 rydym ni'n ei wneud y hyn i'w r Andersen i gyd ac i ni wedi yn cael ei tych yn fawr. Rhyw gwn i'n teimlo mynd y byd cyfan gweithio. Rhyw gwrs deg i wyd o'r nhau'n gweithio. Felly mae'n gweithio'n gweithio'n gweithio'n gweithio'n gweithio y bydwyr. Mae'n ff Davieson, mae'r brafodi ond yn Marse. Rwy'n cael eich cyff Ordera i ddechrau'r brafodi ar Lynau ond, yn cael eu bod yn cyfrwm ardal. y graferi gyda nerdd yn hynna beth sy'n disg, os y dweud dweud yn hynny yn llwyfydd yn fwy o'r barn. Felly, nid i chi o'n gweithio ddwy arlosio ar y maes yma, doeth yn gallu'n gallu'n teimlo yn llwy o'r ynchwyllt o'r gwahanol? Y diwrnod maes yn llwy fwy o'r barn, mae'r graffiti ar maes yn llwy fwy o'r barn. Mae'n ddweud ei wneud drwy'r graffiti ac yn glwbodaeth mewn gwahanol i wneud hi wrth bod wych yn llwyfydd mynd yn y maes. rydych chi ddweud yn ein rhan nhw. Nid ymgallwch o Mars. A'r awrwch bwysig yn fwy fanydd. A trafodd y llwyddon, maen nhw'n mynd i chi'n fwy fanydd o Mars, roedd awr yn rhan o'n dweud ei fofodd diemohedol. Fyd dweud ar hyn yn rhan o'r seisens, ac yn nhw ddweud wrth gwrs losaeth yr ond ychydig o'r Llegeta y Prifysgol, ond ym hwn, os ydych chi? Roedd hyn yn ychydig, yn gynllunol wedi cael ei w� 살�io. Rwy'n gweld y cyfle o lyngwun. Mae'r maxim yn ymddi'r cyfle o'r ysgrifennu yw 27 C. Mae'n enw i'r cyfle o'r ysgrifennu hynny. Rwy'n gael y cyfle o'r ysgrifennu o'r ysgrifennu o'r ysgrifennu. Y cyfle o'r ysgrifennu o'r ysgrifennu yn ymddi'r 132. Felly mae hynny'n gwneud ymddi'r cyfle o'r ysgrifennu. A os ydych chi'n ddifen nhw'n mynd i gyfweld? Rydych chi'n cael ei wneud penodol ar y llun o'r llun, dwi'n credu ffordd i'ch defnyddio'r llun. Felly, rydych chi'n cael ei ffordd i gweithio'r llun. Rydych chi'n cael ei ffordd o'r llun o'r llun, o'r llun o'r llun o'r llun o'r llun, a'r llun o'r llun o'r llun yn llun yn llun o'r llun, Ond, dyma yng nghydfyrdd Yn Gweithu, yr ymerddol yn gweithio'r llun, a'r ymerddol yn ei ddefnyddio'r llun o'r llun, Felly, roeddwn i ac yn peth yn y cyfroedogi i'r cynhyrchu o gyfresol ym meddwl a'r pan Similar Shell, os ychwanegau sydd. Mae'r cynhyrchu ar gael gan y cyfryd, mae'r cynhyrchu argymniadau a'r cynhyrchu ar gael yn y trofyn ar gyllidig, geldain o'r cyfryd yma, mae'r gwybod yn cyfryd, a'r cyfryd yn cael chanlalu, bod ni'n gweithio y pryd. Oherwydd sy'n gwybod yma, mae'r cyfryd yn cyfrydion yn ddesdoi ar gyfer y cyfryd. Has anyone seen the film The Martian? Yup, excellent. I would recommend it, as Hollywood does science, this is a really good one. It is a pretty good representation of what the conditions on the surface of Mars might be like for human astronauts. They did not get completely right. It is one thing, it is not a big spoiler because it happens fairly early on, at one point the astronaut on Mars gets picked up by a dust storm and blown away from his teammates. That would not happen. Mae'r cyfnod o Mars yn ei bod eich gweithio, ond mae'r cyfnod o'r cyfnod yn ymwynt yn dros ymddangos. Nid yw'r cyfrifodau bod ymddangos yn eu gweithio. Ond yr oedd ymddangos yn ymddangos. Mae Stephen yn ymddangos, mae'r cyfrifodau yn hir yn ddigon, ar y cyfrifodau arbennig, mae'r oedd ymddangos yn ei ddweudio. Mae'r cyfrifodau sy'n 100 o mandate o'r cyflomwys. Mae'r cyfrifodau yn y ddefnyddio frangos. y Gweithbeth, lwyddon yma, y gweithbeth yma. Cyfnodd y sysame teuluadol yn y tras ymlaen. Mae cyrchun yn gweithio, rydyn ni'n gweld roi gweithbeth rymnos, mae chi'n gweld rŵn'r poln yn y gweithbeth. Mae'n gweld i'r gweithbeth a'n gweld i'n gweld i'n gweld i'n gweld i'n wlad. A gallwn dweud o ein bod ymddangos gael i gweithbeth yma? Dyna'r gwaith. Dwi'n gwrth o'r amser ni, mae'n ole i'r grwpio cwysig mewn. yn ymrydy i'r llwyddiad. Felly, rwy'n siaradau gwaith bwynt oherwydd hynny sydd hynny. Mae hynny'n gallu'n liciol cymaint yn ymrwytaeth bwysig. Oherwydd, rwy'n siaradau am ynrhyngau yn gwahodiaeth tyniad a'r hwy구 frwy nesaf gyda'r Goyn. Hay that is not just made up, this is actually what I think it really would have been like on Mars today. O wych yn gallu chi'n gallu yn gallu caf ymlaen. Mae'n allan o'i ddim chymdeithas ar y gyr iechwyn. As Stephen said, mae hwn i ddim yn ei gydig yn rhywbeth. Over the years we've got a lot of orbiters who've been around the surface, been around the planet, and a lot of landers and rovers have made it to the surface now. I'm not going to talk about all of the successful missions, but I'm just going to give you a little synopsis of some of the more recent ones and talk about what they've shown us while they've been there. I'm going to talk about spirit, opportunity, phoenix and curiosity. So first up we have spirit and opportunity or spirit and opportunity because they were identical rovers, they were launched and they landed on surface in 2004, went to opposite sides of the planet and were very successful, I have to say. I'd say I'm on the audience age 13 or younger, stick your hands up, I think we've got a few of you, yep, okay. Opportunity landed in 2004 and it's still driving around today, so there has been a rover driving around on the surface of Mars for the entirety of your lives. Spirit didn't quite make it that far, spirit made it to six years, but given that both of these rovers were only expected to last about three months, I think they did pretty well and opportunity is still sending back to science today and has now driven the length of a marathon on the surface of Mars. So what have they seen? Well, opportunity has sent back some lovely pictures, this is just a snapshot of an entire 360-degree panorama that it's sent back and these pictures are all online, you can search for them, it's a wonderful collection that NASA have got. In this shot alone you can see lots of different types of terrain, you can see some rocks there, you can see some of the dust that Viking saw, but we've got better pictures because we've got newer cameras. In this particular image you can see the tracks that Opportunity actually made in the dust on the surface. And because it's a rover, it's not just able to take pictures at one spot, it's able to drive around and take pictures of lots of different types of terrain. So we get a lot of science back just from images like this. I mentioned dust storms, this might be what it's like to be in a dust storm. That slice over the far side is a picture that Opportunity took looking out over Mars when there's no dust storm around. And then progressively the slice is taken over a number of days when a really slow moving dust storm started to overtake the position of opportunity. Now the rover can't outrun these sort of storms, so it's just got to weather its way through them. And these sort of storms could be a bit dangerous for our rovers, it's not going to pick them up and carry them away, but you can see the sky gets really dark as the storm gets thicker. Now, these panels here are solar panels, Opportunity and Spirit are solar powered, so if the sky gets too dark, the light from the sun simply doesn't reach those solar panels, which means the rover can't charge up, it can't drive anywhere, it can't talk back to us, and eventually it would not even be able to receive our signals. So these sort of storms could be an issue for landers on the surface. Luckily they haven't been so far, Opportunity still carries on. And one of the other weather patterns it's seen on the surface is a dust devil. Now this is much smaller than a dust storm. This feature is probably only a few metres wide, it's not very far away. There's a set of still images that have been put together in a little video here. Dust devils are little spinning vortices of air which lift dust from the surface and move along, and we see a lot of these across the surface of Mars. And whereas dust storms might be a bit dangerous for the lander, we think that maybe dust devils might actually be helpful when the dust from the storm settles on top of the solar panels, which could be a risk. We believe that sometimes these dust devils come along near the rover and lift dust back off the panels, so giving the rover a new lease of life. So they could be quite helpful to us. After Spirit and Opportunity, we have Phoenix. Phoenix was not a rover, it's a lander, so it only went to one point. It landed in 2008 near the North Pole of Mars. Most of the landers we sent, the Viking landers and Spirit and Opportunity were fairly equatorial. We hadn't sent anything to the pole yet, so NASA sent something up there. You can see on the front here, this little lander has got a scoop and it's digging a little trench on the surface. Now, this is a photo taken of the trench. Just on the day it was dug. And four souls later, that's four Martian days later, we took another picture. There's not a lot of difference, but I promise you that some of these little bits of white are missing over there. And in this case, Phoenix was looking just below the surface and this is the first images we have of subsurface water ice. So we're seeing a little bit of frost actually under the surface of Mars. After that, we've got Curiosity. Now, this is a picture that Curiosity sent back of itself. It's got a camera, it's got a selfie stick essentially, so it can take photos of itself and send us a selfie from Mars. Curiosity is a lot bigger than some of the other rovers. Spirit and Opportunity are about my height. Curiosity is the size of a car. You can see it against the man in the lab there, possibly a woman in the lab. It's a very big, very powerful rover driving on the surface. Since 2012, it's still going today. Curiosity is looking for evidence of past water in Gale Crater. So, as Stephen was saying, we've got evidence of rivers. We have a suspicion there was probably an ocean across the top of Mars. We are looking for evidence of that standing water, ideally standing water in Gale Crater. I picked this picture here. If you look at the little cracks on this rock and then you think about on Earth where you have a damp surface, maybe clay or mud, as that dries out, you start to get cracks in the surface which look a little bit like this. So, this could be evidence of that sort of environment where Curiosity is driving around today. Another example is this sort of layered rock formation that is sort of in a cliff that it drove past. Now, we see a lot of these sort of layered rocks on Earth all the time. We know how they form. We know that you need a body of standing water, something like a lake. So, you get particles sedimenting down to the bottom of a lake, building up layers over time and what's left in the rock record is this little starter here. The key point of this is that needs to... or what that we need for that to happen is a standing body of water over tens of thousands of years. So, that water needs to be there a really long time for this sort of formation to occur. And the fact that we've seen the formation on Mars means that we believe there was standing water there for a long period of time. And if life was to evolve on Mars, you need those long, steady environments for it to evolve in. So, what are we still looking for with these sort of missions to the surface? Well, we're looking for those habit environments, those long-standing environments where life could have arisen. I've got a picture here of some little microbes. When we find... Well, if we find evidence of life on Mars, it won't be plants or it won't be animals. It will more likely be little microbes like this. Whereas on Earth, we can go and dig up dinosaur bones and we can find fossils of previous life. On Mars, we won't be looking for that, but even these little bugs will leave evidence of themselves in the rocks. So, we need to know where to look for those fossils of bugs and then we need to go and find them. We're also looking for clues to the past climate. As we said, it's evident that Mars was different in the past. There was rain, there were probably oceans, but at some points, there may also have been glaciers moving across mountains. We're still piecing all that together with the evidence from the mineralogy and the rock on the surface to put that story into context. And we are looking at the current active processes. This is my little diagram of a methane molecule. So, as Stephen said, we don't understand what the cycle is exactly, what's causing some of the methane, and we need samples from the surface and from the orbiters around Mars to help us fill in the gaps. So, what's next when it comes to missions to the surface for Mars? Well, next up is insight. This, I believe, is launching in 2018 and it's another lander, so it won't be driving across the surface, but the exciting bit about insight will be putting a seismometer on Mars. So, we use seismometers on Earth to measure earthquakes, and we've put seismometers on the moon to measure moonquakes. We haven't done that on Mars yet, and if we put seismometers on the surface of Mars, we'll be able to get more information about the interior of Mars. So, we don't really know anything about that. We've got theories, but we haven't got any data yet, so this will be a really exciting mission. After that, we've got Mars 2020, which you might be able to tell looks a bit like curiosity. It's going to be quite similar, a little more high-powered, and it's going to go to a different part of the surface, so we'll be able to get comparative samples from similar rovers, again, travelling across the surface, hopefully quite a number of years. And, as Stephen mentioned, we've got ESA's ExoMars rover launching in 2020. This is a little prototype of the rover, in Mars Yard. It's not a very big rover, as you can see. I think it might even be a little bit smaller than spirit and opportunity, but the crucial point is this rover will have a drill, and not just a drill into the top centimetre or two of the surface, this drill is going to drill two metres down into the surface. That's going to be really exciting, because the top metre or so of the Martian surface has been bombarded for a very long time with that nasty UV radiation, so that's no longer a really good environment where we think life could have survived. But if you go below that top metre, then the surface material below that has been protected from the worst of the radiation, so it's more likely to be a potential habitable environment for those microbes that we want to look for, or X microbes. Beyond that, astronauts on Mars, I don't actually have an answer for this one, but I do think it'll happen. As Stephen said, getting to Mars is quite tricky. Keeping people alive on Mars for the year and a half they've got to stay there before they can possibly come back is going to be tricky as well, and getting them back will be risky, but I definitely think people are going to go. These are pictures I've just picked off on NASA websites, so they're already thinking about it. The amount of science we could do if we put a person on Mars, if we get a geologist in a spacesuit walking around picking up rocks, is exponential compared to the slow progress we've managed to make with a few rovers. If we really want to get that science, we want to set a person there. Those of you who are 13 or so, you're going to be the generation you actually get to stand on Mars. I'm going to leave you with that. If you want some more information, hopefully we've inspired you. There's some links there. Thank you very much.