 CHAPTER 6 The Nineteenth of Brumair and Marengo Scenes at St. Cloud, Formation of the New Government, External Affairs, the Army of Reserve, Plans of Campaign, Passage of the Alps, Marengo, Triumph of Bonaparte. In the early hours of the nineteenth of Brumair, troops were marching out from Paris to St. Cloud, some five miles distant, to take charge of the palace where the legislative bodies were to meet. This palace, destroyed by the German bombardment in 1870, was on a hillside close by the river Seine, and its buildings, courts, and terraces were completely encircled by massive iron grills. Following the troops came a constant stream of carriages and pedestrians, of legislators and spectators, so that by eleven or twelve o'clock the little village of St. Cloud was crowded with a representative audience come to witness the political dramatic performance announced to take place. Many pressed up to the grills, watching the privileged few within and exchanging comments with the sentries pacing beyond. These sentries really represented the essential factor in the situation, and therefore it will be well to note a few particulars concerning the troops. Of the thirty-five hundred men present, most were devoted to Bonaparte. The cavalry consisted of several squadrons of dragoons commanded by Colonel Sebastiani. He was a Corsican, and had placed himself unreservedly at his compatriot's disposal. The infantry consisted nearly entirely of several battalions that had followed Bonaparte in the campaign of Italy. They not only felt a personal devotion for their old general, but a detestation for what they called a government of lawyers from which they had never received proper treatment. The soldiers displayed their dilapidated uniforms to the spectators and complained that for six months the directoir had left them starving and without pay. In one company a single pipe of tobacco was gravely passed from man to man so that each might puff in turn and enjoy his proper share of this somewhat Spartan luxury. There could be no doubt as to what answer these soldiers would give if the question between Bonaparte and the government was placed clearly before them. But there was another body of some four hundred men whose sentiments appeared more doubtful. These were the guards of the councils. These men, picked to defend the councils against Parisian disorder, were stout Republicans well paid and not disaffected. It was uncertain how they would act, though their superior officers had been won over by the C.A.S. Bonaparte faction. It had been arranged that the council of ancients should meet in a hall in the body of the palace, the council of five hundred in a covered orange tree outside. It was from the Jacobins in the latter body that resistance was feared, for they had during the previous afternoon and evening been actively debating means of resistance to what they denounced as an attempt to overturn the republic in favor of a dictatorship. Jordan and Bernadotte, who each had some following in the army, were not disinclined to support the extremists, but nothing more was settled than that the five hundred would oppose a strenuous resistance to any constitutional amendment. Was constitutional amendment, however, the course that Bonaparte and C.A.S. intended to adopt? No one could tell. The fact was that the conspirators, who had planned every detail of the first day with such minute care, had left the second to take care of itself. There was absolutely no plan of action. When Bonaparte and his supporters arrived at St. Cloud on the morning of the nineteenth, they found preparations for the meeting of the two assemblies incomplete. It was past noon before the orangery was ready for use, and by that time impatience and nervousness had set in. At last Lucien Bonaparte took his seat in the presidential chair and the proceedings of the lower house opened. Many motions and resolutions were handed in, but one only met with the general approval of Jacobins Bonapartists and all sections. This was that the members should individually renew their oath to maintain the constitution. This was eminently characteristic of the assembly, a resort to talking when it was essential to act. At two o'clock the solemn farce began, at four it was still proceeding. In the meanwhile the ancients had also got to business, but unfortunately none of the members appeared to know precisely what course to take. Finally, getting no lead from Bonaparte or C.A.S., a proposal was put forward that the three vacancies in the directoir should be filled up. Till this moment Bonaparte had been little seen. From a room in the palace he had watched events, confidently awaiting their development in a favorable direction. But the more he waited the less satisfactory did the appearance of affairs become, and now trusting to his soldier's instinct he determined to proceed to the point of danger. Accompanied by his chief of staff Berthier and by his secretary Bourguin, he presented himself at the entrance of the Council of Ancients and, unbidden, entered the hall, making his way to the foot of the President's Tribune. He then hastily and nervously delivered a speech, the worst of his life. Unused to the atmosphere of a deliberative assembly, unprepared with any definite propositions, he excitedly stumbled from blunder to blunder. The ancients were not disinclined to support him, but when he explained that the Republic was in danger from a great conspiracy, there were immediate demands that he should specify what his accusations meant. He grew embarrassed and talked louder. The legislators pressed questions on him and became heated. Finally, Bonaparte began telling of what he had and what he could accomplish by the might of the sword. By this time Berthier and Bourguin were pulling at his coattails and in the midst of much excitement they finally half dragged, half persuaded him away. This was a bad beginning, but worse was to follow. Bonaparte was now roused and, not waiting to cool, proceeded from the ancients to the five hundred in the Orangerie below. There was a crowd at the door through which he slipped nearly unrecognized and began elbowing his way down a gangway blocked with members towards the Presidential Tribune. A moment later, a voice shouted, down with the dictator, down with the tyrant! And a rush was made for the spot where the little Corsican was still struggling to make his way. An indescribable uproar followed. The cry of outlaw him that five years before had sounded the knell of Robespierre now rose loudest of all. And surrounded as he was by the furious deputies, Bonaparte appeared lost. But Murat with other officers and a few grenadiers were forcing their way through to save their general. In a moment more he was dragged safely away, half suffocated, his coat torn, his face scratched and bleeding. He retired to his room for a short while, then descended to the courtyard and mounted his horse. He was more at home in the saddle glancing down a row of bayonets than in the midst of legislative assemblies. The incursion of Bonaparte into the council of five hundred resulted in the putting forward of a formal motion of outlawry, and it was well for him that his brother happened to be president of the assembly. Lucien showed as much resource and coolness in this crisis as Napoleon had impetuosity and rashness. He first declined to accept the motion. Then finding he could not resist it, claimed his right to speak, and leaving the presidential chair ascended the tribune. Notwithstanding the Jacobin efforts to hell him down, he held his ground for some time and succeeded in whispering a message to a friend to the effect that the conspirators must act at once or all would be lost. This message resulted in the appearance of half a dozen grenadiers in the hall who proceeded to the tribune, surrounded Lucien and escorted him out into the courtyard. No sooner was he in the open than he called for a horse and jumping into the saddle pushed up to the ranks of the guards of the council. He addressed them in ringing tones, declaring that a faction of assassins had dominated the assembly, that his life and that of his brother were no longer safe, that he the president represented the assembly and called on them to restore order, and that if his brother intended or ever attempted anything against republican institutions he would stab him with his own hands. At the conclusion there was much loud shouting of, Vive Bonaparte! The guard of the councils appeared shaken. The soldiers of the line had long been stamping with impatience. At this moment someone, perhaps Mirat, gave an order and a drum began to roll out the charge. Mirat promptly made for the door of the council chamber followed by the clerk and the infantry. This move was decisive. At the sight of the troops the legislators hurried to leave the hall, most of them by the windows, and Mirat, ordering Bayonets to be fixed, cleared the room. The revolution was accomplished. In the late hours of that evening small groups of the 500 and of the ancients representing the victorious faction met in the now deserted halls of the palace of St. Cloud and gave an appearance of legality to the decrees sent for their approval by Bonaparte and CAS. On the following morning proclamations appeared announcing a new government under three consuls Bonaparte, CAS, and Roger Ducourt, and declaring a policy of the reunion of all parties and of peace. It is curious to reflect when viewing Bonaparte's career as a whole that it was on a policy of peace that he attained power. Yet it was so. Bonaparte was undoubtedly the great desire of the French people in 1799 and it was the perfectly well-founded opinion of the country that if any man could give it peace internal and external it was Bonaparte. Yet the military situation of France was so weak in regard to the three great powers with which she was at war that few believed in the possibility of foreign peace saved through victory. Bonaparte, however, was no sooner in office than he made pacific propositions to the allies and so far succeeded that he detached the Tsar Paul from the alliance. Great Britain declined all overtures being then in hopes of soon reducing the French garrisons in Malta and Egypt, but this she did in terms that showed peace to be possible in the near future. With Austria, however, it was clear that a campaign must be fought. That campaign will now be related and a consideration of the internal policy of Bonaparte after Brumaire must be for the moment postponed. In the spring of 1800 the military position was as follows. The remnant of the French army of Italy was covering Genoa under the command of Masséna. A much superior Austrian army under Mellas eventually drove it into that city and threatened an invasion in the direction of Doulon and Marseille. In southern Germany, Cree with 150,000 men menaced the Rhine. Moreau with an army nearly equal stood on the defensive at Baal. Because against these two Austrian armies, the French had a great advantage of position owing to their holding the projecting bastion of Switzerland. In strategic language they had a double base from which to maneuver, either to the north or to the south. The meaning of this will appear from the plans formed by Bonaparte. His first proposal was this, that all the available reserves should be marched into Switzerland to strengthen Moreau. That that general should transfer his army from Baal to Schaffhausen once he could march, so as to place himself on the Austrian lines of communications. That Bonaparte should accompany the army to supervise the operations. Moreau rejected this scheme. He preferred a plain frontal advance to the more daring and destructive one proposed, and he objected to Bonaparte's virtual assumption of supreme command. Precisely at this juncture came the news that Mellas had driven Masenna into Genoa, and Bonaparte promptly determined to alter his plans. Instead of basing himself on Switzerland to attack crazed lines of communications, he would turn south and deal a similar blow at Mellas. His preparations for this were eminently characteristic of his genius. His first move was to deceive the enemy as to his strength and intentions. The newspapers accordingly announced the formation of a camp at Dijon, where a formidable army of reserve was to be assembled. The first consul, as he was now officially known, went down to inspect the troops, and so, of course, did the spies of all the powers. They found nothing more than a few weak battalions made up of boys and cripples and presenting a most ragged appearance. In a few weeks, Bonaparte's army of reserve was the laughing stock of the courts of Europe. But not for long. The camp at Dijon was only a blind. With Berthier at the Ministry of War, the most strenuous efforts were being made to squeeze out of the nearly exhausted resources of France one more effective army. There were other camps besides that of Dijon, where strong battalions were being got into shape. In April it was reported that reinforcements were to be marched to Nice, where Cichet, with a small force, was facing Mellas. In May it became known that Bonaparte was leaving Paris for a tour of inspection that was to last just two weeks. By an article of the new constitution it was provided that the first consul should not exercise any military command. Such a clause was not likely to hold good with a man like Bonaparte at the head of the state. Yet the situation was precarious. The government was very new and a military failure might spell ruin. In this difficult position, anxious to direct operations to keep up the military deception to make Paris believe his absence momentary, Bonaparte took the following steps. He appointed Berthier General-in-Chief of the Army of Reserve but arranged personally to supervise the operations of that general. He gave out that he was only leaving the capital for a fortnight and that his diplomatic receptions would not be interrupted. He left Paris on the 6th of May and from that moment his plan ripened with startling rapidity. From the center and east of France, long columns had been for many days converging on Geneva and southern Switzerland. On the 14th, the first column of a large army began ascending the pass of the great Saint Bernard. A week later, the Army of Reserve, strengthened by a corps taken from Morot, had struggled through the snow and ice of the Alps by various passes between the Monsigny and the Saint Gathard, and was rapidly marching down into Piedmont and Lombardy, straight towards Melas' lines of communications. The operations of the next three weeks may be summed up in a few words. It was some days before Melas realized that a French army of considerable size had descended from the Alpine passes into Italy. By this time his line of retreat towards the quadrilateral was cut. He then appears to have done all that was possible under such circumstances. He concentrated his columns with a view to marching on the enemy, pressing on the siege of Genoa in the meanwhile. On the 4th of June, Masséna and his starved garrison surrendered after a memorable defense. In the week that followed, Melas marched towards Alexandria, and on the 14th there was fought near that fortress the Battle of Marengo that decided the result of the campaign. Bonaparte, having occupied Milan and pushed Murat with the cavalry as far as Piacenza, advanced the Po, advanced to Stradella, and then spread out his core right and left so as to intercept the Austrian retreat at every point. Strategically he had already won a nearly decisive advantage, for being between the Austrian army and its base he had but to succeed in holding the defensive to win. But his anxiety to extend north and south led him into error, left him too weak centrally, and nearly resulted in disaster. The French main column marching southwest from Stradella came into contact with the Austrians marching northeast on the 13th, but failed to recognize the fact that the enemy was in force. Melas probably had some 35,000 men present, Bonaparte not more than 20,000. On the following morning the Austrians advanced resolutely, deploying right and left of the main road. Bonaparte hastily sent orders to his outlying columns to march to his support and withstood the attack as best he could. Heavy fighting followed, gradually turning in favor of the Austrians. By three o'clock in the afternoon the French had been driven some five or six miles. Their left was completely routed, their right was in great confusion and in the center alone was there still some semblance of effective resistance. To Melas the battle now appeared won. Leaving the pursuit to his chief of staff he turned back to Alexandria where he wrote dispatches to his government describing his victory over the French. On the departure of Melas the mass of the Austrian infantry was ordered to continue its advance along the road to Stradella in one heavy column, battalion after battalion. This overconfident and faulty disposition proved fatal. At four o'clock General de Sey, who had marched since the morning on the sound of the firing, brought up his division to the aid of the first consul. A battery was placed across the road and suddenly unmasked. The head of the Austrian column was broken. Several of de Sey's fresh battalions were rushed forward with the bayonet and at the same moment Kellermann charged down in flank with five or six hundred dragoons. In a few moments the dense Austrian ranks were in confusion and at the mercy of the horsemen. There was no time and no space in which to deploy. Bonaparte pushed his advantage home. The straggling French were rallied and brought back to the attack. The fresh troops of de Sey carried everything before them and avenged the fate of their general who fell early in the fight. In half an hour's time the victory of the Austrians had been turned into a disastrous route in which they lost thousands of prisoners and all the positions they had captured earlier in the day. On the following morning Mellas offered to negotiate. A convention was agreed to whereby the Austrian army was permitted to continue its retreat in return for which Lombardy and all the western parts of Italy were ceded to the French. It is not altogether correct to think of Marengo as a lucky victory. In one sense it was so but even had Mellas won the field Bonaparte had already secured so great a strategic advantage that he would probably have won the campaign. Had he retreated to the entrenched position of Stradella and been rejoined there by the corps of de Sey and Serrouillet it does not appear likely that Mellas could have succeeded in dislodging him. Failing in that he was cut off from his base and would have had to pay the consequences. Bonaparte's return from Marengo to Paris was the greatest the truest triumph of his life. The enthusiasm everywhere evoked was based on the idea that the struggle he had waged so successfully was necessary to the existence of France and was the herald of an honorable peace. So it proved. A few months later Marengo defeated the Archduke John with great loss at Hoennlinden and Austria gave up the struggle. Peace was signed at Lüneville on the 9th of February 1801 and left France and Austria in about the same position as the Treaty of Campo Formio four years before. End of Chapter 6. Recording by Jeffrey Wilson Ames Iowa Chapter 7 of Napoleon A Short Biography This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org. Napoleon A Short Biography by RM Johnston Chapter 7 Legislation and Administration The Consular Constitution Bonaparte secures a dictatorship plebiscites legal reform influence and work of Bonaparte the Napoleonic bureaucracy religious questions death of Washington the press royalist overtures it will be better briefly to depart from a chronological order and to consider as a whole the institutions that owed their origin to Napoleon they came into existence for the most part shortly after his accession to power and maybe conveniently thought of as originating in the period 1800 to 1805 there are three chief questions to be considered in this respect first constitutional second legal and administrative third religious the new constitution of France evolved from the revolution of Brumaire had as its fundamental fact the personality of Bonaparte for the sentiment that had made Brumaire possible the sentiment represented by ca's and the moderate politicians was that the executive power must be strengthened or the republic would perish but theories are not the business of a strong executive officer character personality and facts must be the predominant note and this was what France found in Bonaparte the very first meeting of the new government showed clearly what had happened on the day following the overturning of the council of 500 the three provisional consuls assembled at the Luxembourg ca's on entering the room asked the question who is to preside but Bonaparte had already sat down at the head of the table and Roger Ducot replied do you not see that the general presides the question was never raised again the new constitution was prepared by the provisional consuls working with a large committee representing the faction of the ancients and 500 that had supported the new government it was principally made up of men who whatever they had been in the early republican days were now in favor of moderation and a strong executive with many if not with most the fact that the new government might have occasion to utilize and to remunerate their talents had the greatest weight the committee and consuls now set to work to frame a new constitution their first care was to create four great bodies first the council of state whose functions were to advise the executive in the preparation of legislation second the tribunate which was to discuss all laws but without voting on them third the legislative body which by a converse process was to vote on all laws but without discussing them fourth the senate whose principal duty was to decide on constitutional questions raised by the tribunate this may be characterized in a few words as the diffusion of the political forces of the country and as the provision of a large number of salaried positions in which the men of the revolution might be conveniently deposited the really useful body of the four was the council of state in which were placed all the workers with practical knowledge of questions of finance law or administration but however great the lassitude of france it was impossible to put forward any constitution that did not make some show of being based on democratic principles it was therefore provided that there should be elections but these were of a very indirect and illusory character their result was merely to place before the executive a list arrived at by several progressive steps from which members of the senate were appointed the senators in turn named the members of the tribunate and legislative body in practice this gave the head of the state a fairly effective control over all these bodies the most thorny subject of discussion in the framing of the constitution was left for the last what was to be the nature and extent of the executive power on this subject siez had some ready-made theories to propose but they were of an unpractical nature and were rapidly demolished by bonaparte this marked the point at which his influence gained a complete predominance and that of siez began to sink during the lengthy discussions that had taken place bonaparte had shown that his was the master mind and siez soon after dropped out of the government receiving handsome compensation in emoluments and honors it was finally decided that there should be a first second and third consul appointed for 10 years that these officials should have a general control over foreign affairs the army navy and police that bonaparte should be first consul and should appoint the other two last of all came the question what should be the powers of the consuls as between one another here really lay the knot of the new constitution and most declined the attempt to untie it one solution would give france a modified directoire the other a master at this point when all hesitated bonaparte's prompt intervention proved decisive and all bowed to his imperious will he dictated a clause whereby no act of the executive was to be undertaken without the first consul consulting his colleagues but they were given no vote all decisions resting solely with him this clause made bonaparte in effect a dictator and among those who realized the fact were doubtless more than one who believed that this was after all the best thing for france and for themselves bonaparte appointed as his colleagues cumba serres an eminent jurist who as a member of the convention had voted for the death of louis the 16th and le brun a conservative of great financial knowledge respected for his integrity and moderation among the first ministers were men of all shades of opinion notable among whom were telleran perigot ex abe and member of the convention a subtle intrigue and experience to diplomatist godin of functionary in the department of finance whose ability in that sphere was of the greatest fouché the ex-terrorist famous for the massacres of lian always ready to support whatever government might be in power a master craftsman in every device and deceit of secret police work as soon as the new constitution was formulated it was submitted to the popular acceptance by a plebiscite or referendum the result of which was satisfactory to the government the plebiscite has played a large part in french politics since that date and it is as well to state that it is in a strict sense not a true test of the political opinion of a country when the question at issue is one involving a change of government in such a case it is usual to frame the question submitted to the people in such a form that a negative vote implies a desire for turning out the government de facto it is self-evident that the citizens must always be few whose disapproval of such a government will carry them to the point of recording a vote which if successful could only mean revolution or civil war so much for the constitution evolved from the revolution of brumaire let us now consider the great legal and administrative work undertaken by the newly made first consul napoleon has been called the new or the modern justinian he was in fact a great codifier of the law like his roman predecessor he entrusted to his ablest jurist the care of reducing the chaos of french laws to order the upheaval and confusion caused by the revolution facilitated the task of cumba serres and his assistance the ordonnance of louis the 14th the subsequent laws of the monarchy the mass of legislative enactments of the republic were recast in one piece and fitted into a somewhat theoretical framework derived from the principles of the roman law bonaparte's technical knowledge did not fit him to take a very active part in these labors yet the credit for the framing of the codenapoleon is properly his for it was his unceasing stimulation that got the work done he would occasionally keep his counselors of state working all through the night till dawn he would decide the points on which the jurists disagreed and even the most narrow specialist rarely left the council board without feeling that the marvelous pressure and power of elucidation of the great intellect that had presided had deepened his own knowledge of his particular subject the council of state was eminently a body for work and its master drove it as hard as he did himself the civil code afterwards called codenapoleon was published in 1804 it was followed by commercial and criminal codes but it does not come within the scope of this book to attempt a description of their provisions it will suffice to say that the legal system of Napoleon forms at the present day the basis of much of the legislation of the world its influence is strong from Prussia to Sicily from st. Petersburg to Madrid and even in such distant parts of the globe as Java South Africa and Louisiana if it is possible to give an impression of the codenapoleon in a few words one might describe it as representing the mass of the laws and customs of old France purged by the revolution and poured by the genius of Napoleon into a Latin mold paternal authoritative clear but inelastic the code was akin in spirit to the administrative fabric that was erected alongside of it the state was converted into one great bureaucratic machine every phase of the life of each citizen was classified supervised and directed what the French people want declared Bonaparte is equality not liberty and his system was accordingly framed to provide all with equal justice equal privileges equal opportunity of advancement but if the state was prepared to grant justice and preferment it also took care to secure the services of all the intellect of the country and to repress all attempts at individual action even education and religion were brigaded and administered in military fashion membres de l'institut illustrious savants or artists couvier la place or david were officials salaried uniformed and supervised by the state France had been divided into departments by the republic each of these divisions had as chief administrator a prefect depending on the minister of the interior the principal duties of this functionary were to administer matters of revenue and police under him came the mayors of townships and lower still came subordinate officials all under the control of the government down to the gamekeepers or sellers of tobacco and salt the administrative or bureaucratic machine was powerfully supported by an extensive system of secret police the ramifications of this department were so extensive that fuchsia is reported actually to have secured reports from Josephine herself as to the daily doings of the household of the first consul with such a system there was a chance for every citizen provided only he would accept the political situation and support the government but it was entirely a downward system proceeding from the governor not from the governed and in no wise resembling free institutions feudalism and privileges had been swept away by the revolution but personal government had been reinstated by Bonaparte and personal government of a far more efficient and stable form than that of the bourbons because wonderfully adapted to the practical requirements of a european nation in the 19th century Bonaparte had created what was the most powerful and effective instrument for governing a country and for centralizing and directing its strength yet seen in europe none could fail to see the good points of his system the opponents of france after suffering from the effects of the machine Napoleon had constructed copied it and now bureaucratic government with a greater or less admixture of democratic tendencies or appearances with an executive directing power strong in some countries weak in others is the one form to be met with in every part of the content of europe but what else could be expected from Napoleon the revolution of brumaire was not the work of a man whose first thought was the good of his country and the two great currents of sentiment that brought it about were nothing better than self-preservation on the part of the ciez faction and ambition on that of Bonaparte the religious question yet remains to be dealt with in this as in all things Bonaparte took a purely practical point of view he considered christianity with mohammedanism and all other religions respectable and useful for many years he had apparently no religious belief but during boyhood and towards the close of his life he observed the forms of the catholic faith whatever his inmost belief as a statesman his attitude towards Rome may be said to have been purely political during the campaign of italy in 1796 to 97 the diertois had repeatedly pressed him to action against Rome but he had shown enough reluctance in carrying out these orders to make clear to the astute papal diplomatists that the young republican general might one day be their friend no sooner was he in power than he issued orders for removing the trammels placed on the catholic worship the ringing of the church bells throughout France a few days after the 18th of brumaire created a religious ferment that astonished the government and the country but that did no harm to the first consul's popularity he recognized even more clearly than before the deep attachment of the people to their religion and determined to go further notwithstanding the murmurs of the army in which atheism had been promoted to the rank of a creed negotiations were opened with Rome and in 1801 a treaty was signed re-establishing Catholicism in a privileged position by the concordat as this treaty is known Bonaparte obtained control of the nomination and salaries of all high ecclesiastical dignitaries thus securing over them a hold nearly equal to that which he had over his civil and military functionaries a solemn service held to celebrate this event at Notre-Dame led to unseemly scenes in which some of the generals among them Lan and Augerot gave full vent to their disapprobation of the course taken by the first consul the feelings of the staunch republicans were further ruffled by the introduction of prayers for the head of the state Bonaparte was clear-sighted in his religious policy and took this great step forward with calm decision like every other act of the consulate it turned partly on considerations relating to the strengthening of his personal authority in the early days however when his supporters were still republican soldiers or republican politicians and not yet bonapartists it was impossible for him to profess any but republican opinions and intentions a few weeks after his accession to power a very solemn farce was played on the occasion of the death of George Washington December 14 1799 a funeral ceremony was held in honor of the American patriot and the speeches delivered on that occasion more than inferred that France could now gaze on a Washington of her own yet when we are inclined to view with amused indignation the obvious fraud and hollowness of such professions ought we not to marvel equally at the fact that the politicians of America have generally shown more respect for the methods and aims of Bonaparte than they have for the lofty statesmanship and patriotism of Washington acting on the principle he had constantly invoked since his return from Egypt Bonaparte once in power stopped the excessive political persecution that had so long been thought necessary many political prisoners were speedily released and France was thrown open to thousands of exiles while with one hand he thus acted with great apparent liberality with the other he skillfully seized and muzzled the press which he retained completely in his power during the next 14 years to what extent this control was carried may be judged by the fact that the Moneture never at any time made the slightest reference to the greatest naval battle of modern times one in which France was not successful that of Trafalgar the new government was a success from the first and after Marengo its popularity was immense every month the position of France seemed to improve visibly and Bonaparte soon thought he might advance a step towards the throne the Comte de Provence elder of the surviving brothers of Louis the 16th approached him with a view to a bourbon restoration this overture Bonaparte politely declined and shortly afterwards a pamphlet appeared entitled parallel between Cromwell Caesar monk and Bonaparte in which the imperial ambitions of the first consul were clearly revealed the impression produced was not favorable France was not yet ready and both the ardent republicans and the ardent royalists realized that Bonaparte was their most dangerous enemy and prepared to destroy him end of chapter seven recording by Linda Johnson chapter eight of Napoleon a short biography this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org Napoleon a short biography by RM Johnston chapter eight the Duke d'Anglien and Trafalgar conspiracies the Bonaparte family Morro imperial aspirations the Duke d'Anglien proclamation of the empire war with England the Trafalgar campaign alongside of the extraordinary building up of the Napoleonic legislative and administrative edifice the consulate was one long and secret struggle against the agitation and plots of the ultra Jacobins on the one hand and of the ultra royalists on the other not long after Marengo a desperate attempt on the first consul's life was made a barrel of gunpowder was loaded on a handcart that was placed in a convenient position at a spot in the Rousseau-Nissets by which the first consul's carriage must be driven on its way to the opera that night Bonaparte was unpunctual and the coachman who is said to have been intoxicated lashed his horses furiously through the intricate network of streets at the back of the Toulary to make up for the lost time the explosion took place just an instant too late and though many lives were lost and much damage was done the first consul went unscathed at the opera there was a scene of the greatest excitement during which only two persons maintained a calm and dignified exterior Napoleon and his sister Caroline the personal friends of the first consul such menace du roc and jeuneau were quite unnerved Hortense Boharnes was crying Josephine was hysterical the spectators were eagerly demonstrating their joy at the escape of the head of the state and Caroline alone with her brother sat in the front of the box watching the scene with a cool gaze of all Napoleon's brothers and sisters she probably resembled him most in uniting passionate ambition to cool calculation and boundless courage of the brothers the strongest in character was Lucien whose decisive action on the 18th and 19th of Brumaire has already been noted conspicuous during the early days of the consulate he soon quarreled with his powerful brother on a matrimonial question and eventually separated himself from him and lost all political influence the eldest Joseph was the most subservient and useful stronger in intellect than in character he was always conspicuous as a subordinate and was eventually rewarded with two insecure thrones Louis a man of intelligence but uncertain disposition married Napoleon's stepdaughter Hortense who inherited much of her mother's charm and temperament what with matrimonial difficulties with Hortense and political ones with Napoleon Louis found his career not an easy one he was never an important figure but a son of Hortense was destined to restore the empire as Napoleon the third the youngest of the brothers Jerome was the least weighty though even he was to become a king his grandson Prince Napoleon Victor is at the present day the Bonapartist pretender thus of the five sons of Charles Bonaparte one was to be an emperor and three kings his daughters rose almost equally high Elisa married a Corsican who was later created Prince Bacciocchi and was given an Italian principality Pauline the most beautiful member of a striking family married first General Leclerc and after his death in the expedition of San Domingo Prince Borghese Caroline the youngest married Joaquin Murat and eventually became Queen of Naples her ambition finally drove her to betray her brother in his greatest hour of need Josephine's son Eugene is the only member of the first consul's family not yet mentioned at the commencement of the consulate he was a mere boy before the end of the empire he had made his mark and shown such qualities political and military that it will be no exaggeration to say that it would have proved fortunate for France had the imperial throne come to him as a consequence of the fall of his stepfather but this enumeration of the Bonaparte's and Beauharnais is a digression it is now necessary to return to the struggle of the consular government for existence plot succeeded plot the enemies of Bonaparte became more and more desperate as each month increased his power and brought him nearer to what was now his undisguised goal the throne the crisis culminated in the early weeks of 1804 when a number of sensational arrests startled Paris several royalist conspirators with the secret assistance of the British government had made their way into the capital with the intention of making some attempt against the first consul they were mostly men of desperate fortunes who had taken part in the insurrectionary movements in Vendée and Brittany their leaders were Cadudale and the ex-Republican general Cadudale was only taken after a fierce resistance Pichégroux was found strangled in his prison shortly after his capture but the most important and sensational arrest of all was that of General Moreau who appears to have had no real connection with the conspiracy Moreau the victor of Hohenlinden was as beloved by the army of Germany as Bonaparte was by the army of Italy Moreau the staunch republican was the hope of many who saw in Bonaparte the coming Caesar Moreau who had always retreated from politics might be used to pull down a fellow general who had forgotten his soldier's duty he was accused of complicity in the royalist plot arrested and tried although nothing substantial could be proved against him he was driven into exile and left France for America Cadudale was less fortunate and he together with several of his accomplices was sentenced to death but the matter did not end here the extremely dangerous conspiracy of Cadudale following as it had many others and coinciding with the moment at which Bonaparte had at last decided to seize the crown appears to have thrown him into a state of nervous excitement was he to reach the object of his ambition or were his enemies to pull him down at the last moment he seems to have thought and Machiavelli would have approved that under such circumstances he could keep his enemies down only by a stroke of terror he aimed a blow at the republicans by arresting Moreau he dealt one to the bourbons by virtually assassinating the Duc d'Anglienne this young prince of the Conde branch of the house of bourbon was near the French frontier staying in a country house in the Duchy of Baden he had held a command in the army with which the French émigré had fought the republic and his presence on the border was held to signify that on the success of Cadudale he was to enter France and take command of the royalist movement on the 15th of March a party of gendarme commanded by Savarie a confidential agent of Bonaparte violated the frontier of Baden and taking the Duke from his bed placed him in a carriage and hurried him to Paris he arrived there on the night of the 19th was conveyed to the fort of Vincent tried by a subservient court-martial in the course of the same night sentenced to death on no evidence and shot at dawn this crime the most obvious blot on Napoleon's name produced a wave of indignation that swept all Europe including France not one of the first consul's supporters approved the act most of them regretted or repudiated it Chateaubriand resigned from the diplomatic service Talérin sententiously declared that the execution of the Duc d'Anglienne was worse than a crime it was a blunder yet as a stroke of terror however unsuited to the political conditions of the 19th century it was not altogether unsuccessful from that time on France acknowledged her master without question and the stain of blood of the 20th of March 1804 did not prevent the proclamation of the empire on the 18th of May following in 1802 a plebiscite had converted Bonaparte's consulate for ten years into a consulate for life in 1804 there was little more to do than to make the dignity hereditary and to change its title that of king would not have been tolerated by France even that of emperor which Bonaparte chose was associated with the continuance of France as a republic and for many months after the proclamation of the emperor Napoleon France still retained the political style she had assumed on the first of Vendemia of the year one the 22nd September 1792 the coronation of the new emperor took place at the cathedral of Notre-Dame on the 2nd of December following his proclamation the ceremony was invested with the greatest pump and the pope was persuaded into traveling to Paris to perform it it was many years since the annals of the papacy had registered a similar event and in the minds of all people of the latin race it gave the new monarch a consecration that placed him on a not much lower level than that of the proudest houses of europe whose power reposed on the basis of divine right in the following May 1805 Napoleon proceeded to Milan the capital of what had hitherto been known as the Cisalpine Republic there he proclaimed the kingdom of Italy an ambitious and suggestive name for such a small state as Lombardy and her dependencies he crowned himself with the iron crown of the Lombards and announced that the vice royalty would be entrusted to Prince Eugene who would be his heir to the Italian throne during these ceremonies the Republic of Genoa sent a deputation asking for incorporation with France this was of course an instigated act it gave more obvious proof than any previous one that ambitious aggressiveness might be expected as the keynote of the policy of the emperor Napoleon it offended Austria's pride and before long drew that power into a new contest with France the third since the days of the republic we must now re-enter the atmosphere of war that constitutes the background of Napoleon's career in 1805 began the first of the three great cycles of the wars of the empire but to understand the events of the continental war of 1805 we must first take up the relations of France and England at the point at which we left them Austria signed peace with France at Luneville after Marengo in 1801 leaving Great Britain alone at war that power having driven the remains of Bonaparte's army from Egypt and having also captured Malta now entered into negotiation peace was eventually concluded at Amiens on the 27th of March 1802 the negotiations were difficult but the only essential question was really that of the Mediterranean and Malta Great Britain finally agreed to withdraw from the island in favor of some neutral power but the position of Malta midway between the western and eastern extremities of the Mediterranean and the now unveiled ambition of Bonaparte to acquire a colonial empire and to resume sooner or later his movement towards the east made the British cabinet defer evacuation French troops occupied part of the kingdom of Naples with the port of Taranto and the French government declined to remove them so long as the British remained at Malta the peace between the two countries was in fact little more than a truce as was well shown by a medal struck by Denon in which Bonaparte's head is covered with a helmet and surmounted by the threatening legend Armée pour la Paix armed for peace after much diplomatic disputation during which the first consul was strengthening his hold on Italy and Switzerland and preparing plans for trans-oceanic extension Great Britain broke off negotiations on the question of Malta and withdrew her ambassador from Paris on the 12th of May 1803 this renewal of hostilities between France and Great Britain made Bonaparte adjourn his colonial ambitions it influenced among other things his relations with America the aggressive policy of the directois had led to a rupture between France and the United States in 1798 this had been patched up by Bonaparte in 1801 but a little later he set his eyes on Louisiana and would have probably attempted its occupation with the assent of its Spanish owners in the face of clearly expressed American opposition had not the inevitableness of war with England led him to reconsider his decision the people of the United States viewed the transfer of Louisiana from Spain to France with the utmost dislike it would have given France the western bank of the Mississippi from the Gulf to the Canadian lakes barring all possibility of expansion to the west so it proved fortunate for the good relations of France and the United States that the former now plunged into war with Great Britain once more by so doing she lost all power of action beyond the seas and was better prepared to abandon her new colonial scheme a rapid negotiation resulted in the transfer of Louisiana to the United States for a sum of 60 million francs eleven million two hundred fifty thousand dollars footnote one Louisiana included not only what is now the state of that name but the whole of the western half of the basin of the Mississippi end footnote in 1803 the position of Bonaparte in regard to a war with Great Britain was very different from what it had been in 1798 then the resources of France were limited the ambition of the young general urged him to hazardous courses now the resources of the country were vastly increased and the first council was no longer ready to leave France and seek for glory at the further end of the Mediterranean for every reason the opposite mode of attack to that of 1798 was chosen and Bonaparte decided on the invasion of England this great naval and military operation could not be carried out at a moment's notice but necessitated preparations spreading over many months from Dieppe to Antwerp the coast was armed with batteries covering numerous camps in which troops began to accumulate every port great and small was fortified improved and filled with pontoons and gunboats hundreds of gunbassels and numerous light cruisers were collected to engage the British ships that scoured the channel but it was useless to venture troops and light transports to cross the channel while the British fleet held command of the sea nor did Napoleon seriously contemplate doing so he planned a gigantic naval campaign that was to give him control of the channel his plan changed in details almost from day to day but in broad outline as it came nearest execution it was as follows there were at that time several French squadrons of which the two largest were stationed at Brest and Toulon between these two ports following the coastline of France and of Spain her ally were several others such as Rochefort, Ferrand, Cadiz and Cartagena where smaller divisions were stationed but the breast fleet was closely blockaded by Lord Cornwallis and that at Toulon was watched by Lord Nelson at every point as the fleets were distributed the British were practically assured of success to neutralize this advantage to delude the British admirals to concentrate the greatest possible force on the decisive point Napoleon worked out a scheme of which we will now follow the unfolding Admiral Villeneuve commanding the Toulon fleet in obedience to instructions took advantage of a favoring slant of wind to make his escape from that port in the spring of 1805 he sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar and thence nearly due west Nelson was quickly on his track and followed out into the Atlantic the British admiral soon learned that his adversary was sailing west and concluding that his business was in the West Indian Islands determined to cross the Atlantic in pursuit but Villeneuve's real objective was not in the West Indies his long journey of 3,000 miles was only intended to deceive and distract the eye from the real point of danger had Nelson's instinct been as keen as Napoleon's plan was large he would have sailed from Gibraltar not for the West Indies but for the mouth of the Channel for there was the vital point as it was he sailed west and having reached the West Indies discovered that Villeneuve after a stay of a few days only had put to sea again this time steering east once more Nelson pursued but once more he failed to see the bearing of Villeneuve's extraordinary movement and did not shape his course for the Channel but sailed back towards the Mediterranean the intention of Napoleon was that the fleet should make land at Ferrell free the small squadron there and thence sail to Rochefort and Brest at that point he hoped that the superiority of his combined fleets would enable them to overpower Cornwallis and sweep up the Channel it would have taken a stronger man than Villeneuve to carry out this great plan successfully he fought an indecisive action with a smaller English fleet under Calder off Ferrell on the 22nd of July and then decided he could not reach Brest eventually retiring to Cadiz other events had meanwhile put an end to Napoleon's project of an invasion of England but before relating those events the fate of Villeneuve's fleet must be briefly told the emperor was indignant at what he considered his admiral's pucillanimity Villeneuve to forestall his removal from command determined to take his fleet out of Cadiz and fight at any cost on the 21st of October 1805 he met Nelson off Cape Trafalgar and was utterly defeated by the superior skill of his opponent the Franco-Spanish fleet was nearly entirely destroyed but England's greatest admiral paid for victory with his life End of Chapter 8 Recording by Linda Johnson Occupation of Vienna, Austerlitz, Peace of Pressburg The threat of invasion had created the most profound alarm in England and British diplomacy had exerted itself to the utmost to provoke a continental war that should draw Napoleon's great army away from its camps on the coasts of the Channel in this it was successful for in the autumn of 1805 Austria and Russia having previously entered into a treaty with Great Britain began moving their armies towards the French frontiers war had long been foreseen the growing strength of France the brutally asserted ambition of the new made emperor the losses and humiliations suffered by Austria and two previous wars all tended to bring about this result Napoleon had long been preparing for it he abandoned without hesitation his camps along the ocean and began transferring the army thence to the heart of Germany The march began on the 27th of August it was some 500 miles on the 14th of October Munich the capital of Bavaria was occupied a week later the first Austrian army had been virtually destroyed General Mack the Austrian commander had invaded Bavaria in September and then advanced towards the Rhine eventually occupying a place at home facing the Black Forest he expected that the French would advance from some point between Basel and Mayans and appear in this direction Napoleon did everything possible to lull Mack into security he proceeded in person to Paris handed over the command of the army to Muac and ostentatiously sent him to Strasbourg he moved large detachments of dragoons and light cavalry into the Duchy of Baden and into the Black Forest simulating a screen behind which the army was concentrating later when it became necessary for him to leave for the front public attention was again called to Strasbourg by the imperial baggage taking this route and by the emperors also following it while these demonstrations were keeping Mack motionless at home anxiously watching the debouché of the Black Forest the seven French army corps starting from a base that stretched from Boulogne to Hanover were sweeping to the northwest of Mack through Mayans, Koblenz and Castle circling around his right wing and finally sweeping down from the north onto the valley of the Danube in his rear it was a repetition of the strategy of Marengo and the Austrians were half beaten before a shot was fired the fighting that followed was desultory isolated Austrian divisions tried to force their way through and escape but were in nearly every case overpowered defeated or captured Mack himself with 20,000 men surrendered at home on the 20th of October the events of the campaign were summed up with some exaggeration in one of Napoleon's bulletins it will serve to illustrate his history and character to give the text of one of these documents the one that follows is that which records the downfall of Mack soldiers of the Grand Armée in 15 days we have finished a campaign our intentions have been carried out we have driven the troops of the House of Austria from Bavaria and re-established our ally on his throne this army that had so ostentatiously and imprudently placed itself on our borders is now destroyed but what cares England for that her object is gained we are no longer at Boulogne and her subsidies will be neither diminished nor increased of the hundred thousand men who made up this army 60,000 are prisoners they will fill the places of our conscripts in the labors of the field 200 guns the whole train 90 colors all their generals are ours only 15,000 men have escaped soldiers I had prepared you for a great battle but thanks to the bad maneuvers of the enemy I have reached equal results without taking any risk and unprecedented event in the history of nations this result has been gained at an expense of less than 1500 men out of action soldiers this success is due to your unlimited confidence in your emperor to your patience in supporting all kinds of fatigue and privations and to your splendid valor but we cannot rest yet you were impatient for a second campaign the Russian army drawn by the gold of England from the furthest limits of the earth must suffer the same fate in this contest the honour of the French infantry is more especially at stake for the second time the question must be decided as already once before in Switzerland and in Holland whether the French infantry is the first or the second in Europe among them are no generals from whom I have any glory to win my whole anxiety shall be to obtain the victory with the least effusion of blood possible my soldiers are my children Napoleon whatever may be thought of Napoleon's rhetoric by the reader there is one point that must be kept steadily in mind that it produced the results he expected it was designed to inspire the morale of his troops and it succeeded in doing so all ranks were full of confidence in the genius of their great captain and the large proportion of veterans from the wars of the republic steady the dash of the troops with 11 of solidity and skilled leadership the victorious army with which Napoleon now found himself in Bavaria has been generally conceded to have been the finest he ever commanded he now had the following military problem to face some 150 miles or more due east down the valley of the Danube, La Viana between him and the capital and of the northeast in Bohemia were various Austrian and Russian corps large in the aggregate but not yet concentrated to the southeast the Archduke Charles was retiring towards the Austrian capital from Italy followed by Marshal Massina with a large army a less bold general than Napoleon would probably have given his enemies enough time to concentrate in front of Vienna but the emperor waited not one day and urged his columns rapidly down the valley of the Danube there was no serious resistance offered and on the 31st of October the French cavalry under Murat reached the Austrian capital only 11 days had passed since the capitulation of Olm 300 miles away footnote a large part of the French army was at Munich and beyond when Olm capitulated and footnote from Vienna the French marched northwards towards Moravia where the emperor Francis and the Tsar Alexander had now assembled a large army Napoleon hoped for a decisive battle and his opponents gratified his desire by advancing to meet him the position of Napoleon in spite of his great success at Olm was in reality very critical the internal affairs of France were disquieting chiefly owing to a grave financial crisis but what was perhaps more important the military situation was far from sound the French army was now 400 miles or more from its base and much weakened by detachments the line of communications ran through southern Germany of which the states professed amicable sentiments but to the north Prussia was avowedly on the point of declaring war and had concentrated a large army under Marshal Mollendorf it was evidently the policy of Russia and Austria to keep Napoleon's army employed in Moravia without coming to battle until the action of Prussia could take effect on his line of communications but the impetuosity of the young Tsar and of his advisers through councils of prudence to the winds and led him into the very course Napoleon hoped he would adopt for several days the emperor slowly retired before the advancing armies having selected a position near Osterlitz from which he expected to derive great advantage the French army took station there on the night of the first of December Kutuzov with the two allied emperors disposing his troops on the rising ground opposite Napoleon's left was solidly established on a hill named the Zanton that had been well entrenched his center was strongly placed on ground that was not likely to tempt the enemy to a decisive attack but the right was far otherwise situated it was drawn up on flat and unfavorable ground and appeared to the Russians weak in numbers and exposed the command of this wing was given to the dogged Davout whose orders were to hold on to this position as long as possible while at another point the emperor was deciding the fortune of the day Davout's wing was in reality far better placed than it appeared to be and he had strong defensive positions on which to fall back protected by water and swampy ground having thus placed his right wing as a bait to the enemy Napoleon crowded the cores of Sioux of Bernadotte of Udino and the imperial guard out of sight behind some buildings and rising ground in his center with these troops he proposed dealing that a decisive stroke Kutuzov arrived in front of the French position on the first of December he had an army of some 85 000 men and estimated his enemy at about 50 000 in this he was wrong for Napoleon had brought in several detachments by forced marches and had raised his numbers to about 65 000 the Russian general-in-chief decided to attack the weak French wing and thus to possess him of the road to Vienna that lay behind it he made his intention clear on the afternoon before the battle by moving troops from the strong plateau of Patzen in his center down towards the hollow occupied by Davout from the moment Napoleon observed these movements he looked on the coming battle as already won on the night before the battle occurred an incident that shows with what feelings the first army of the empire viewed its leader Napoleon proceeded on foot to visit the outposts and observe the enemy his short figure gray coats and little cocked hat were recognized by some grenadiers who raised shouts of vive l'empereur reminding him that the second of December was the anniversary of the coronation from man to man the enthusiasm spread and soon all the long lines of the bivouac were up and an improvised illumination of twisted straw wisps burst out it astonished the Russian camps as much as it gratified the heart of Napoleon at the earliest on the two armies were in their positions for battle and just as the first shots were fired the sun burst through the heavy winter mist soon the two lines were engaged the Austro-Russians pressing hotly on the French right Davout disputed the ground fiercely but was slowly forced back a great part of the enemy descending from the heights at Patzen and extending into the low land out beyond the French center at last Napoleon gave the signal staff officers dashed off in every direction and from behind the ridge that concealed them the dense columns of Bernadotte and Sioux marched forward on the Russian center and climbed the heights Udino with the grenadiers and part of the imperial guard followed in support Katoosov was unprepared for such an attack his center was strong by nature but was now denuded of troops and the Patzen was soon in the hands of the French to regain this position was essential for war with Napoleon there the allies were completely cut in two the only available reserve was the Russian imperial guard and this was sent in fierce fighting followed but the French were not to be dislodged and the severed right of Katoosov rolled back defeated in the meanwhile Davout was still hotly engaged with the other wing but help was coming from the heights of Patzen long lines of French guns were now playing on the rear of the Russian left while Davout still kept up the fight in front thus cut off and surrounded there was nothing left but retreat the flat ground cut with streams and ponds was bad for this purpose and many of the fugitives who attempted to cross the frozen lake of Zachan broke through the ice probably several thousand were thus drowned footnote recent investigation shows that this was not so and footnote the battle cost the allies a loss of 35,000 men and 200 guns while the French reserves were not even brought into action and their loss was probably not more than 5,000 men two days later the emperor Francis met Napoleon at the outposts and agreed to an armistice as a preliminary of peace chronology 27th of August 1805 Grand Armée leaves channel camps 14th of October 1805 Munich occupied 20th of October 1805 surrender of Maak at Ulm 31st of October 1805 Vienna occupied 2nd of December 1805 Austerlitz 26th of December 1805 peace of Presberg note bibliographical general see page 11 in the foregoing and succeeding chapter the military operations of Napoleon are taken consecutively from Olm to Friedland political matters are left over for general consideration with the Treaty of Tilsit for Olm and Austerlitz see Schönhals der Krieg 05 Vienna 1874 Stuttagheim but die Dosterlitz Hamburg 1805 and numerous other editions end of chapter 9 recording by Owen Cook in Pottawatomie Seatedland chapter 10 of Napoleon a short biography this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org Napoleon a short biography by R. M. Johnston chapter 10 Jenna and Friedland war with Prussia Jenna Moratz March to Lubeck Eilao Friedland to present a clear impression it will be better to follow the first great cycle of wars to its conclusion postponing till its termination a consideration of the political events and changes that accompanied it a peace between France and Austria quickly followed Austerlitz and after the treaty signed at Presberg on the 26th of December the French troops gradually evacuated Austrian territory but instead of being brought back to the English Channel the core of the Grand Armée remained for the most part quartered in the South German states that were on friendly terms with Napoleon the reason of this was that the downfall of Austria had settled nothing Russia was still threatening war with Prussia had long appeared probable Hanover which Napoleon had seized immediately after his rupture with England was dangled as a bait before King Frederick William's eyes while the emperor pressed on him an anti-british commercial policy diplomatic bickering proceeded through the summer of 1806 and on the first of October the Prussian ambassador at Paris presented a series of demands including one for the withdrawal of the French troops from southern Germany that brought matters to a crisis the demands of Prussia were rejected by Napoleon who was already in the midst of his troops once more as at home the emperor repeated the strategic maneuver of Marengo to understand what took place a glance at the map is necessary from the French frontier to the capital of Prussia ran perhaps the most important road in all Germany one that was to figure conspicuously in the history of Napoleon it led northeast from Mainz on the Rhine through Erfurt and Liebzig to Berlin midway between the two latter places it crossed at right angles the river Elbe which was defended by several large fortresses this road described what was practically a straight line between Paris and Berlin and appeared to be the necessary scene of the campaign now about to open but the Prussian generals had not yet learned the methods of Napoleon their army of which the highest ranks were filled by veterans trained under the eye of the great Frederick was confident in its machine-like precision was inspired to marshal ardor by the influence of the patriotic Queen Louisa and the princes of the royal house young officers had whetted their swords on the stone steps of the French embassy in Berlin and the whole army was animated by hatred of France and a blind confidence in its superiority but the aged Duke of Brunswick who was in command fell into error the Prussian divisions were marched beyond the Elbe and then slowly advanced in a great semi-circle stretching out on either side of the Mainz road on the 5th of October headquarters were at air forts and the 110 000 men of the Prussian army presented a front of about 90 miles between Kassel and Rudelsstadt watching the Thuringian forest for a first glimpse of the enemy meanwhile what had Napoleon been doing aiming as always at dealing a decisive blow he rapidly moved the core that were protecting the French frontier not along the Mainz-Berlin line but to the eastward through Württemberg and Bavaria where they joined the troops already stationed close to the Austrian border the army numbering about 190 000 men was strongly concentrated about Bamberg and then marched north and slightly east towards the corner of Bavaria Saxony and Bohemia on the 5th of October the front of the French army covering not more than 35 miles was between Coburg and Hof and Napoleon who already shrewdly suspected the approximate position of the Prussians declared that if he could march unimpeded a few days more he would be in Berlin first the French pressed on by long days marches and a week later the outposts of the two armies were in touch not far from Saalfeld the French extreme left had come into contact with the extreme left of the Prussians the French were rapidly marching north the Prussians slowly southwest Napoleon's object was now to swing about towards his left so as to get across the great road in the rear of the Duke of Brunswick this maneuver was successfully carried out the French core getting into a line roughly indicated by Saalfeld, Gena, and Naumburg the main strength constantly tending northwards and towards the Elbe when the Duke of Brunswick discovered that the French army had completely turned his left flank and was rapidly moving towards his line of communications he issued orders for a general movement eastwards in hopes of being able to retreat towards the line of the Elbe through Gena and Naumburg but he was just a few hours too late and was compelled to fight with his enemy between him and his line of retreat on the 14th of October were fought two battles within a few miles at Gena and at Auerstadt at Auerstadt Davoust with inferior numbers held his position all day and prevented the passage of the King of Prussia and the Duke of Brunswick at Gena with superior numbers Napoleon utterly crushed Hohenlo the Prussian infantry fought well until beaten then the French cavalry rode them down with ease the pursuit of the defeated army by Murat was of an extraordinary character he all but literally galloped from Gena to Lubeck on the Baltic Sea in three weeks with the core of Laan, Sou and Bernadotte together with a large division of the cavalry he swept up the remains of the Prussian army and captured all the fortresses he passed Blucher with 20,000 men was the last to hold out surrendering after Murat had stormed Lubeck on the 7th of November in the meanwhile Napoleon with the other half of the army had pressed on to Berlin which he occupied on the 27th of October this was the most decisive and brilliant in its results of all the campaigns of Napoleon but the uncertainty of war the fickleness of fortune were demonstrated by the course of that which was immediately to follow Russia was now as anxious to support Prussia against France as she had been to support Austria but once more the allies had gone in singly and paid the consequences by the time that Napoleon had destroyed the army of Prussia and occupied her capital with the greater part of her territory the Russian corps were barely across the frontier Napoleon decided not to await them but to march even to Poland if necessary and there dispose of these last enemies during two months following Jenna French columns were marching steadily north and east from prosperous and rich central Germany towards the desolate plains of eastern Prussia and Poland Napoleon so as to utilize the political sentiments of the Poles now in hopes of recovering their lost independence determined to base himself on the line of the Vistula and to place his headquarters at Warsaw the Russian commander Benigsen anxious to support the Prussians moved into the coast provinces covering Kernesburg and operating towards Danzig these two fortresses with a small body of troops now represented all that remained of the Prussian power on the 25th of December a partial engagement between the two armies took place at Pultusk in which the losses were heavy and the results indecisive then Napoleon and Benigsen both went into winter quarters until early in February 1807 when the latter determined to make an attempt to crush Bernadotte's corps before it could be assisted by the others in this he failed Napoleon rapidly concentrating hoped in turn to deal a heavy blow at his antagonist but the success of great military operations often depends on the most trifling details a staff officer conveying dispatches to Marshal Bernadotte fell into the hands of the Cossacks and Benigsen thus became informed of Napoleon's plans he promptly moved his army to safer positions and finally stood his ground and offered battle near the little village of Eilau there on the 8th of February was fought one of the most bloody battles of the empire a raging snowstorm impeded the first movements of the French Marshal Augerot's corps lost its direction advanced to the attack diagonally and was surrounded and annihilated by the Russians a great gap was opened in the French line at Eilau and Benigsen sent forward his infantry to pierce it Napoleon and his staff appeared in the greatest danger but a few battalions of the guard held their ground with grim desperation and the emperor calm and unmoved declined to change his position it was necessary to relieve the pressure on the French center at any cost and thus gain time to bring fresh troops up so Murat was ordered to collect all the available cavalry and advance on the Russian center seventy squadrons of dragoons and croissiers lancers and chasseurs about 10 000 men then followed that most brilliant of cavalry leaders through the whorls of snow straight for the Russian line this remarkable charge of cavalry was carried a distance of nearly 3 000 yards before it was spent it swept everything in its front pierced completely through the Russian center and gave Napoleon the relief he so urgently needed from then on to dusk the battle was fought with dogged obstinacy on both sides the French making but little progress at night each army and each commander was beaten 30 000 dead men 4 000 dead horses lay between them Napoleon and Benigsen both made preparations for retreat but the former guest his opponent's intentions in time countermanded his first orders occupied the Russian positions next morning and claimed a allow as a victory but the French army and all Europe realized that the victory was purely technical and that Benigsen had come very near defeating the invincible conqueror was the spell broken all through Germany in Austria and in the remotest parts of Italy the opponents of Napoleon drew breath and declared his fall was near he meanwhile retired to winter quarters once more and called up from every corner of the empire fresh contingents of men to stop the enormous gaps made in his ranks one of Napoleon's favorite theories was that numbers constituted the essential factor of success it was not till June that the armies could be once more got into motion in a country where the spring comes so late as in Prussian Poland the new campaign opened badly for the French as Benigsen held his ground successfully in a partial engagement at Heilsberg maneuvering followed and at last an opportunity arose of which Napoleon took full advantage Benigsen marched down the right bank of the a la towards Kernigsberg which one half of the French army under Murat was threatening at Friedland he sent a detachment to the further bank to occupy that town a French core that of Laan deployed against the town and engaged the Russians Benigsen sent over more troops in support and seeing no sign of French reinforcements came to the hasty conclusion that he had only Laan's cores to deal with he accordingly decided to cross the river in strength and crush this isolated opponent but behind Laan in the wooded semicircle of hills that nearly surround Friedland the emperor Odinot, Ney, Victor, Mortier, and the guard were hurrying on Napoleon watched the Russian movements until he judged that Benigsen had gone too far to withdraw and then the whole army advanced to Laan's support the Russians were outnumbered nearly two to one and were in a wretched position to fight massed in a contracted space where the converging fire of the French artillery could not fail to cause havoc and with a river behind them Benigsen was utterly defeated with heavy loss and retreated with his shattered army to the Russian frontier Napoleon pursued and a few days later reached the little river Neyman boundary of Prussia and Russia at this point he received overtures for peace from the Tsar Alexander which he accepted and it was agreed that the two emperors should meet in a raft moored in midstream close to the town of Tilsit this famous interview which will be dealt with in the following chapter marks the close of the first great cycle of the wars of the empire that which was marked by nearly unclouded success end of chapter 10 recording by Linda Johnson