 CHAPTER XI. 540. In our Introduction to Cookery, C. No. 76, we have described the gradual process of mankind in the art of cookery, the probability being that the human race for a long period lived wholly on fruits. Man's means of attacking animals, even if he had the desire of slaughtering them, were very limited until he acquired the use of arms. He, however, made weapons for himself and, impelled by a carnivorous instinct, made prey of the animals that surrounded him. It is natural that man should seek to feed on flesh. He has too small a stomach to be supported alone by fruit, which has not sufficient nourishment to renovate him. It is possible he might subsist on vegetables, but their preparation needs the knowledge of art only to be obtained after the lapse of many centuries. Man's first weapons were the branches of trees which were succeeded by bows and arrows, and it is worthy of remark that these latter weapons have been found with the natives of all climates and latitudes. It is singular how this idea presented itself to individuals so differently placed. 541 Brilan Savoron says that raw flesh has but one inconvenience. From its viscousness it attaches itself to the teeth. He goes on to say that it is not, however, disagreeable, but when seasoned with salt, that it is easily digested. He tells a story of a Croate captain whom he invited to dinner in 1815 during the occupation of Paris by the Allied troops. This officer was amazed at his host's preparations and said, When we are campaigning and get hungry, we knock over the first animal we find, cut off a steak, powder it with salt, which we always have in the sabre stash, put it under the saddle, gallop over it for half a mile, and then dine like princes. Again, of the huntsman of Dauphany it is said that they were out shooting in September, they take with them both pepper and salt. If they kill a very fat bird, they pluck and season it, and, after carrying it some time in their caps, eat it. This, they declare, is the best way of serving it up. 542 Subsequently to the Croate mode, which doubtless was in fashion in the earlier ages of the world, fire was discovered. This was an accident, for fire is not, although we are accustomed to call it so, an element, or spontaneous. Many savage nations have been found utterly ignorant of it, and many races had no other way of dressing their food than by exposing it to the rays of the sun. 543 The inhabitants of the Marion Islands, which were discovered in 1521, had no idea of fire. Never was astonishment greater than theirs, when they first saw it, on the descent of Magellan, the navigator on one of their isles. At first they thought it was a kind of animal that fixed itself to and fed upon wood. Some of them, who approached too near, being burnt, the rest were terrified, and durched only look upon it at a distance. They were afraid, they said, of being bit, or lest that dreadful animal should wound with his violent respiration and dreadful breath. For these were the first notions they formed of the heat and flame. Such, too, probably, were the notions the Greek originally formed of them. 544 Fire having been discovered, mankind endeavored to make use of it for drying and afterwards for cooking their meat. But they were a considerable time before they hit upon proper and commodious methods of employing it in the preparation of their food. 545 Meat then, placed upon burning fuel, was found better when raw. It had more firmness, was eaten with less difficulty, and the osmosome, being condensed by the carbonization, gave it a pleasing perfume and flavor. Still, however, the meat cooked on the coal would become somewhat befouled, certain portions of the fuel adhering to it. This disadvantage was remedied by passing spits through it and placing it at a suitable height above the burning fuel. Thus grilling was invented, and it is well known that, simple as this mode of cookery, yet all meat cooked in this way is richly and pleasantly flavored. In Homer's time, the art of cookery had not advanced much beyond this, for we read in the Iliad how the great Achilles and his friend Patroclus regaled the three Grecian leaders on bread, wine, and broiled meat. It is noticeable, too, that Homer does not speak of boiled meat anywhere in his poems. Later, however, the Jews, coming out of their captivity in Egypt, had made much greater progress. They undoubtedly possessed kettles, and in one of these, Esau's mess of potage, for which he sold his birthright, must have been prepared. 546 Having thus briefly traced a history of gastronomical progresses, we will now proceed to describe the various methods of cooking meat and make a few observations on the chemical changes which occur in each of the operations. 547 In this country, plain boiling, roasting, and baking are the usual methods of cooking animal food. To explain the philosophy of these simple culinary operations, we must subvert to the effects that are produced by heat on the principal constituents of flesh. When finely chopped mutton or beef is stewed for some time in a small quantity of clean water, and then subjected to slight pressure, the juice of the meat is extracted, and there is left a white, tasteless residue, consisting chiefly of muscular fibers. When this residue is heated to between 158 and 177 degrees Fahrenheit, the fibers shrink together and become hard and horny. The influence of an elevated temperature on the soluble extract of flesh is not less remarkable. When the watery infusion, which contains all the savory constituents of the meat, is gradually heated, it soon becomes turbid, and when the temperature reaches 133, flakes of whitish matter separate. These flakes are albumin, a substance precisely similar in all its properties to the white of an egg, C number 101. When the temperature of the watery extract is raised to 158 degrees, the coloring matter of the blood coagulates and the liquid which was originally tinge red by this substance is left perfectly clear and almost colorless. When evaporated, even at a gentle heat, this residual liquid gradually becomes browned and acquires the flavor of the roast meat. 548. These interesting facts, discovered in the laboratory, throw a flood of light upon the mysteries of the kitchen. The fibers of meat are surrounded by a liquid which contains albumin in its soluble state, just as it exists in the unboiled egg. During the operation of boiling or roasting, this substance coagulates and thereby prevents the contraction and hardening of the fibers. The tenderness of well-cooked meat is consequently proportioned to the amount of albumin deposited in it substance. Meat is underdone when it has been heated throughout only to the temperature of coagulating albumin. It is thoroughly done when it has been heated through its whole mass to the temperature at which the coloring matter of the blood coagulates. It is overdone when the heat has been continued long enough to harden the fibers. 549. The juice of flesh is water, holding in solution many substances besides albumin which are of the highest possible value as articles of food. In preparing meat for the table, great care should be taken to prevent the escape of this precious juice, as the succulents and sapidity of the meat depend on its retention. The meat to be cooked should be exposed at first to a quick heat which immediately coagulates the albumin on and near the surface. A kind of shell is thus formed which effectually retains the whole of the juice within the meat. 550. During the operation of boiling, roasting, and baking fresh beef and mutton when moderately fat lose according to Johnston on an average of about four pounds of meat in boiling one pound in baking one pound three ounces in roasting one pound five ounces four pounds of mutton lose in boiling 14 ounces in baking one pound four ounces in roasting one pound six ounces baking 551 the difference between roasting meats and baking it may be generally described and is consisting in the fact that in baking it the fumes caused by the operation are not carried off in the same way as occurs in roasting much however of this disadvantage is obviated by the improved construction of modern ovens and of especially those in connection with the Leamington Kitchener of which we give an engraving here and a full description of which will be seen at paragraph number 65 with the prices at which they can be purchased of Mezzer's R&J Slack of the Strand. With meat baked in the generality of us vins however which do not possess ventilators on the principle of this Kitchener there is undoubtedly a peculiar taste which does not at all equal the flavor developed by roasting meat the chemistry of baking may be said to be the same as that described in roasting 552 should the oven be very brisk it will be found necessary to cover the joint with a piece of white paper to prevent the meat from becoming scorched and blackened outside before the heat can penetrate into the inside this paper should be removed half an hour before the time of serving so that the joint may take a good color 553 by means of a jar many dishes which will be enumerated under their special heads may be economically prepared in the oven the principle of these are soups gravies jugged hair beef tea and this mode of cooking may be advantageously adopted with a ham which has previously been covered with a common crust of flour and water 554 all dishes prepared for baking should be more highly seasoned than intended to be roasted there are some dishes which it may be said are at least equally well cooked in the oven as by the roaster thus a shoulder of mutton and baked potatoes a fillet of breast of beef or suckling pig a hair well basted will be received by connoisseurs as well when baked as if they had been roasted indeed the baker's oven or the family oven may often as has been said be substituted for the cook and the spit with greater economy and convenience 555 a baking dish of which we given engraving should not be less than six or seven inches deep so that the meat which of course cannot be basted can stew in its own juices in the recipe for each dish full explanations concerning any special points in relation to it will be given boiling 556 boiling or the preparation of meat by hot water though one of the easiest processes in cookery requires skillful management boiled meat should be tender savory and full of its own juice or natural gravy but through the carelessness and ignorance of cooks it is too often sent to table hard and in nutritious to ensure a successful result in boiling flesh the heat of the fire must be judiciously regulated the proper quantity of water must be kept up in the pot and the scum which rises to the surface must be carefully removed 557 many writers on cookery assert that the meat to be boiled should be put into cold water and that the pot should be heated gradually but Liebig the highest authority on all matters connected with the chemistry of food has shown that meat so treated loses some of its most nutritious constituents if the flesh says the great chemist be introduced into the boiler when the water is in a state of brisk abolition and if the boiling be kept up for a few minutes and the pot then placed in a warm place so that the temperature of the water is kept at 158 to 165 degrees we will have the united conditions for giving to the flesh the qualities which best fit it for being eaten when a piece of meat is plunged into boiling water the albumin which is near the surface immediately coagulates forming an envelope which prevents the escape of the internal juice and most effectively excludes the water which by mixing with this juice would render the meat and sip it meat treated thus is juicy and well flavored when cooked as it retains most of its savory constituents on the other hand if the piece of meat be set on the fire with cold water and this slowly heated to the boiling the flesh undergoes a loss of soluble and nutritious substances while as a matter of course the soup becomes richer in these matters the albumin is gradually dissolved from the surface to the center the fiber loose more or less its quality of shortness or tenderness and becomes hard and tough the thinner the piece of meat is the greater is its loss of savory constituents in order to obtain well flavored and eatable meat we must relinquish the idea of making good soup from it as that mode of boiling which yields the best soup gives the driest toughest and most vapid meat slow boiling whitens the meat and we suspect that it is on this account that it is in such favor with the cooks the wholesomeness of food is however a matter of much greater moment than the appearance it presents on the table it should be born in mind that the whiteness of meat that has been boiled slowly is produced by the loss of some important alimentary properties 558 the objection we have raised to the practice of putting meat on the fire in cold water apply with equal force to the practice of soaking meat before cooking it which is so strongly recommended by some cooks fresh meat ought never to be soaked as all of its most nutritive constituents are soluble in water soaking however is an operation that cannot be entirely dispensed with in the preparation of animal food salted and dried meats required to be soaked for some time in water before they are cooked 559 for boiling meat the softer the water is the better when spring water is boiled the chalk which gives to it the quality of hardness is precipitated this chalk stains the meat and communicates to it an unpleasant earthy taste when nothing but hard water can be procured it is should be softened by boiling it for an hour or two before it is used for culinary purposes 560 the fire must be watched with great attention during the operation of boiling so that its heat may be properly regulated as a rule the pot should be kept in the simmering state a result which cannot be attained without vigilance 561 the temperature at which water boils under usual circumstances is 212 degrees Fahrenheit water does not become hotter after it has begun to boil however long or with whatever violence the boiling is continued this fact is of great importance in cookery and attention to it will save must much fuel water made to boil in a gentle way by the application of a moderate heat is just as hot as when it is made to boil on a strong fire with the greatest possible violence when once water has been brought to the boiling point the fire may be considerably reduced as a very gentle heat will suffice to keep the water at its highest temperature 562 the scum which rises to the surface of the pot during the operation of boiling must be carefully removed otherwise it will attach itself to the meat and thereby spoil its appearance the cook must not neglect to skim during the whole process though by far the greatest part of the scum rises at first the practice of wrapping meat in a cloth may be dispensed with if the skimming be skillfully managed if the scum be removed as fast as it rises the meat will be cooked clean and pure and come out of the vessel in which it was boiled much more delicate and firm than when cooked in a cloth 563 when taken from the pot the meat must be wiped with a clean cloth or what will be found more convenient a spun previously dipped in water and rung dry the meat should not be allowed to stand a moment longer than necessary as boiled meat as well as roasted cannot be eaten too hot 564 the time allowed for the operation of boiling must be regulated according to the size and quality of the meat as a general rule 20 minutes reckoning from the moment when the boiling commences may be allowed for every pound of meat all the best authorities however agree with this that the longer the boiling the more perfect the operation 565 a few observations on the nutritive value of salted meat may be properly introduced in this place every housewife knows that dry salt in contact with fresh meat gradually becomes fluid brine the application of salt causes the fibers of the meat to contract and the juices to flow out from its pores as much as one third of the juice of the meat is often forced out in this manner now as the juice is pure extract of meat containing albumin osmosone and other valuable principles it follows that meat which has been preserved by the action of salt can never have the nutritive properties of fresh meat 566 the vessels used for boiling should be made of cast iron well tinned within and provided with closely fitted lids they must be kept scrupulously clean otherwise they will render the meat cooked in them unsightly and unwholesome copper pans if used at all should be reserved for operations that are performed with rapidity as by long contact with copper food may become dangerously contaminated the kettle in which enjoy distressed should be large enough to allow room for a good supply of water if the meat be cramped and be surrounded with but a little water it will be stewed not boiled 567 in stewing it is not requisite to have so great a heat as in boiling a gentle simmering in a small quantity of water so that the meat is stewed almost in its own juices is all that is necessary it is a method used much on the continent and is wholesome and economical two useful culinary vessels are represented above one is a boiling pot in which large joints may be boiled the other is a stew pan with a closely fitting lid to which is attached a long handle so that the cover can be removed without scalding the fingers 568 the hot plate is a moderate improvement on the old kitchen ranges being used for boiling and stewing it is a plate of cast iron having a closed fire burning beneath it by which it is thoroughly well heated on this plate are set the various sauce pan stew pans and by this convenient and economical method a number of dishes may be prepared at one time the culinary processes of braising and stewing are in this manner rendered more gradual and consequently the substance acted on becomes more tender and the gravy is not so much reduced broiling 569 generally speaking small dishes only are prepared by this mode of cooking amongst these the beef steak and mutton chop of the solitary english diner may be mentioned as celebrated all the world over our beef steak indeed has long crossed the channel and with a view of pleasing britain's there is an every cart a at every french restaurant by the side of a la merengue and a la mayonaise beef steak day angleterre in order to succeed in a broil the cook must have a bright clear fire so that the surface of the meat may be quickly heated the result of this is the same as that obtained in roasting namely that a crust so to speak is formed outside and thus the juices of the steak are retained the appetite of an invalid so difficult to minister to is often pleased with a broil dish as the flavor and sapidity of the meat are so well preserved 570 the utensils used for broiling need but little description the common gridiron for which see engraving at number 68 is the same as it has been for ages past although some little variety has been introduced into its manufacture by the addition of grooves to the bars by means of which the liquid fat is carried into a small trough one point it is well to bear in mind these that the gridiron should be kept in a direction slanting toward the cook so as little fat as possible may fall into the fire it has been observed that broiling is the most difficult manual office the general cook has to perform and one that requires the most unremitting attention for she may turn her back upon the stoop hand or the spit but the gridiron can never be left with impunity the revolving gridiron shown in the engraving possesses some advantages of convenience which will be at once apparent frying 571 this very favorite mode of cooking may be accurately described as boiling and fat or oil substances stressed in this way are generally well received for they introduce an agreeable variety possessing as they do a peculiar flavor by means of frying cooks can soon satisfy many requisitions made on them it being very expeditious mode of preparing dishes for the table and one which can be employed when the fire is not sufficiently large for the purposes of roasting or boiling the great point to be born in mind and frying is that the liquid must be hot enough to act instantaneously as all the merit of this culinary operation lies in the invasion of the boiling liquid which carbonizes or burns at the very instant of the immersion of the body placed in it it may be ascertained if the fat is heated to the proper degree by cutting a piece of bread and dipping it in the frying pan for five or six seconds and if it be firm and of a dark brown when taken out put in immediately what you wish to prepare if it be not let the fat be heated until of the right temperature this having being affected moderate the fire so that the action may not be too hurried and that by a continuous heat the juices of the substance may be preserved and its flavor enhanced 572 the philosophy of frying consists in this that liquid subjected to the action of fire do not all receive the same quantity of heat being differently constituted in their nature they possess different capacities for caloric thus you may with impunity dip your finger in boiling spirits of wine you would take it very rapidly from boiling brandy yet more rapidly from water whilst the effect of the most rapid immersion in boiling oil need not be told as a consequence of this heated fluids act differently on the sapid bodies presented to them those putting water dissolve and are reduced to a soft mass the result being bullion stock c number 103 those substances on the contrary treated with oil harden assume a more or less deep color and are finally carbonized the reason of these different results is that in the first instance water dissolves and extracts the interior juices of the elementary substance placed in it whilst in the second the juices are preserved for they are insoluble in oil 573 it is to be especially remembered in connection with frying that all dishes fried in fat should be placed before the fire on a piece of blotting paper or sieve reversed and they're left for a few minutes so that any superfluous greasy moisture may be removed 574 the utensils used for the purpose of frying are confined to frying pans although these are of various sizes and for small and delicate dishes such as colaps fritters pancakes the saute pan of which we given engraving is used cooking by gas 575 gas cooking can scarcely now be considered a novelty many establishments both small and large have been fitted with apparatus for cooking by this mode which undoubtedly exhibits some advantages thus the heat may be more regularly supplied to the substance cooking and the operation is essentially a clean one because there can be no cinders or other dirt to be provided for some labor and attention necessary to with a coal fire or closed stove may be saved and besides this it may perhaps be said that a culinary operations are reduced by this means to something like a certainty 576 there are however we think many objections to this mode of cooking more especially when applied to small domestic establishments for instance the ingenious machinery necessary for carrying it out requires cooks perfectly conversant with its use and if the gas when the cooking operations are finished be not turned off there will be a large increase in the cost of cooking instead of the economy which it has been supposed to bring for large establishments such as some of the immense london warehouses where a large number of young men have to be catered for daily it may be well adapted as it is just possible that a slight increase in the supply of gas necessary for a couple of joints may serve equally to cook a dozen dishes roasting 577 of the various methods of preparing meat roasting is that which most effectually preserves its nutritive qualities meat is roasted by being exposed to the direct influence of the fire this is done by placing the meat before an open grate and keeping it in motion to prevent the scorching on any particular part when meat is properly roasted the outer layer of its albumen is coagulated and thus presents a barrier to the exit of the juice in roasting meat the heat must be of the strongest at first and it should then be much reduced to have a good juicy roast therefore the fire must be red and vigorous at the very commencement of the operation in the most careful roasting some of the juices squeezed out of the meat this evaporates on the surface of the meat and gives it a dark brown color a rich luster and a strong aromatic taste besides these effects on the albumen and the expelled juice roasting converts the cellular tissue of the meat into gelatin and melts the fat out of the fat cells 578 if a spit is used to support the meat before the fire it should be kept quite bright sand and water ought to be used to scour it with for brick dust and oil may give a disagreeable taste to the meat when well scoured it must be wiped quite dry with a clean cloth and in spitting the meat the prime parts should be left untouched so as to avoid any great escape of its juices 579 kitchens in large establishments are usually fitted with what are termed smokejacks by means of these several spits if required may be turned at the same time this is not being of course necessary in smaller establishments a roasting apparatus more economical in its consumption of coal is more frequently in use 580 the bottlejack of which we hear given illustration with the wheel and hook and showing the precise manner of using it is now commonly used in many kitchens this consists of a spring enclosed in a brass cylinder and requires winding up before it is used and sometimes also during the operation of roasting the joint is fixed to an iron hook which is suspended by a chain connected with a wheel and which in each turn is connected with the bottlejack beneath it stands the dripping pan which we have also engraved together with the basting ladle the use of which ladders should not be spared as there can be no good roast without good basting spare the rod and spoil the child might easily be paraphrased into spare the basting and spoil the meat if the joint is small and light and so turns unsteady this may be remedied by fixing to the wheel one of the kitchen weights sometimes this jack is fixed inside a screen but there is this objection to this apparatus that the meat cooked in it resembles the flavor of baked meats this is derived from its being so completely surrounded with the tin that no sufficient current of air gets to it it will be found preferable to make use of a common meat screen such as showed in the woodcut this contains shells for warming plates and dishes and with this the reflection not being so powerful and more air being admitted to the joint the roast may be very excellently cooked 581 in stirring the fire or putting fresh coals on it the dripping pan should always be drawn back so that there may be no danger of the coal cinders or ashes falling down into it 582 under each particular recipe there is stated the time required for roasting each joint but as a general rule it may be here given that for every pound of meat in ordinary sized joints a quarter of an hour may be allotted 583 white meats and the meat of young animals required to be very well roasted both to be pleasant to the palate and easy of digestion thus veal pork and lamb should be thoroughly done to the center 584 mutton and beef on the other hand do not generally speaking required to be so thoroughly done and they should be dressed to the point that in carving them the gravy should just run but not too freely of course in this as in most other dishes the tastes of individuals vary and there are many who cannot partake with satisfaction of any joint unless it is what others would call overdressed end of section 26 recording by belinda brown of indianapolis indiana section 27 of the book of household management this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org recording by Dennis Sayers the book of household management by Isabella Beaton quadrupeds chapter 12 general observations on quadrupeds 585 by the general ascent of mankind the empire of nature has been divided into three kingdoms the first consisting of minerals the second of vegetables and the third of animals the mineral kingdom comprises all substances which are without those organs necessary for locomotion and the due performance of the functions of life they are composed of the accidental aggregation of particles which under certain circumstances take a constant and regular feature but which are more frequently found without any definite confirmation they also occupy the interior parts of the earth as well as compose those huge masses by which we see the land in some parts guarded against the encroachments of the sea the vegetable kingdom covers and beautifies the earth with an endless variety of form and color it consists of organized bodies but destitute of the power of locomotion they are nourished by means of roots they breathe by means of leaves and propagate by means of seed dispersed within certain limits the animal kingdom consists of sentient beings that enliven the external parts of the earth they possess the powers of voluntary motion respire air and are forced into action by the cravings of hunger or the parching of thirst by the instincts of animal passion or by pain like the vegetable kingdom they are limited within the boundaries of certain countries by the conditions of climate and soil and some of the species prey upon each other Linnaeus has divided them into six classes mammalia birds fishes amphibious animals insects and worms the three latter do not come within the limits of our domain of fishes we have treated of birds we shall treat and of mammalia we will now treat 586 this class of animals embraces all those that nourish their young by means of lactile glands or teats and are so constituted as to have a warm or red blood in it the whale is placed an order which from external habits has usually been classed with the fishes but although this animal exclusively inhabits the water and is supplied with fins it nevertheless exhibits a striking alliance to quadrupeds it has warm blood and produces its young alive it nourishes them with milk and for that purpose is furnished with teats it is also supplied with lungs and two oracles and two ventricles to the heart all of which bring it still closer into an alliance with the quadrupedal species of the animal kingdom 587 the general characteristics of the mammalia have been frequently noticed the bodies of nearly the whole species are covered with hair a kind of clothing which is both soft and warm little liable to injury and bestowed in proportion to the necessities of the animal and the nature of the climate it inhabits in all the higher orders of animals the head is the principal seat of the organs of sense it is there that the eyes the ears the nose and the mouth are placed through the last they receive their nourishment in it are the teeth which in most of the mammalia are used not only for the mastication of food but as weapons of offense they are inserted into two movable bones called jaws and the front teeth are so placed that their sharp edges may easily be brought in contact with their food in order that its fibers may readily be separated next to these on each side are situated the canine teeth or tusks which are longer than the other teeth and being pointed are used to tear the food in the back jaws are placed another form of teeth called grinders these are for masticating the food and in those animals that live on vegetables they are flattened at the top but in carnivora their upper surfaces are furnished with sharp pointed protuberances from the numbers form and disposition of the teeth the various genera of quadrupeds have been arranged the nose is a cartilaginous body pierced with two holes which are called nostrils through these the animal is affected by the sense of smell and in some it is prominent while in others it is flat compressed turned upwards or bent downwards in beasts of prey it is frequently longer than the lips and in some other animals it is elongated into a movable trunk or proboscis whilst in the rhinoceros tribe it is armed with a horn the eyes of the quadrupeds are generally defended by movable lids on the outer margins of which are fringes of hair called eyelashes the opening of the pupil is in general circular but to some species as in those of the cat and hare it is contracted into a perpendicular line whilst in the horse the ox and a few others it forms a transverse spar the ears are openings generally accompanied with a cartilage which defends and covers them called the external ears in water animals the latter are wanting sound in them being transmitted merely through orifices in the head which have the name of auditory holes the most defenseless animals are extremely delicate in the sense of hearing as are likewise most beasts of prey most of the mammiferous animals walk on four feet which at the extremities are usually divided into toes or fingers in some however the feet end in a single cornea substance called a hoof the toes of a few in broad flat nails and of most others in pointed claws some again have the toes connected by a membrane which is adapted to those that are destined to pass a considerable portion of their lives in water others again as in the bat have the digitations of the anterior feet greatly elongated the intervening space being filled by a membrane which extends around the hinder legs and tail and by means of which they are enabled to rise into the air in man the hand alone comprises fingers separate free and flexible but apes and some other kinds of animals have fingers both to the hands and feet these therefore are the only animals that can hold movable objects in a single hand others such as rats and squirrels have the fingers sufficiently small and flexible to enable them to pick up objects but they are compelled to hold them in both hands others again have the toes shorter and must rest on the four feet as is the case with dogs and cats when they wish to hold a substance firmly on the ground with their paws there are still others that have their toes united and drawn under the skin or enveloped in corneas hooves and are thereby enabled to exercise no prehensile power whatever 588 according to the design and end of nature mammals are calculated when arrived at maturity to subsist on various kinds of food some to live wholly upon flesh others upon grain herbs or fruits but in their infant state milk is the appropriate food of the whole that this food may never fail them it is it is universally ordained that the young should no sooner come into the world than the milk should flow in abundance into the members with which the mother is supplied for the secretion of that nutritious fluid by a wonderful instinct of nature to the young animal almost as soon as it has come into life searches for the teat and knows perfectly at the first how by the process of suction it will be able to extract the fluid necessary to its existence 589 in the general economy of nature this class of animal seems destined to preserve a constant equilibrium and the number of animated beings that hold their existence on the surface of the earth to man they are immediately useful in various ways some of their bodies afford him food their skin shoes and their fleece clothes some of them unite with him in participating the dangers of combat with an enemy and others assist him in the chase in exterminating wilder sorts or banishing them from the haunts of civilization many indeed are injurious to him but most of them in some shape or other he turns to his service of these there is none he has made more subservient to his purposes than the common ox of which there is scarcely a part that he has not been able to convert into some useful purpose of the horns he makes drinking vessels knife handles combs and boxes and when they are softened by means of boiling water he fashions them into transparent plates for lanterns this invention is ascribed to king alfred who is said to have been the first to use them to preserve his candle time measures from the wind glue is made of the cartilages gristles and the finer pieces of the parings and cuttings of the hides their bone is a cheap substitute for ivory the thinnest of the calfskins are manufactured into vellum their blood is made the basis of prussian blue and saddlers use a fine sort of thread prepared from their sinews the hair is used in various valuable manufacturers the suet fat and tallow are molded into candles and the milk and cream of the cow yield butter and cheese thus is every part of this animal valuable to him who has spared no pains to bring it to the highest state of perfection illustration short horn cow illustration short horn bull 590 among the various breeds of the ox upon which man has bestowed his highest powers of culture there is now none takes a higher place than that known by the name of short horns from the earliest ages great britain has been distinguished for the excellence of her native breeds of cattle and there are none in england that have obtained greater celebrity than those which have this name and which originated about 70 years ago on the banks of the teas thence they have spread into the valleys of the tweed thence to the lothians in scotland and southward into the fine pastures of england they are now esteemed the most profitable breed of cattle as there is no animal which attained sooner to maturity and none that supplies meat of a superior quality the value of some of the improved breeds is something enormous at the sale of mr charles colling a breeder in yorkshire in 1810 his bull comet sold for 1,000 guineas at the sale of url spencers herd in 1846 104 cows heifers and calves with 19 bulls fetched 8,468 pounds five shilling being an average of 68 pounds 17 shilling apiece the value of such animals is scarcely to be estimated by those who are unacquainted with the care with which they are tended and with the anxious attention which is paid to the purity of their breed a modern rider well acquainted with this subject says there are now at least 500 herds large and small in this kingdom and from six to seventy thousand head registered every alternate year in the herd book the necessity for thus recording the breeds is greater than might at first sight be imagined as it tends directly to preserve the character of the cattle which it sometimes adds to the value and reputation of the animal thus entered besides many of the americans and large purchasers for the foreign market will not look at an animal without the breeder has taken care to qualify him for such reference of short horned stock there is annually sold from forty thousand pounds to fifty thousand pounds worth by public auction independent of the vast numbers disposed of by private contract the brood is highly prized in belgium prussia france italy and russia it is imported into most of the british colonies and is greatly esteemed both for its meat and its dairy produce wherever it is known the quickness with which it takes on flesh and the weight which it frequently makes are well known but we may mention that it is not uncommon to tea steers of from four to five years old to realize a weight of from eight hundred to one thousand pounds such animals command from the butcher from thirty pounds to forty pounds per head according to the quality whilst others of two or three years old and of course of less weight bring as much as twenty pounds apiece illustration longhorn bull illustration longhorn cow five ninety one long horns this is the prevailing breed in our midland counties and in ireland they are greatly inferior to the short horns and are fast beans supplanted by them even where they have been cultivated with the nicest care and brought to the greatest perfection they are inferior to the others and must ultimately be driven from the farm illustration alderney cow illustration alderney bull five ninety two the alderney among the dairy breeds of england the alderney takes a prominent place not on account of the quantity of milk which it yields but on account of the excellent quality of the cream and butter which are produced from it its docility is marvelous and in appearance it greatly resembles the airshire breed of scotland the excellence of which is supposed to be in some degree derived from a mixture of the alderney blood with that breed the distinction between them however lies both in the quantity and quality of the milk which they severally produce that of the alderney being rich in quality and that of the airshire abundant in quantity the merit of the former however ends with its milk for as a grazer it is worthless illustration galloway bull illustration galloway cow five ninety three scottish breeds of these the kylo which belongs to the highlands of scotland the galloway which has been called the kylo without horns and the airshire are the breeds most celebrated the first has kept his place and on account of the compactness of his form and the excellent quality of his flesh he is a great favorite with butchers who have a select family trade it is alike unsuitable for the dairy and the arable farm but in its native highlands it attains to great perfection thriving upon the scanty and coarse herbage which it gathers on the sides of the mountains the galloway has a larger frame and when fattened makes excellent beef but it has given place to the short horns in its native district where turnip husbandry is pursued with advantage the airshire is peculiarly adapted for the dairy and for the abundance of its milk cannot be surpassed in its native district in this it stands unrivaled and there is no other breed capable of converting the produce of a poor soil into such fine butter and cheese it is difficult to fatten however and its beef is of a coarse quality we have chosen these as among the principal representative breeds of the ox species but there are other breeds which at all events have a local if not a general celebrity illustration side of beef showing the several joints 594 the general mode of slaughtering oxen in this country is by striking them a smart blow with a hammer or pole ax on the head a little above the eyes by this means when the blow is skillfully given the beast is brought down at one blow and to prevent recovery a cane is generally inserted by which the spinal cord is perforated which instantly deprives the ox of all sensation of pain in spain and some other countries on the continent it is also usual to deprive oxen of life by the operation of pithing or dividing the spinal cord in the neck close to the back of the head this is in effect the same mode as is practiced in the celebrated spanish bullfights by the matador and it is instantaneous in depriving the animal of sensation if the operator be skillful we hope and believe that those men whose disagreeable duty is to slaughter the beasts of the field to provide meat for mankind inflict as little punishment and cause as little suffering as possible 595 the manner in which the side of beef is cut up in london is shown in the engraving on this page in the metropolis on account of the large number of its population possessing the means to indulge in the best of everything the demand for the most delicate joints of meat is great the price at the same time being much higher for these than for the other parts the consequence is that in london the carcass is there divided so as to obtain the greatest quantity of meat on the most esteemed joints in many places however where from a greater equality in the social condition and habits of the inhabitants the demand and prices for the different parts of the carcasses are more equalized there is not the same reason for the butcher to cut the best joints so large 596 the meat on those parts of the animal in which the muscles are least called into action is most tender and succulent as for instance along the back from the rump to the hinder part of the shoulder whilst the limbs shoulder and neck are the toughest driest and least esteemed 597 the names of the several joints in the hind and four quarters of a side of beef and the purposes for which they are used are as follows hind quarter number one sirloin the two sirloins cut together in one joint form a baron this when roasted is the famous national dish of Englishmen at entertainments and on occasion of rejoicing number two rump the finest part for steaks number three each bone boiling piece number four but a prime boiling piece five mouse round boiling or stewing six hawk stewing seven thick flank cut with the utter fat primest boiling piece eight thin flank boiling four quarter nine five ribs called the four rib this is considered the primest roasting piece ten four ribs called the middle rib greatly esteemed by housekeepers as the most economical joint for roasting eleven two ribs called the chuck rib used for second quality of steaks twelve leg of mutton piece the muscles of the shoulder dissected from the breast thirteen brisket or breast used for boiling after being salted fourteen neck clod and sticking piece used for soups gravies stocks pies and mincing for sausages fifteen shin stewing the following is a classification of the qualities of meat according to the several joints of beef when cut up in the london manner first class includes the sirloin with the kidney suet the rump steak piece and the four rib second class the buttock the thick flank and the middle rib third class the H bone the mouse round the thin flank the chuck the leg of mutton piece and the brisket fourth class the neck clod and sticking piece fifth class the hawk the shin end of section 27 read by denis sears for libra vox in medesto california fall 2007 section 28 of the book of household management this is a libra vox recording all libra vox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit libra vox.org recording by katie gibney the book of household management by isabella beaten recipes chapter 13 part one baked beef cold meat cookery one ingredients about two pounds of cold roast beef two small onions one large carrot or two small ones one turnip a small bunch of savory herbs salt and pepper to taste four tablespoon fulls of gravy three tablespoon fulls of ale crust or mashed potatoes mode cut the beef in slices allowing a small amount of fat to each slice place a layer of this in the bottom of a pie dish with a portion of the onions carrots and turnips which must be sliced mince the herbs stir them over the meat and season with pepper and salt then put another layer of meat vegetables and seasoning and proceed in this manner until all the ingredients are used pour in the gravy and ale water may be substituted for the former but it is not so nice cover with a crust or mashed potatoes and bake for one half hour or rather longer time rather more than one half hour average cost exclusive of the meat six pence sufficient for five or six persons seasonable at any time note it is as well to par boil the carrots and turnips before adding them to the meat and to use some of the liquor in which they were boiled as a substitute for gravy that is to say when there is no gravy at hand be particular to cut the onions in very thin slices two ingredients slices of cold roast beef salt and pepper to taste one sliced onion one tablespoon full of minced savory herbs five or six tablespoon fulls of gravy or sauce of any kind mashed potatoes mode butter the sides of a deep dish and spread mashed potatoes over the bottom of it on this place layers of beef in thin slices this may be minced if there is not sufficient beef to cut into slices well seasoned with pepper and salt and a very little onion and herbs which should be previously fried of a nice brown then put another layer of mashed potatoes and beef and other ingredients as before pour in the gravy or sauce cover the hole with another layer of potatoes and bake for one half hour this may be served in the dish or turned out time one half hour average cost exclusive of the cold beef six pence sufficient a large pie dish full for five or six persons seasonable at any time beef the quality of beef depends on various circumstances such as the age the sex the breed of the animal and also on the food upon which it has been raised bull beef is in general dry and tough and by no means possessed of an agreeable flavor whilst the flesh of the ox is not only highly nourishing indigestible but if not too old extremely agreeable the flesh of the cow is also nourishing but it is not so agreeable as that of the ox although that of a heifer is held in high estimation the flesh of the smaller breeds is much sweeter than that of the larger which is best when the animal is about seven years old that of the smaller breeds is best at about five years and that of the cow can hardly be eaten too young baked beef steak pudding ingredients six ounces of flour two eggs not quite one pint of milk salt to taste one and a half pounds of rump steaks one kidney pepper and salt mode cut the steaks into nice square pieces with a small quantity of fat and the kidney divide into small pieces make a batter of flour eggs and milk in the above proportion lay a little of it at the bottom of a pie dish then put in the steaks and kidney which should be well seasoned with pepper and salt and pour over the remainder of the batter and bake for one and a half hour in a brisk but not fierce oven time one and a half hour average cost two shillings sufficient for four or five persons seasonable at any time beef a la mode economical ingredients about three pounds of clawed or sticking of beef two ounces of clarified dripping one large onion flour two quarts of water 12 berries of allspice two bay leaves one half teaspoon full of whole black pepper salt to taste mode cut the beef into small pieces and roll them in flour put the dripping into a stew pan with the onion which should be sliced thin let it get quite hot lay in the pieces of beef and stir them well about when nicely browned all over add by degrees boiling water in the above proportion and as the water is added keep the whole well stirred put in the spice bay leaves and seasoning cover the stew pan closely and set it by the side of the fire to stew very gently till the meat becomes quite tender which will be in about three hours when it will be ready to serve remove the bay leaves before it is sent to table time three hours average cost one shilling three pence sufficient for six persons seasonable at any time beef a la mode ingredients six or seven pounds of the thick flank of beef a few slices of fat bacon one teacup full of vinegar black pepper allspice two cloves well mixed and finally pounded making altogether one heaped teaspoon full salt to taste one bunch of savory herbs including parsley all finely minced and well mixed three onions two large carrots one turnip one head of celery one and a half pint of water one glass of port wine mode slice and fry the onions of a pale brown and cut up the other vegetables in small pieces and prepare the beef for stewing in the following manner choose a fine piece of beef cut the bacon into long slices about an inch in thickness dip them into vinegar and then into a little of the above seasoning of spice etc mixed with the same quantity of minced herbs with a sharp knife make holes deep enough to let in the bacon then rub the beef over with the remainder of the seasoning and herbs and bind it up in a nice shape with tape have ready a well-tinned stew pan it should not be much larger than the piece of meat you are cooking into which put the beef with the vegetables vinegar and water let it simmer very gently for five hours or rather longer should the meat not be extremely tender and turn it once or twice when ready to serve take out the beef remove the tape and put it on a hot dish skim off every particle of fat from the gravy add the port wine just let it boil pour it over the beef and it is ready to serve great care must be taken that this does not boil fast or the meat will be tough and tasteless it should only just bubble when convenient all kinds of stews etc should be cooked on a hot plate as the process is so much more gradual than on an open fire time five hours or rather more average cost seven pence per pound sufficient for seven or eight persons seasonable all the year but more suitable for a winter dish good meat the liar of meat when freshly killed and the animal when slaughtered being in a state of perfect health adheres firmly to the bones beef of the best quality is of a deep red color and when the animal has approached maturity and been well fed the lean is intermixed with fat giving it the modeled appearance which is so much esteemed it is also full of juice which resembles in color claret wine the fat of the best beef is of a firm and waxy consistency of a color resembling that of the finest grass butter bright in appearance neither greasy nor friable to the touch but moderately unctuous in a medium degree between the last mentioned properties beef steaks and oyster sauce ingredients three dozen oysters ingredients for oyster sauce c number 492 two pounds of rump steak seasoning to taste of pepper and salt mode make the oyster sauce by recipe number 492 and when that is ready put it by the side of the fire but do not let it keep boiling have the steaks cut of an equal thickness broil them over a very clear fire turning them often that the gravy may not escape in about eight minutes they will be done then put them on a very hot dish smother with the oyster sauce and the remainder sent to table in a terrain serve quickly time about eight to ten minutes according to the thickness of the steak average cost one shilling per pound sufficient for four persons seasonable from september to april beef steak pie ingredients three pounds of rump steak seasoning to taste of salt cayenne and black pepper crust water the yolk of an egg mode have the steaks cut from a rump that is hung a few days that they may be tender and be particular that every portion is perfectly sweet cut the steaks into pieces about three inches long and too wide allowing a small piece of fat to each piece of lean and arrange the meat in layers in a pie dish between each layer sprinkle a seasoning of salt pepper and when liked a few grains of cayenne fill the dish sufficiently with meat to support the crust and to give it a nice raised appearance when baked and not to look flat and hollow pour in sufficient water to have filled the dish and border it with paste see pastry brush it over with a little water and put on the cover slightly press down the edges with the thumb and trim off close to the dish ornament the pie with leaves or pieces of paste cut into any shape that fancy may direct brush it over with the beaten yolk of an egg make a hole in the top of the crust and bake in a hot oven for about one and a half hour time in a hot oven one and a half hour average cost for this size three shillings six pence sufficient for six or eight persons seasonable at any time note beef steak pies may be flavored in various ways with oysters and their liquor mushrooms minced onions etc for family pies suet may be used instead of butter or lard for the crust and clarified beef dripping answers very well where economy is an object pieces of underdone roast or boiled meat may in pies be used very advantageously but always remove the bone from pie meat unless it be chicken or game we have directed that the meat shall be cut smaller than is usually the case for on trial we have found it much more tender more easily helped and with more gravy than when put into the dish in one or two large steaks beef steak and kidney pudding ingredients two pounds of rump steak two kidneys seasoning to taste of salt and black pepper suet crust made with milk see pastry in the proportion of six ounces of suet to each one pound of flour mode procure some tender rump steak that which has been hung a little time and divided into pieces about an inch square and cut each kidney into eight pieces line the dish of which we have given an engraving with crust made with suet and flour in the above proportion leaving a small piece of crust to overlap the edge then cover the bottom with a portion of the steak and a few pieces of kidney season with salt and pepper some add a little flour to thicken the gravy but it is not necessary and then add another layer of steak kidney and seasoning proceed in this manner till the dish is full when pour in sufficient water to come within two inches of the top of the basin moisten the edges of the crust cover the pudding over press the two crusts together that the gravy may not escape and turn up the overhanging paste wring out a cloth in hot water flour it and tie up the pudding put it into boiling water and let it boil for at least four hours if the water diminishes always replenish with some hot in a jug as the pudding should be kept covered at all time and not allowed to stop boiling when the cloth is removed cut out a round piece in the top of the crust to prevent the pudding bursting and send it to table in the basin either in an ornamental dish or with a napkin pin round it serve quickly time for a pudding with two pounds of steak and two kidneys allow four hours average cost two shillings eight pence sufficient for six persons seasonable all the year but more suitable in winter note beef steak pudding may be very much enriched by adding a few oysters or mushrooms the above recipe was contributed to this work by a Sussex lady in which county the inhabitants are noted for their savory puddings it differs from the general way of making them as the meat is cut up into very small pieces and the basin is differently shaped on trial this pudding will be found far nicer and more full of gravy than when laid in large pieces in the dish bad meat in the flesh of animals slaughtered whilst suffering acute inflammation or fever the hollow fibers or capillaries as they are called which form the substance of the lyre are filled with congested and unassimilated animal fluid which from its impurity gives the lyre a dark color and produces a tendency to rapid putrefaction in a more advanced stage of such disease cirrus and sometimes purulent matter is formed in the cellular tissues between the muscles of the flesh and when such is the case nothing can be more poisonous than such abominable carrion in the flesh of animals killed whilst under the influence of any disease of an emaciating effect the lyre adheres but slightly to the bones with its fibers contracted and dry and the little fat that there may be is friable and shrunk within its integuments the flesh of animals slaughtered whilst under considerable depression of vital energy as from previous bleeding has a diminished tendency to stiffen after death the feebleness of this tendency being in proportion to the degree of depression it presents also an unnatural blue or palette appearance has a faint and slightly sour smell and soon becomes putrid when an animal has died otherwise than by slaughtering its flesh is flaccid and clammy emits a peculiar faint and disagreeable smell and it needs scarcely be added spontaneous decomposition proceeds very rapidly beef steaks with fried potatoes or beef take au pomme de terre à la mode française ingredients two pounds of steak eight potatoes one quarter pound of butter salt and pepper to taste one teaspoon full of minced herbs mode put the butter into a frying or saute pan set it over the fire and let it get very hot peel and cut the potatoes into long thin slices put them into the hot butter and fry them till of a nice brown color now broil the steaks over a bright clear fire turning them frequently that every part may be equally done as they should not be thick five minutes will broil them put the herbs and seasoning in the butter the potatoes were fried in pour it under the steak and place the fried potatoes around as a garnish to have this dish in perfection a portion of the filet of the sirloin should be used as the meat is generally so much more tender than that of the rump and the steaks should be cut about one third of an inch in thickness time five minutes to broil the steaks and about the same time to fry the potatoes average cost one chilling per pound sufficient for four persons seasonable all the year but not so good in warm weather as the meat cannot hang to get tender boiled each bone of beef ingredients beef water mode after this joint has been in salt five or six days it will be ready for use and will not take so long boiling as around for it is not so solid wash the meat and if too salt soak it for a few hours changing the water once or twice till the required freshness is obtained put into a sauce pan or boiling pot sufficient water to cover the meat set it over the fire and when it boils plunge in the joint scene number 557 and let it boil up quickly now draw the pot to the side of the fire and let the process be very gradual as the water must only simmer or the meat will be hard and tough carefully remove the scum from the surface of the water and continue doing this for a few minutes after it first boils carrots and turnips are served with this dish and sometimes suet dumplings which may be boiled with the beef garnish with a few of the carrots and turnips and serve the remainder in a vegetable dish time an each bone of 10 pounds two and a half hours after the water boils one of 20 pounds four hours average cost six pence per pound sufficient 10 pounds for seven or eight persons seasonable all the year but best from september to march note the liquor in which the meat has been boiled may be easily converted into a very excellent pea soup it will require very few vegetables as it will be impregnated with the flavor of those boiled with the meat the action of salt on meat the manner in which salt acts in preserving meat is not difficult to understand by its strong affinity it in the first place extracts the juices from the substance of meat insufficient quantity to form a saturated solution with the water contained in the juice and the meat then absorbs the saturated brine in place of the juice extracted by the salt in this way matter incapable of putrefaction takes the places of that portion in the meat which is most perishable such however is not the only office of salt as a means of preserving meat it acts also by its astringency in contracting the fibers of the muscles and so excludes the action of air on the interior of the substance of the meat the last mentioned operation of salt as an antiseptic is evinced by the diminution of the volume of meat to which it is applied the astringent action of salt peter on meat is much greater than that of salt and thereby renders meat to which it is applied very hard but in small quantities it considerably assists the antiseptic action of salt and also prevents the destruction of the florid color of meat which is caused by the application of salt thus it will be perceived from the foregoing statement that the application of salt and salt peter diminishes in a considerable degree the nutritive and to some extent the wholesome qualities of meat and therefore in their use the quantity applied should be as small as possible consistent with the perfect preservation of the meat boiled round of beef ingredients beef water mode as a whole round of beef generally speaking is too large for small families and very seldom required we here give the recipe for dressing a portion of the silver side of the round take from 12 to 16 pounds after it has been in salt about 10 days just wash off the salt skewered up in a nice round looking form and bind it with tape to keep the skewers in their places put it in a saucepan of boiling water as in the preceding recipe set it upon a good fire and when it begins to boil carefully remove all scum from the surface as if this is not attended to it sinks onto the meat and when brought to table presents a very unsightly appearance when it is well skimmed draw the pot to the corner of the fire and let it simmer very gently until done remove the tape and skewers which should be replaced by a silver one pour over a little of the potlicker and garnish with carrots carrots turnips parsnips and sometimes suet dumplings accompany this dish and these may all be boiled with the beef the potlicker should be saved and converted into pea soup and the outside slices which are generally hard and of an uninviting appearance may be cut off before being sent to table and potted these make an excellent relish for the breakfast or luncheon table time part of a round of beef weighing 12 pounds about three hours after the water boils average cost eight pence per pound sufficient for 10 persons seasonable all the year but more suitable for winter Sawyer's recipe for preserving the gravy in salt meat when it is to be served cold fill two tubs with cold water into which throw a few pounds of rough ice and when the meat is done put it into one of the tubs of ice water let it remain one minute when take out and put it into the other tub fill the first tub again with water and continue this process for about 20 minutes then set it upon a dish and let it remain until quite cold when cut the fat will be as white as possible besides having saved the whole of the gravy if there is no ice spring water will answer the same purpose but will require to be more frequently changed note the brisket and rump may be boiled by the above recipe of course allowing more or less time according to the size of the joint beef cake ingredients the remains of cold roast beef to each pound of cold meat allow one quarter pound of bacon or ham seasoning to taste of pepper and salt one small bunch of minced savory herbs one or two eggs mode mince the beef very finely if under done it will be better add to it the bacon which must also be chopped very small and mix well together season stir in the herbs and bind with an egg or two should one not be sufficient make it into small square cakes about one half inch thick fry them in hot dripping and serve in a dish with good gravy poured round them time 10 minutes average cost exclusive of the cold meat six pence seasonable at any time broiled beef steaks or rump steaks ingredients steaks a piece of butter the size of a walnut salt to taste one tablespoon full of good mushroom ketchup or Harvey's sauce mode as the success of a good broil so much depends on the state of the fire see that it is bright and clear and perfectly free from smoke and do not add any fresh fuel just before you require to use the gridiron sprinkle a little salt over the fire put on the gridiron for a few minutes to get thoroughly hot through rub it with a piece of fresh soot to prevent the meat from sticking and lay on the steaks which should be cut of an equal thickness about three quarters of an inch or rather thinner and level them by beating them as little as possible with a rolling pin turn them frequently with steak tongs if these are not at hand stick a fork in the edge of the fat that no gravy escapes and in from eight to ten minutes they will be done have ready a very hot dish into which put the ketchup and when liked a little minced shallot dish up the steaks rub them over with butter and season with pepper and salt the exact time for broiling steaks must be determined by taste whether they are liked underdone or well done more than from eight to ten minutes for a steak three quarters inch in thickness we think would spoil and dry up the juices of the meat great expedition is necessary in sending broiled steaks to table and to have them in perfection they should not be cooked till everything else prepared for dinner has been dished up as their excellence entirely depends on their being served very hot garnish with scraped horseradish or slices of cucumber oyster tomato onion and many other sauces are frequent accompaniments to rump steak but true lovers of this english dish generally reject all additions but pepper and salt time eight to ten minutes average cost one shelling per pound sufficient allow one half pound to each person if the party consists entirely of gentlemen three quarter pound will not be too much seasonable all the year but not good in the height of summer as the meat cannot hang long enough to be tender different seasons for beef we have already stated c number five ninety three that the scott's breed of oxen like the south down in mutton stands first in excellence it should be born in mind however that each county has its particular season and that the london and other large markets are always supplied by those counties whose meat from local circumstances is in the best condition at the time thus the season in norfolk from which the scott's come these being the principal oxen bred by the norfolk and suffix grazers commences about christmas and terminates about june when this breed begins to fall off their place being taken by grass-fed oxen a large quantity of most excellent meat is sent to the dead markets from scotland and some of the best london butchers are supplied from this source broiled beef and mushroom sauce cold meat cookery ingredients two or three dozen small button mushrooms one ounce of butter salt and cayenne to taste one tablespoon full of mushroom ketchup mashed potatoes slices of cold roast beef mode wipe the mushrooms free from grit with a piece of flannel and salt put them in a stew pan with the butter seasoning and ketchup stir over the fire until the mushrooms are quite done when pour it in the middle of mashed potatoes browned then place round the potatoes slices of cold roast beef nicely broiled over a clear fire in making the mushroom sauce the ketchup may be dispensed with if there is sufficient gravy time one quarter hour average cost exclusive of the meat eight pence seasonable from august to october broiled beef and oyster sauce cold meat cookery ingredients two dozen oysters three cloves one blade of mace two ounces of butter one half teaspoon full of flour cayenne and salt to taste mashed potatoes a few slices of cold roast beef mode put the oysters in a stew pan with their liquor strained add the cloves mace butter flour and seasoning and let them simmer gently for five minutes have ready in the center of a dish round walls of mashed potatoes browned into the middle pour the oyster sauce quite hot and round the potatoes place in layers slices of the beef which should be previously broiled over a nice clear fire time five minutes average cost one shilling six pence exclusive of the cold meat sufficient for four or five persons seasonable from september to april broiled beef bones ingredients the bones of ribs or sirloin salt pepper and cayenne mode separate the bones taking care that the meat on them is not too thick in any part sprinkle them well with the above seasoning and broil over a very clear fire when nicely browned they are done but do not allow them to blacken to dress a bullock's heart ingredients one heart stuffing of veal force meat number four seventeen mode put the heart into warm water to soak for two hours then wipe it well with the cloth and after cutting off the lobes stuff the inside with a highly seasoned force meat number four seventeen fasten it in by means of a needle and coarse thread tie the heart up in paper and set it before a good fire being very particular to keep it well basted or it will get dry they're being very little of its own fat two or three minutes before serving remove the paper baste well and serve with good gravy and red current jelly or melted butter if the heart is very large it will require two hours and covered with a call may be baked as well as roasted time large heart two hours average cost two shillings six pence sufficient for six or eight persons seasonable all the year note this is an excellent family dish is very savory and though not seen at many good tables may be recommended for its cheapness and economy end of section 28