 So countries can apply non-tariff barriers due to the dumping. Dumping is the export of a commodity at a lower price abroad than domestic market. Actually, sometimes in a specific country, the producers of any country sell them commodity in the international market at the lower rate at the lower price than the domestic market. This can be intentional or this can be unintentional. So there are three basically types of dumping to avoid such situation. Countries are compelled to apply non-tariff barriers that can be in form of quota, that can be in form of any other non-tariff barriers. This is persistent dumping and it is also called international price discrimination. First of all, this idea is to understand what does it mean by price discrimination. Like the price discrimination that we talked about in the beginning of the video, when a commodity is selling at a lower price at a market at a higher price, it is called price discrimination. This persistent sort of dumping, this is done by selling the commodity at a higher price in the domestic market than internationally. In this case, this sort of dumping can be legal. There are many reasons for that. The second type of dumping is called predatory dumping and it is termed as a temporary sale of a commodity from a domestic producer. The main objective of this is the second type of dumping or the way in which the price is discriminated. The objective of this is not positive where this is being sold. Primarily, the producer of any country is to charge the domestic price at a high price and at an international level, the price of the same thing is less charged. And the motive of this is that if the actual price, the cost of the product is less than that, then it is sold. The primary reason for this is that it wants to achieve monopoly in the market. Now, monopoly is a concept of microeconomics. In this, there is only one single producer in the market who has full control over the market. There is only one seller in the market who is supplying or selling the product. In this case, predatory dumping is actually a temporary sale of your commodity at a low cost or at a lower market abroad to take the advantage of newly acquired monopoly abroad. The basic idea of price discrimination in its conditions is that the elasticity of demand should be different in different markets. Now, in this case, the dumping of this kind of dumping or even prior to that, we talked about persistent dumping, we talked about legal dumping because the objective there is not to be acquired by the market. In that persistent dumping and predatory dumping, this is the primary objective or the primary difference in this case that in persistent dumping, the seller keeps monopoly in the domestic market or is a single producer. But in the international market, he has to face competition. There are more sellers in the market. In that case, he has to keep his price competitive. Because of which, he could take some share of the market. So, there is no such issue in this type of dumping. But the predatory dumping here is objective altogether different. The objective here is that the international market or the foreign market is going to capture this producer, the market. And the entire surplus of the consumer is going to take. So, that is the difference. The third type of discrimination in dumping is the occasional sale of a commodity at a below cost or at a lower price to unload an unforeseen and temporary surplus of the commodity without having to reduce the domestic prices. Now, this case is very interesting. Mostly, this case is faced by developed countries where you have a basic microeconomics rule that when the supply is too much, then your prices start falling. In this case, developed countries, industrialized countries dump their agricultural commodities on the other market at a lower price. And this is also an advantage for developing countries that they are getting something at a lower price compared to the international market. The case here is that this is not on a regular basis. This is occasionally, as we have said earlier, that after a year or three years or even four years, there has been a situation where a country's domestic market has produced too much or has more productivity. If we talk specifically about agriculture, then in that case, industrial also comes. Interestingly, industrial productivity also increases and countries are going to dump their things in other countries. But primarily, this idea relates too much to agriculture goods. Then, as I said earlier, if you have an objective to capture the foreign market of a domestic producer, then in that case, this is an illegal form of production. And in this case, the tariffs that you have justify your state restriction in any case. Because here, normally what happens is, like Japan did this, the U.S. has a big classical case, that Japan had dumped their electronics goods there, and sold them at a lower price. Ultimately, the U.S. had to basically apply trade restriction to the Japanese products, particularly related to electronics. So, in that case, it is highly highlighted that the domestic market of that country is being created because monopoly is being created there. So, that effect is there. So, countries act in that case and try to control it. Now, the primary objective is to stop this sort of dumping. When the price, suppose I am a domestic producer and I want to sell my commodity in Pakistan and in the U.S. as well. And here, I keep my objective, that I sell my commodity in the U.S.C. market and take a monopoly there. So, if this realization happens in the U.S.C., then the U.S.C. state can apply non-tariff barriers to me, in any form that we have read earlier. So, what will happen in that case? Ultimately, the price of my product will gradually increase. And then, once again, that will be competitive price that the producer's price will match with that price. And then, there will be fair play. You can sell your product at a fair price. Then, as I said earlier, that most industrialized countries do their dumping. So, the European Union has a very classical case that they dump their agricultural goods normally. So, this is a concept of dumping that becomes a reason for non-tariff barriers. So, when you have a concept of dumping, then countries have this option. If they assess this case and prove it somewhere, then they can apply non-tariff barriers.