 Fortunately, a lot of the comments that I wanted to make to preface this and start off Catherine just made in terms of the potential for cultural heritage and archaeology to address mitigation and a better understanding of climatic events. So I can just basically say what she said and then move on to address the more particular points that I'd like to, with the case of El Nino, Southern Oscillation and particularly warm El Nino events causing abrupt climatic changes on Peru's North Coast as kind of a case study in both archaeology and remote sensing. So during January to March of this past year, 2017, very anomalous high amounts of rainfall hit the normally hyper-arid proofing coast. This is one of the most recent in a series of warm or positive end-so phases that's commonly referred to as El Nino. And this created this anomalous rainfall, a lot of flooding, which you see several inches up here, both from 2017 as well as in earlier events dating back to 1997 and 1982 to 1983 with loss of life, loss of property, destruction to infrastructure, including a paraca de barrimanicana that you see here. And these are the disastrous effects of El Nino that we frequently hear about and that we frequently think about. One of the issues that I'm interested in then is trying to get a better grasp over how do these effects vary spatially and temporally? Is there different upsides to the downside of El Nino events? How might we gain some insight in terms of potential mitigation or relief strategies from this as well as the potential for archaeology to be applied to these problems? And that's what I'd like to address for you here today. When we're dealing with climactic research, our approaches typically are either through a modeling approach, looking particularly at future events based on control parameters or historical reconstructions through paleoclimactic strategies like ice core or paleo-mylogical work. And my feeling is that archaeology and cultural heritage has quite a strong potential role in informing better models on both sides, both in terms of future prognostication as well as in really refining our understanding of the human elements, the human dimensions of historical research. Climate change is a long history, particularly in this region, in terms of archaeological research, but it has yet to really have its full potential realized in the various climate sciences that we typically go to. So the particular case study that I want to look at here is Peru's Jicama Valley. It's located in La Libertad in the north coast of Peru, on the Pacific coast of South America. And we have from various different projects that have taken place over the years, approximately 2,000 archaeological sites that go back from the terminal places seen up until the historic colonial period and into modern land use, which we can really take advantage of to look at these various issues. And so for those of you who are not familiar with El Nino, let's see if this will work for us. If it says it is, is that large enough to see it help? What you have is a stalling of normal oceanic currents in the eastern Pacific, southern hemisphere eastern Pacific, where the cold current that normally comes up from Antarctica drops, the thermocline deepens, and you have a warming of equatorial waters that backs up against Peru and southern equator and causes anomalous amounts of atmospheric moisture, ID rainfall, precipitation that hits this hyper-aric coast, and that also has cascading effects for southern North America and eastern North America as well. We have approximately 150 years worth of ENSO reconstructions through instrumental and archival records. And there are three El Nino events, the first in 1982 and 1983, the next in 1997 and 1998, and the most recent one, which I'll be referring to. And these three events are the strongest on record in approximately the past, let me check my notes, since the 20th century. So they really give us an idea of what's happening during these extreme climactic disturbances that last anywhere between 16 months to 24 months. Fortunately, the most recent El Ninos also coincide with our period of Earth observation science, i.e. satellite remote sensing, which is what I'll be talking about here today, and you can get from these two before and after images a brief sense of how dramatic ecological changes are to Peru's normally hyper-aric coast. So what you have is a valley oasis in a very, very dry desert. This is a situation that's analogous to the Near East or South Asia or North Africa for those who are not familiar with this region. But following the El Nino rains, you see some dramatic environmental changes, including coastal turbidity, excuse me, which is beyond what I'm going to talk about here today. But then overbank flooding or river evulsion, very much enhanced green growth in these desert areas as well as in agricultural fields, and then developing a certain kind of groundwater features, which are very important I think. In order to really get at this issue, what I'm using is a Sentinel-2 family of satellites, these are Earth observation satellites, which are sponsored by the European Space Agency, and thank you, Europe, for continuing to support basic Earth observation science. We don't have that in the United States so much anymore. And really what this gives us the ability to do is map things that are visible and intuitive, like more plants that we can see, but then also to take advantage of non-visible phenomena and infrared spectra, particularly the near infrared where vegetation is very sensitive and the short ways of infrared where water is very sensitive to make visible stuff that aren't apparent to us with the naked eye. And so we can see very briefly some land cover changes, which I will address in more detail from the list that we had a couple slides back. I want to look particularly at river, ocean or flooding, where that happens and what the implications are of that. Also the development of vegetation, land cover changes in these hyper desert areas, these desert margins that are beyond modern limits of land use, as well as development of groundwater features kind of in the talus or toes of these regions. So the first, excuse me, overbank flooding, what we commonly think of as El Nino related disasters, has a very profound impact on infrastructure. Things like irrigation canals, drinking water sources, sanitation infrastructure are devastated by these. But one thing that we can find that we realize is that through remote sensing the area that's impacted by this flooding is actually relatively well constrained. We're looking at about a one and a half kilometer buffer on either side of the main river channel. To the point where when you drive in the Karakara Kana Menekana now, a place where the bridges have been restored, you actually have these signs that say you are entering the zona afectada for El Nino. So basically you can describe a zone of direct impacts and most obvious impacts. And while I don't want to minimize these, I think we can look beyond this zona afectada to get a better picture perhaps of some of the other impacts and is there a kind of a proverbial silver lining to this El Nino rain cloud. And so if we look at archaeology, we see a couple of different phenomena. First, most archaeological settlement is outside of that one and a half kilometer buffer. So perhaps they were tuned to something which we've since lost some sense of sensitivity to in the past. But then certain kinds of infrastructure as in the modern case are very, very, very sensitive. So if we plot all archaeological grounds and different kinds of land use that we've been happy downstream, you see that water sources, water infrastructure is incredibly vulnerable to these flooding events. Basically the canal intakes are in the areas that are most directly impacted, excuse me, by the overbanked flooding that happened both in 1997 and in 2017. If we look then at the ecological changes that are happening in the margins, we see other kinds of potential. So we have here the time series of vegetation growth in desert areas, and this is providing a resource to help mitigate and buffer the devastating effects of flooding right along the rivers. The instrument that I'm using to look at or the metric, rather, is something called Savvy. I won't go into details, but what you can see here is between November and October, you have this green growth in the desert areas, which provides a whole potential for our cultural production and basically vegetation resources that you don't necessarily have in the valley bottom. So here, if we compare that time series of vegetation productivity, we can see that one of these desert areas, which I've just designated areas just for, produces as much green growth between the months of late February into early June as a modern irrigated sugarcane field. This is sugarcane monoculture here. So the potential for productivity on that order of magnitude is quite impressive. We also see in these desert margin areas, development of different groundwater sources, and the colors perhaps a little bit washed out here. But again, you can see infrared anomaly in the short range of red, as well as a thermal band anomaly here, in an area called Pampa Macan, which corresponds to AOI-4 that we just saw, and that is a groundwater source that was utilized in bio-archer-life cultures. This area is covered in agricultural fields from two different periods, about 3,500 BP, as well as 1,280. And we have archeological evidence that these types of small water sources were utilized in the past. Groundwater here is sustained at least for 10 months. Before coming here, I didn't have a time to put it into this slide, but it's looking at most recent imagery a year after the El Nino, and these ephemeral springs are still flowing, there's still a lot of groundwater that's available there. Archeological evidence indicates that they were being used in the past, and that they could have sustained certain kind of diverse species like mice and what have you, white-tailed deer, other large herbivores, as well as agricultural production for up to three or four years after these El Nino events. So while you're having very detrimental impacts to water resources and infrastructure down the valley bottoms, you have alternative water sources and resources in these highlands. Ethnic historical and ethnographic evidence confirms this, where people are setting up these small-scale, agricultural fields, and they're growing different cultivars, like cabbages, pumpkins, and corn, which have very demanding nutritional requirements, water requirements, as long as, as well as very long-growing periods. So up to about 240 days in the case of Cassava, and the yields for these things are about 80% what they would have in irrigated field down the valley bottom. So while it might be not the best scenario, it is actually a pre-productive scenario to be using these things. And if we look at where they are spacial, again, the kind of spacial concern here, we see is that these archeological sites, quite a number of them, lie outside of the extent of modern cultivation in modern land use. So while we're having these negative impacts right along the river margins, there are possibilities, again, for basically making lemons out of lemonade, in the case of El Nino. This gives you a sense of what happens to those hyper-arid regions after these grains. There's a flush of vegetation that can itself be used, but this is again being fed by groundwater resources in these springs that are quite stable over the intermediate term. So different conclusions, there's a lot of text that I basically want to summarize the points that we made already. We've got these different effects. These effects have different longevity, but that if we think that it's plausible that ENSO events could be predicted by certain biochromatic indicators, in addition to modern instrumentals, means like the El Nino indices that I showed at the very beginning, we could anticipate these effects. We could establish a lot of strategies for taking advantage of these water resources that would help to buffer those main detrimental impacts to groundwater, excuse the tube, to irrigation and sanitation infrastructure in the valley bottoms. Okay, thank you very much to the conference organizers, and thank you again to the European Space Agency for great resource.