 Hello I'm Tony Abramson and today I'll be presenting another talk in Matt Hill's Virtual Festival of Coins entitled The Lure of Skeets. When considering Skeets it's appropriate to recall E. F. Schumacher's dictum that small is beautiful. I'm enthralled by these enigmatic and luring fragments of history which open a portal to the economic vibrancy, religious beliefs, mythology, art, and technical competence of what many still mistakenly call the Dark Ages. First of all let's get some terminology in place to avoid confusion. The Anglo-Saxon term for the premises is frimza, better called the gold chilling. The Skeet or Shatter is now usually referred to as an early penny or early silver penny. The Dark Age is better termed the conversion period consequent upon Augustine's mission of 597 to the Kentish court of King Ethelbert. And Medivision refers to the ruling dynasty in Frankia during the period under discussion. The origins of early pennies can be found in the late Roman court age, specifically the tremorsis, one-third of a solidus. The tremorsis shown here is referred to as the victory type due to the reverse motif. Tribes migrating to Western Europe were in fact far from barbarous and quickly assimilated Roman customs and practices. Emulating Roman coin types, specifically the victory tremorsis, gave their currency authority and authenticity. Many so-called pseudo-imperial victory tremorses have been found in England, evincing the extent of early commerce between England and the continental Gothic tribes. In Frankia, the victory type was eventually superseded by another long-lived coinage, referred to as the national series, naming the mint and mullia. The existence of 800 minting places and 1600 mullias shows the sophistication and volume of Medivision coinage. Again, many have been found in England as a result of commerce. There have been very few hordes of this material found in England. The purse hoard, found at Sutton Hoo Ship Burial, manned one, contained 37 different continental gold tremorsis. This princely burial is thought to be that of King Radwell, the beast anglia, who died around 624. In recent years, a substantial horde of continental origin has been discovered at Fincham, West Norfolk, despite initial attempts to evade disclosure. Conventionally, the Cromble Horde was held to the earliest indication of English minting. Designs emulated Roman prototypes. Here highlighted in blue, invoking Romanitas, the spirit of Rome. Or were Medivision tremorses, as shown here highlighted in green. However, the majority, 69 of the 101 pieces in the horde, were gold shillings, in crude native styles, highlighted here in red. Included among the Cromble Horde were two shillings eventually attributed to the Adbold of Kent. Given the poor literacy of early inscriptions, the verse legend of this type has defined full interpretation. Some of the specimens now known seem to read London, whereas others can be transliterated to give a blended rendering thus. It's not a huge leap to read this as Miletus. Miletus was one of several people emissaries sent in 601 to support Augustine's mission. The York coins are not represented in the Cromble Horde, possibly as York is so remote from Cromble Horde. I've recently interpreted this type, this York type, shown here as reading Paulinus, another of the Roman emissaries sent with Miletus. Paulinus became Bishop of York around 627, when Edwin was King of Northumbria. Miletus and Paulinus would have been steeped in both the economic and symbolic functions of coinage, which is quite conceivable that they influenced respectively the Adbold of Kent and his brother-in-law Edwin of York to act in concert. According to Bede, speaking of the Adbold, after his conversion and in the monastery of the most blessed Prince of the Apostles, that is St Peter's Canterbury, he built a church of the Holy Mother of God, which was consecrated by Archbishop Miletus. This must place it between 619 and 624. Then Bede speaks of Edwin, soon after his baptism, which was Easter at St Peter's York, at Paulinus' suggestion, he gave orders to build a larger and more noble Basilica of stone. This must be in the period 627 to 633. I would suggest that they both issued gold coins with a common purpose to commemorate the erection of a church. Returning to the Merivigian coinage found in England, over the 90 year duration of the Frankish National Series, the gold content fell as can be seen here from this pale gold specimen. Similarly, Anglo-Saxon gold shillings lost purity as volume increased, and more transactions were brought into the economic net. Pada, shown here, was the more prolific of the two issuers of pale gold shillings during this transitional phase. A second, if less prolific mania of the transition period was Varnimundus, possibly a mania from the Metz region of Francia. Recent archaeological evidence on grave goods and ice core analysis has advanced the transition from gold to silver by as much as two decades to the six sixties. To stretch, this may resurrect the formally discredited association of the Pada coinage with Pada of Mercia. The transition to a new denomination is complete with the disappearance of any gold content from what is now the silver early penny coinage. Again, only one denomination circulated. There was no small change. Given the tiny module, about 11 millimeters, better specimens may be regarded as among the best of early Anglo-Saxon art. Skeets in collectible condition remain difficult to obtain. Rare varieties, those in outstanding condition, those with provenance, and especially those with pedigree, attract the premium. The phases of the early Anglo-Saxon penny vary between the north and south of England. The primary phase is earlier and longer in the south. The secondary phase is later and longer in the north. Skeets of similar module, weight and alloy, were issued in the regions bordering the North Sea. England, Netherlands, France, and Denmark, certainly by kings and bishops, but probably also by merchants, although that's difficult to prove. The coins are interchangeable despite the huge variation in design. The mix found in trading locations may indicate the range of commercial relations. The Emporia, or works bordering the North Sea, are the mint places, although some peripatetic striking is likely. Although this map is well out of date, the wide dispersal of the coinage is clear. Fundamentally, the coinage is a medium of exchange, although the denomination worth, I would suggest perhaps today's pay, remain too high to capture many regular transactions. Mineralization is inhibited by the absence of small change. Metcalfe estimated that the output of low countries was prodigious, perhaps 27 million for series D and twice that for series E. Even if this is based on double the actual die longevity, half this volume, say 40 million coins, is massive and not matched for several centuries subsequently. Nevertheless, partly due to the minute module, the survival rate is lower. Much was the trade with England demonstrating the vibrancy of economic activity around the North Sea. English law was codified from the start of the 7th century, but based largely on cases brought before the judiciary, many penalties were financial compensation for harm done with settlement enumerated in coin. The widespread reintroduction of coinage also facilitated payment of church dues. Even though only the northern coins were literate, identifying each historical documented issuer clearly, this ring here in blue, the southern English skits were largely uninscribed. But for a few notable exceptions, despite this, the Christianizing imagery is potent and often expressed metaphorically. The medium is the message for this conversion period coinage. However, there are examples of ambiguity, often due to the issuers wanting to appeal to a spectrum of differing traditions. The coinage draws inspiration from these diverse traditions. Influences include Roman, Byzantine, Germanic, Anglo-Saxon, Christian and pagan. The coinage is divided by the Aston Rowan Horde, conventionally dated to around 710. The Horde consists of primary phase coins of conservative style. Cassical coinage remains a major influence. However, the subsequent coinage of the second refaze displays an explosion of creativity with innovative designs, though often the meaning remains tantalizing beyond reach. There is only slight evolution of style during the primary phase. The radiant bust of plentish series A with its votive standard reverse is continued in series C with an expansion into the Thames area and abroad in series D. It continues to the end of the second refaze as East Anglian series R. C, D and R replace the lettering of series A with runes, possibly an amuletic association with Bishop Epper, who saved his Abbey Celci from playing. The other main component of the primary phase is series B. Again, displaying conservative styles with a bird on cross reverse in a serpent circle. This has continued stylistically into the second phase as series J. Stuart Riegel mapped out the primary series in 1960, then in 1977 encapsulated the entire early penny classification in the 11 pages in the British Numismatic Journal, a paradigm of brevity. More comprehensive study is Michael Metcalf's Magnum Opus extending to nearly 700 pages plus large plates. However, his three weighty tomes were of academic gravity. And again, made a groundbreaking contribution to the field with her study of iconography, giving a scholarly tour of art historical forms from which the engravers of sheets drew their inspiration. My aim in creating a shadow list was to improve access to this complex neglected coinage to simplify identification and give an indication of scarcity and value for the collector. Occasionally, the Southern English Skeets are graced by inscriptions, although a lack of historical documentation prevents identification of the issuers or money as named. Here we see a scarce Saro Aldo, an extremely rare Aldo Bertus, an iconic Athenae Red. As already mentioned, also belonging to the primary phase is series D from the Low Countries, generally the portrait is right facing. Metcalf held that what he called lateral reversal implied imitative or unofficial design. However, this superb specimen demonstrates his wring old, the wriggle stated that the lines between official and derivative are blurred. The dominant series E Skeets from the Netherlands have presented a present in England in substantial numbers, evincing the depth of trade. Metcalf noted the prevalence of porcupine skeets and sheep rearing chalk up runs. The evident numismatist Humphry Sutherland proposed the description porcupine for want of a better description. It is actually a degenerate bust and only becomes dominant in the secondary phase. The origins of the reverse votive standard can be seen in this Roman type, where the standard proclaims that the emperor has served 20 years, making fulfill his vows for another 20. From the despairing and perplexed looks on the faces of the captives. Just take a closer look at that. This was not a universal or universally popular plea. Production of low country skeets was prodigious volumes and not subsequently exceeded for centuries. From in depth study of and comprehensive identification, identification of the 1922 series D and the incredibly complex series E, I strongly recommend the Yabok volumes by Optin Velder and Metcalf. The first volume covers series D. That's 2003. And two volumes published in 2009 to 10 cover series E. In this trading currencies in the secretary flat phase, notably series R, were made in lower but still significant volumes. Note the longevity of the rooms reading ever and the continued use of the votive standard reverse. The immobile design is intended to convey stability and inspire confidence. I would now like to take a closer look at some of the outstanding art in the southern secondary phase, although I claim no expertise in art history. While the artistry has lost the engraver's skill of classical times, these artwork portraits are not to be dismissed as crude. They contrast starkly with the disintegrated runic busts of the mass produced series C, D and R. Regarding this last coin, forward facing portraits recalled by some time images. As Rory Naysmith has written, they are perceived as carrying an air of serene disconnection that was thought especially proper for Christ and the saints. Forward facing portraits were already present in the primary phase as shown by series Z, which evolves through several stages. Here we have a portrait of a distinctly haunted appearance. The last one, a unique specimen is particularly charismatic, perhaps portraying a death mask. The reverse displays are creature conventionally described as a hound, but it plays to me much more like a wild boar, a venerated symbol from the classical world and northern European mythology. On the bentigrange helmet, the pagan boar associated with protection faces towards the cross on the nasal and the displayed syncretism, the fusion of ideologies. This carved side panel of St. Cuthbert's coffin shows a similar figure with fort beard and halo over the almond shaped eyes appear to be open. The coinage shows many twin standard bearers. This series ends specimen and usually shows them facing over a long cross pomade. Note the stark contrast between the overt militarism of Roman prototypes and the humility of the early pennies. Perhaps the observer was prompted to recall the biblical phrase, they shall beat their swords into couches and their spears into pruning crooks. The illusions are two biblical precepts rather than military conquest. Whilst the first shown here is a fairly typical example of the standard bearer design with cross and bird of prey. The second is extremely rare and more complex, note particularly the tiny creatures either side of the almost featureless head. Often one or both long crosses are replaced by foliage. This fifth unique image is remarkable in the number of crosses incorporated true to triquetras as headdresses, long cross pomade either side, a petrol cross on the chest and two more inverted at the hem, seven in all, perhaps the final rather curious image recalls the biblical phrase, go naked. The Roman origins of this obverse are self-evident. The motif is also familiar from contemporary artifacts such as the stunning early 8th century Franks or Ozone, Wales bone casket. On the left panel, the she-wolf lies on its back with the twins above, back to back as shown in the detail here. In the first coin, the twins are nourished by drops of milk. In the lower obverse, they hold a cross pomade between them. However, the reverse is even more enchanting. A songbird is poised in long stalks of foliage, which bend to bear its weight. The imagery is rich in metaphor. Returning to continental speeds, in the second phase, the porcupine is full blown and the reverse standard evolves into more complex forms. This mass produced cornage of the low countries issued during the tenure of the powerful King Radbod favours anonymity, possibly to enhance its currency. Rarely do we see portrayal, however, in the margin of this specimen is a tiny, beautifully crafted bird. There are many iconic designs in this cornage. Here we see a lion with a curling tongue and a cross above. The animal mask type is a highly desirable rarity, whereas Series H with its reverse peacock was made in substantial numbers in the Hampshire Emporium of Hamwick. The peacock was a symbol of immortality due to the reputed incorruptibility of its flesh. Incoming skeets to Hamwick were recycled into this local design. Dyes are differentiated and enumerated by a wide variety of mint marks on both obverse and reverse. The final image on this slide, the swan, was illustrated in Wither and Wile as early as 1756 and then disappeared from view for 240 years. Although the plate in Wither and Wile is drawn by the notorious John White, the skeets are faithfully portrayed. The swan reverse is highlighted here. Let me just expand that. Shown below is an example of Series M. Series M has a sinuous animal obverse with a vine scroll reverse. The rare variety has what Anne Gannon has described as a pascal lamb. The reverse is familiar from many contemporary sculptings of inhabited vine scrolls. The mythological center has been reinterpreted in Series S from barbarity into a caring and nurturing Christian context, perhaps intended to reflect the spiritual journey of the Anglo-Saxons. The reverse displays a beaded spiral cross consisting of the tongues of four rotating serpents, serpents who use ambiguously to convey protection in the Germanic tradition or a mortal threat in the Christian repertoire. So possibly both sides project the same theme and evolution from barbarity to morality. A similar reverse has just three serpents, the Triskelis, which is familiar from contemporary artifacts, including the hanging well from a certain who, and this beautiful pendant from Kent, whose design spirals outwards. The spiral of two creatures, probably birds rather than serpents, evokes the interlaced pattern prevalent on the illuminated manuscripts and early Anglo-Saxon artifacts, such as this elaborate buckle from certain who. This tiny curled serpent looks ferocious with its barbed tongue. However, this more complex construct envelops the cross protectively. Again, we are presenting with a fierce serpent with a vicious forked tongue. However, the creature is surrounded by a second serpent. You can see its head above the eye of the first serpent at the inner serpent. The face is to protect the observer from the evil eye than the engraver is thinking on a higher plane. In the second specimen, the protective enveloping serpent is more clearly executed with its head directly above that of the inner serpent. The geometric designs in the Shatter series tease the eye, such as this beautiful expanding Celtic cross with rosettes filling the quarters. The extremely rare cross encray also hides a pellet cross in the void. This annual cross variety is set against the starry background, not a scrap of space is left unfilled. This horror of vacant space is a feature of the dense carpet pages of illuminated manuscripts. Perhaps an evil spirit will infiltrate the slightest void. These geometric designs resonate with the wonderful garnet-encrusted cruciform inlay jewellery of the period. Here we see an abundance of intricate cross encrays. Here we see stepped elements in blue crystal. And here again in garnet. Closably, some streets with geometric designs are attempting to emulate jewellery. The reverse of this geometric design is a backward looking biped with a leg raised behind its head. We see a beast with a similar posture on contemporary sculpture. The creature could be a custodian of treasure in the Germanic tradition, although it appears to be in terraced stricken flight here. The coinage is not only rich in metaphor, albeit obscure, but it is intentionally ambiguous. Is the snake here emanating from the lion's mouth hostile or protective? It could be both. Might it convey different meanings to diverse groups of observers depending on their origins and beliefs? There is much that lies tantalizing beyond our comprehension. The Germanic tradition recalls Tolkien's spout protecting the pile of gold. Uniquely, among ancient coins, pairing some skeets tells a story. Here we have a wading bird with a serpent rising to attack from below. On the second specimen, we have the foreground bird challenged by a pincer-jord fiend. And the third example, they have a confrontation between a backward looking bird on the right and the open-jord serpent left. They all allude to the eternal conflict between good and evil. How will this be resolved? In the first case, the bird tramples its attacker underfoot and now locks to the cross. In the second, the serpent is replaced by the cross. And finally, we have a more complex scene. The bird turns its back on the serpent and again looks to the cross. Remarkably, the serpent looks crestfallen. The observer is reminded of the biblical phrase, get thee behind me Satan. Of course, in the world of 2020, I may have got these pairings in the wrong order. Historians, medievalist and archeologists have cattle on every comparable contemporary artefact, stones, sculpture, illuminated manuscripts, paintings and icons, carvings, jewellery and ornaments. Coinage remains the most fertile and yet most neglected source. Now, turning to Northumbria, which occupied a substantial area between the Humber and the Firth of Forth, it was divided into two feuding kingdoms. To the north, when this year occupied a geographically larger area ruled in the Iron Age by the brigantes. To the south, the area was the rival dynastic house occupying a smaller area, including the land of the Iron Age Parasite of the East. Occupancy of the throne swung like a pendulum between these fierce dynastic rivals. In the seventh century, nearly all Northumbrian monarchs died in the quest to conquer territory. In the eighth, nearly all died in the interneesine conflict. In 685, against the council of his advisors, including Cuthbert, the ambitious king, Egfrith, fought the Picts at Dunnefte. In a subsequent annihilation, he lost much more than territory, his army, reputation and life. His austere half-brother, Aldrith, succeeded to the throne. Beed referred to this monarch as a man most ably, a man most learned, who ably restored the shattered fortunes of the kingdom. Sir Frank Stenton considered him equivalent to Alfred the Great in learning and strategy. Aldrith was the first king identifiably named on English coinage. His only failure was the inadequacy of his succession. As a result, the kingdom was run by incompetence for a third of a century after his death. No recognizably, Northumbrian skits were minted. And the third of a century after Aldrith. But the deficiency was made good by use of southern skits predominantly of series J and G. Whether some elements of J are indeed northern emissions is disputed. A fragish denier of reams was an earth near Bridlington, possibly a prototype. Perhaps for the design implies collaboration of church and state rather than confrontation. The red heads recall a stator of the ICI in its iconography. I will briefly speculate on a couple of other skits with possible Northumbrian associations. This is primary series E variety G from the Low Countries. I've added an extremely rare variety with a reverse that departs from the normal beaded standard. The margin contains a legend starting VV that's W ILL more clearly seen in this specimen. Within the compartment is a Y shaped symbol and a cruzier. It was suggested to me by Professor DeWitt that this may have been issued by Willie Broad and Northumbrian emissary who became Bishop of Utrecht for 44 years. This long tenium mirrors the duration of series E. What makes the argument is that Willie Broad's attribute was a cruzier as shown centrally on the coin. The second type for which I have postulated northern associations, partly due to the northern fine spots, is what I have done the fledgling variety. It's more likely an osprey, the one with beaded features in this biographical life of Cuthbutt. On close inspection, our bird clearly has a fish in its mouth, with which it intends to give Cuthbutt and his assistants sustenance on their sojourn. Eventually, Northumbrian coinage was restored with the literate and wonderfully handsome, fantastic beast issue of the Anberte, a significant improvement stylistically on Altmouth's efforts. The beast could be a fusion of biblical lion and Celtic stag, recalling a popular pagan deity of the North. Here we see a rock carving from Witthorn in Dumfriesen, Galloway. There is also an obvious affinity of design between East Anglia and Northumbria. The reverse of this East Anglian skeet is the exceptionally rare stag variety of series Q. The occupant of the East Anglian Sutton-Human burial edged his bets between paganism and Christianity, and here we see a scepter mounted above by the Antler Stag. I'll digress from Northumbrian coinage for a moment. The Gunderschrup Cauldron features an Antler deity grasping a powerful snake. The stag represented a potent beast and the Antlers exemplified the annual cycle of renewal and rejuvenation. This cycle is recalled, for example, in the serpent border of series B, where the universal self-sustaining Eroborus bites its own tail. Another representation of the cycle of renewal and revival is the triple tail on many of the beasts shown on skeets, which is thought to represent the tree of life and its associated mythology. Returning to Northumbria, the fantastic beast type continued for half a century after its revival by the advert, being issued by a succession of monarchs. However, Beed's death in 735 denies his perceptive judgment and historical perspective on their performance in office. The only exceptions to the fantastic beast type were occasional joint issues, such as the two exceptionally rare types of the patrician king, Ethelwald Moll, one with Moll's son, Ethelred, even though his succession to the throne was interrupted by rival dinasts. The other joint issue was with Archbishop Edgbert. It speaks volumes for Edgbert's diplomacy that he was able to issue jointly with a succession of rival dinasts after the retirement of his brother, the Adbertus King. An acknowledgement of iconoclasm under Ethelwald I, there was a transition away from pagan or indeed any imagery in Northumbria. The reverse now named the Mania, which is shown here. This had the benefit of transferring responsibility for the integrity of the coinage to a named official, in this case, Cuthart, who was sufficiently resilient to serve a succession of rival monarchs. Here we see Cuthart again, together with his fellow Mania's at Ethelred's Mint, all clearly engraved by the same hand. There is a suggestion in Stuart Lyon's Siligy that the last of these Cuthgills was active after the devastating banking assault on Lindisfarne in 773. The Cuthgill Skeet is a poor fabric, and the workmanship is deteriorated, which is only to be expected under the relative austerity after the attack on Lindisfarne, but the symbolism of the shrine could be a reference to the destruction of 793. Unsurprisingly, the road had great economic significance. The confidence under I Northsea trade collapsed along with the coinage. Ethelred died in a revenge attack at Eardwulf behest in 796. And we know of a mere handful of skeets of the mighty Eardwulf. 796 also saw the deaths of Arthur of Mercia and his successor, his son, the Northumbrian scholar Alcuin refers to it as the Black Year. Given the exogenous shock of Lindisfarne, the North was in no position to mind grip to the broad penny introduced by Arthur and his contemporaries following Frankish precedent. The only known mania for Eardwulf was the enduring cut heart. This is possibly the choicest survivor. Eardwulf was one of the two patrons have brewed on the hill. This imposing church is replete with sculpting of the period much comparable with motives on the coinage. Eventually, the Eardwulf's son, Ianred, resurrected the skeets, but the silver content was much reduced. This issue probably predates Northumbria's submission to Wessex at Dorr in 829. Could this possibly be the same cut heart? Conventionally, these coins are regarded as stikers, but it is better to reserve that name for the truly base subsequent coinage issued until the Viking conquest of York in 867. The unprepossessing and mass-produced stifle was wrongfully denigrated by most new misparties until this century. However, it represents a step change in monetization as the intrinsic value is for the first time commensurate with daily needs and provides the populace with the coin sufficient to surrender to the church for the salvation of souls without it being too great the financial imposition. The church's take is evidenced by a substantial horde of these base coins in the absence of hired denominations. I've only touched the tip of the Chatter iceberg. There's still so much we don't know and we shouldn't confuse belief in knowledge. Remember, what isn't surmised is conjecture.