We need not trouble ourselves about the present part because full weight is already given to it in their competitive careers, energy, brain, morale and not being recognised factors of success. While there can hardly be a better evidence of a person being adapted to his circumstances than that afforded by success. It is the ancestral part that is neglected and which we have yet to recognise at its just value. A question that now continually arises is this a youth is accounted for permanent employment. His present personal qualifications are known but how will he turn out in later years? The objections to competitive examinations are notorious and they give undue prominence to youths whose receptive faculties are quick and whose intellects are precocious. They give no indication of the directions in which the health character and intellect of the youth will change through the development in their due course of ancestral tendencies that are latent in youth but will manifest themselves in after life. Examinations deal with the present, not with the future, although it is in the future of the youth that we are especially interested. Much of the needed guidance may be derived from his family history. I cannot doubt the two use were of equal personal merit, of whom one belonged to a thriving and long-lived family and the other to a decaying and short-lived family, that there could be any hesitation in saying that the chances were greater are the first mentioned youth becoming the more valuable public servant of the two. A thriving family may be sufficiently defied or inferred by the successive occupation of its several male members in the previous generation and of the two grandfathers. These are painted facts attained by almost every youth which may have been verified in his neighborhood and tested in a satisfactory manner. A healthy and long-lived family may be defined by the patent facts of ages at death and number and ages of living relatives within the degrees mentioned above, all of which can be verified and attested. A knowledge of the excellence of longevity in the family would testify to the stamina of the candidate and be an important addition to the knowledge of his present health in forecasting the probability of his performing a large measure of experienced work. Owing to the absence of data and a want of inquiry of the family antecedents, those who fail and of those who succeed in life, we are much more ignorant than we ought to be of their relative importance. In connection with this, I may mention some curious results published by Mr. F. M. Holland of Boston U.S. as the antecedent family history of persons who were reputed to be more moral than the average and of those who were the reverse. It has been good enough to reply to questions that I have sent to him concerning the criterion of mortality and other points connected with the statistics in a way that seems satisfactory, and he is very obligingly furnished me with additional MS materials. One of his conclusions was that morality is more often found among members of large families and among those of small ones. It is reasonable to expect this would be the case owing to the internal discipline among members of large families and to the wholesome, sustaining and restraining effects of family pride and family criticism. Members of small families are up to be selfish, and when the smallness of the family is due to the deaths of many of its members at early ages, it is some evidence either a weakness of the family constitution or a deficiency of common sense or of affection on the part of the parents in not taking better care of them. Mr. Holland quotes in his letter to me a piece of advice from Franklin, the young man in search of a wife, to take one out of a bunch of sisters and a popular saying that kittens brought up with others make the best pets because they have learned to play without scratching. So William Gull has remarked that those candidates for the Indian Civil Service, who are members of large families, are on the whole the strongest. Fire be it from me to say that any scheme of marks for family merit would not require a great deal of preparatory consideration. Careful statistical inquiries have yet to be made into the family intestines of public servants of mature age in connection with their place in examination lists at the earlier age when they first gained their appointments. This would be necessary in order to learn the amount of marks which should be assigned to various degrees of family merit. I have assumed no peculiar difficulty in conducting such an inquiry, indeed now that competitive examinations have been in general use for many years, the time seems right for it. But of course, its contact would require much confidential inquiry and a great deal of trouble in verifying returns. Still, it admits to being done and that the results derived from different sources confirm one another they could be depended on. Let us now suppose that a way was saying for carrying some such idea as this into practice and that family merit however defined was allowed to count for however little in imperative examinations. The effect would be very great. It would show that ancestral qualities are of present current value. It would give an impetus to collecting family histories. It would open the eyes of every family and of society at large to the importance of marriage alliance with a good stock. It would introduce the subject of race into a permanent topic of consideration which, on the supposition of its bona fide importance that has been assumed for the sake of argument, experience would show to be aptly justified. Any act that first gives a guinea stamp to the sterling guinea's worth of natural nobility might set a great social avalanche in motion. Chapter 37 Endowments Endowments and bequests have been freely and largely made for various social purposes and as a matter of history they have frequently been made to portion girls in marriage. It so happens that the very day that I am writing this I notice an account in the foreign newspapers September 19, 1882 of an Italian who has bequiffed a sum to the Corporation of London to found small portions for three poor girls to be selected by lot. And again, a few weeks ago I read also in the French papers of a trial in reference to the money adjudged to the rosier of a certain village. In many cases in which individuals and states have portioned girls may be found and mouthless is therefore far far improbable. That if the merits of good race become widely recognized and as indications were rendered more surely intelligible than they are now, that local endowments and perhaps adoptions might be made in favor of those of both sexes who showed evidences of high race and of being to prolific and thriving families might not forecast their form. That we may reckon with some assurance that in one way or another they would be made and that the better races would be given a better chance of marrying early. A curious relic of the custom which was universal three or four centuries ago of entrusting education to celibate priests or bade fellows of colleges to marry under the penalty of losing their fellowships. It is as though the winning horses of races were rendered ineligible to become sires which I need highly say is the exact reverse of the practice. Racists were established and endowed by queens plates and otherwise at vast expense for the purpose of discovering the swiftest horses who were henceforward exempted from labour and reserved for the sole purpose of propagating their species. The horses who do not win races or who are not otherwise specially selected for their natural gifts are prevented from becoming sires. Similarly the mares who win races as fillies are not allowed to waste their strength in being ridden or driven but are tended under sanitary conditions for the sole purpose of bearing offspring. It is better economy in a long run to use the best mares as breeders than as workers. The loss through their withdrawal from active service being more than recouped in the next generation through what is gained by their progeny. The college statutes to which I referred were very recently relaxed at Oxford and have been just reformed at Cambridge. I am told that numerous marriages have ensured in consequence or are ensuring. In hereditary genius I have shown that scholastic success runs strongly in families. Therefore in all seriousness I have no doubt that the number of English men naturally endowed with the highest scholastic faculties will be sensibly increased in future generations by the repeal of these ancient statutes. The English race has yet to be explored and there are now unknown wealth of hereditary gifts recorded that those who possess such a petrimony should know of it. The natural impulses of mankind would then be sufficient to ensure that such wealth no more continued to be neglected than the existence of any other possession certainly made known to man. Aristocracies seldom make alliances out of their order except to gain wealth. It is less to be expected that those who become aware that they are endowed with the power of transmuting valuable hereditary gifts should abstain from squatting their future children's petrimony by marrying persons of lower natural stamp. The social consideration that would attach itself to high racist wood it may be hoped to neutralise a social cause that is now very adverse to the early marriages of the most gifted namely the cost of living in culture and refined society. A young man with a career before him commonly feels it would be an act of folly to have himself by too early a marriage. The doors of society that are freely open to a bachelor are closed to a married couple with small means unless they bear patent recommendations such as the public recognition of a natural nobility would give. The attitude of mind that I should expect to predominate amongst those who had undeniable claims to rank as members of an accepted and gifted race would be akin to that of the modern possessors of ancestral property or hereditary rank. Such persons feel it a point of honour not to alienate the old place who make amiss alliances and they are expected for their honest family pride. So a man of good race would shrink from spoiling it by lower marriage and everyone would sympathise with his sentiments. Such an outline, the principle conclusions to which we seem to be driven by the results of the various inquires contained in this volume and by what we know on allied topics from the works of others. We cannot but recognise a vast variety of natural faculty useful in half all, in members of the same race and much more in the human family at large, although which tend to be transmitted by inheritance. Neither can we fail to observe that the faculties and men generally are unequal to the requirements of a high and growing civilisation. This is principally owing to their entire ancestry having lived up to recent times under very uncivilised conditions and to the somewhat capricious distribution in late times of inherited wealth which affords various degrees of immunity from the usual selective agencies. In solution of the question of whether a continual improvement in education might not compensate for a stationary or even retrograde condition of natural gifts, I made inquiry into the life history of twins which resulted in proving the vast preponderating effects of nature over no two. The fact that the very foundation outcome of the human mind is dependent on race and that the qualities of race is very high and therefore that humanity taken as a whole is not fixed but variable compels us to reconsider what may be the true place and function of man in the order of the world. I have examined this question fairly from many points of view because whatever may be the vehemence with which particular opinions are insisted upon its solution is unquestionably doubtful. There is a wide and growing conviction among truth seeking earnest humble minded and thoughtful men both in this country and abroad. Their cosmic relations are by no means so clear and simple as they are popularly supposed to be while the worthy and intelligent teachers of various creeds who have strong persuasions on the character of those relations do not concur in their several views. The results of the inquiries I have made into certain alleged forms of our relations in the world do not as far as they go confirm the common doctrines. One for example on the objective efficiency of prayer was decidedly negative. It showed that while contradicting the commonly expressed doctrine it concurred with the almost universal practical opinion of the present day. Another inquiry into a vision showed that however you will explain they may still be they belong for the most part not altogether to an order of phenomena which no one dreams in other cases of calling supernatural. Many investigations concur in showing the vast multiplicity of mental operations that are in simultaneous action of which only a minute part falls within the kin of consciousness and suggest that much of what passes as supernatural is due to one portion of our mind being contemplated by another portion of it as if it has been that of another person. The term individuality is in fact a most misleading word. I do not for a moment wish to imply that the few inquiries published in this volume exhaust the list of those that might be made, for I distinctly hold the contrary, but I refer to them in corroboration of the previous assertion that our relations with the unseen world are different to those we are commonly taught to believe. In our doubt as to the character of our mysterious relations with the unseen ocean of actual and potential life by which we are surrounded, the generally accepted fact of the solidarity of the universe that is of the intimate connections between distant parts that bind together as a whole justifies us. I think in looking upon ourselves as members of a vast system which in one of its aspects resembles a cosmic republic. On the one hand we know that evolution has proceeded during an enormous time on this earth under so far as we can gather a system of rigorous causation with no economy of time or of instruments and with no show of speech Ruth for those who may impure ignorance have violated the conditions of life. On the other hand while recognizing the awful mystery of conscious existence and the inscrutable background of evolution we find that as a foremost outcome of many and long birth throws intelligent and kindly man finds himself in being. He knows how petty he is, but he also perceives that he stands here on this particular earth at this particular time as the era of untold ages and the van of circumstance. He ought therefore I think to be less dividend than he is usually instructed to be and to rise to the conception that he has a considerable function to perform in the order of events and that his exertions are needed. It seems to me that he should look upon himself more as a free man with power of shaping the cause of future humanity and that he should look upon himself less as a subject of a despotic government in which case it would be of merit to depend wholly upon what had been regulated for him and to render abject obedience. The question then arises as to the way in which man can assist in the order of events. I reply by furthering the course of evolution. He may use his intelligence to discover and expedite the changes that are necessary to adapt circumstance to race and race to circumstance and his kindly sympathy will urge him to effect them mercifully. When we begin to inquire with some giving perhaps, as to the evidence that man has presented power to influence the quality of future humanity, we soon discover that his past influence in that direction has been very large indeed. It has been exerted hithero for other ends than that which is now contemplated such as for conquest or immigration, also through social conditions whose effects upon race were imperfectly foreseen. There can be no doubt that the hithero unused means of his influence are all so numerous and great. I have not cared to go much into detail concerning these but restricted myself to a few broader considerations as by showing how largely the balance of population becomes affected by the earlier marriages of some of its classes and by pointing out the great influence that endowments have had in checking the marriage of monks and scholars and therefore they had larger influence than they might be expected to have if they were directed not to thwart but to harmonise with natural inclination by promoting early marriages in the classes to be favoured. I also showed that a powerful influence might flow from a public recognition in the early life of the true value of the probability of future performance is based on the past performance of the ancestors of the child. It is an element of forecast in addition to that of present personal merit which has yet to be appraised and recognised. Its recognition would attract assistance in various ways and it is impossible now to specify to the young families of those who are most lucky to stock the world with healthy moral, intelligent and fair nation citizens. The stream of charity is not unlimited and it is a record for the speedy evolution of a more perfect humanity than it should be distributed as to favour the best adapted races. I have not spoken on the repression of the rest, believing they would ensue indirectly as a matter of course, but I may add that few would deserve better than those who determined to live celibate lives through a reasonable conviction that issue would probably be less fitted than the generality to play their part as citizens. It would be easy to add to the number of possible agencies by which the evolution of a higher humanity might be furthered, but it is premature to do so until the importance of attending to the improvement of a race shall have been so well established in the popular mind that a discussion of them would be likely to receive serious consideration. It is highly necessary to insist on the certainty that our present imperfect knowledge of the limitations and conditions of reditary transmission will be steadily added to, but I would call attention to the serious want of adequate materials of study in the form of life histories. It is fortunately the case that many of the rising medical practitioners of the foremost rank are become strongly impressed with the necessity of possessing them, not only for the better knowledge of the theory of disease, but for the personal advantage of their patients, whom they now have to treat less appropriately than they otherwise would, through ignorance of their reditary tenancies and of their illnesses in past years. The medical details of which are rarely remembered by the patient even if he knew them. With the help of so powerful a personal motive for keeping life histories and of so influential a body as a medical profession to advocate its being done, and to show how to do it, there is considerable hope that the want of materials to which I have alluded will gradually be supplied. To sum up in a few words, the chief result of these inquiries has been to elicit the religious significance of the doctrine of evolution. It suggests an alteration of our mental attitude and imposes a new moral duty. The new mental attitude is one of a greater sense of moral freedom, responsibility and opportunity to the new duty which is supposed to be exercised concurrently with, and not in opposition with the old ones, upon which social fabric depends, is an endeavour to further revolution, especially that of the human race. End of section 10, and end of enquiring into human faculty and its developments by Francis Geldin, recorded by Leon Harvey.