 Preface and advertisement of Langstroth on the Hive and the Honeybee. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Adam Marcicic, August 2009, Alexandria, Virginia. Langstroth on the Hive and the Honeybee by L. L. Langstroth. Preface. This treatise on the Hive and the Honeybee is respectfully submitted by the author to the candid consideration of those who are interested in the culture of the most useful as well as wonderful insect in all the range of animated nature. The information which it contains will be found to be greatly in advance of anything which has yet been presented to the English reader, and, as far as facilities for practical management are concerned, it is believed to be a very material advance over anything which has hitherto been communicated to the Aperian public. The author indulges the hope that the result of his studies and observations in an important branch of natural history will be found of service to the community as well as to himself. The satisfaction which he has taken in his researches has been such that he has felt exceedingly desirous of interesting others in a pursuit which, without any reference to its pecuniary profits, is capable of exciting the delight and enthusiasm of all intelligent observers. The creator may be seen in all the works of his hands, but in few more directly than in the wise economy of the honeybee. What well-appointed commonwealths, where each adds to the stock and happiness for all, wisdom's own forums whose professors teach eloquent lessons in their vaulted hall, galleries of art and schools of industry, stores of rich fragrance, orchestras of song, and marvelous seats of hidden alchemy, how oft, when wandering far and earring long, man might learn truth and virtue from the bee, end quote, bowing. The attention of clergymen is particularly solicited to the study of this branch of natural history, and intimate acquaintance with the wonders of the beehive, while it would benefit them in various ways, might lead them to draw their illustrations, more from natural objects and the world around them, and in this way to adapt them better to the comprehension and sympathies of their hearers. It was, we know, the constant practice of our Lord and Master to illustrate his teachings from the birds of the air, the lilies of the fields, and the common walks of life and pursuits of men. In sense, experience and religion alike dictate that we should follow his example. L. L. Langstroth, Greenfield, Massachusetts, May 25th, 1853. Advertisement L. L. Langstroth's movable comb hive, patented October 5th, 1862. Each comb in this hive is attached to a separate movable frame, and in less than five minutes, they may all be taken out, without cutting or injuring them, or at all enraging the bees. Weak stocks may be quickly strengthened by helping them to honey and maturing brood from stronger ones. Queenless colonies may be rescued from certain ruin by supplying them with the means of attaining another queen. And the ravages of the moth effectually prevented, as at any time the hive may be readily examined in all the worms, etc., removed from the combs. New colonies may be formed in less time than is usually required to hive a natural swarm, or the hive may be used as a non-swarmer or managed on the common swarming plan. The surplus honey may be taken from the interior of the hive on the frames or in upper boxes or glasses, in the most convenient, beautiful, and saleable forms. Colonies may be safely transferred from any other hive to this at any season of the year, from April to October, as the brood, combs, honey, and all the contents of the hive are transferred with them, and securely fastened in the frames. That the combs can always be removed from this hive with ease and safety, and that the new system, by giving the perfect control over all the combs, affects a complete revolution in practical beekeeping. The subscriber prefers to prove rather than assert. Practically Perians, and all who wish to purchase rites and hives, are invited to visit his apiary, where combs, honey, and bees will be taken from the hives, colonies which may be brought to him for that purpose, transferred from any old hive, queens, and the whole process of rearing them constantly exhibited, new colonies formed, and all processes connected with the practical management of an apiary fully illustrated and explained. Those who have any considerable number of bees will find it to their interest to have at least one movable comb hive in their apiary, from which they may, in a few minutes, supply any colony which has lost its queen, with the means of rearing another. The hive and rite will be furnished on the following terms, for an individual or farm rite, five dollars. This will entitle the purchaser to use and construct for his own use on his own premises, as many hives as he chooses. The hives are manufactured by a machinery, and can probably be delivered, freight included, at any railroad station in New England or New York, cheaper than they could be made in small quantities on the spot. On receipt of a hive, the purchaser can decide for himself whether he prefers to make them, or to order them of the patentee. For one dollar, posted paid, the book will be sent free by mail. On receipt of ten dollars, a beautiful hive, showing all the combs, with glass on four sides, will be sent with rite, freight paid to any railroad station in New England or New York, a rite and hive, which will accommodate two colonies, with glass on each side, for twelve dollars, for seven dollars, a rite and a well-made hive that anyone can construct who can handle the simplest tools. In all cases where the hives are sent out of New England or New York, as the freight will not be prepaid, a dollar will be deducted from the above prices. L. L. Langstrop, Greenfield, Massachusetts. End of Preface and Advertisement. Chapter 1 of Langstrop on the Hive and the Honey Bee. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information, or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Adam Marcicic, August 2009, Alexandria, Virginia. Langstrop on the Hive and the Honey Bee by L. L. Langstrop. Introduction, Chapter 1. The present condition of practical beekeeping in this country is known to be deplorably low. From the great mass of agriculturists and others favorably situated for obtaining honey, it receives not the slightest attention. Notwithstanding the large number of patent hives which have been introduced, the ravages of the bee moth have increased, and success is becoming more and more precarious, multitudes have abandoned the pursuit and disgust. While many of the most experienced are fast settling down into the conviction that the so-called improved hives are delusions, and that they must return to the simple box or hollow log and take up their bees with sulfur in the old-fashioned way. In the present state of public opinion, it requires no little courage to venture upon the introduction of a new hive and system of management. But I feel confident that a new era in beekeeping has arrived, and invite the attention of all interested to the reasons for this belief. A perusal of this manual, will, I trust, convinced them that there is a better way than any with which they have yet been acquainted. They will here find many hitherto mysterious points in the physiology of the honey bee, clearly explained, and much valuable information never before communicated to the public. It is now nearly fifteen years since I first turned my attention to the cultivation of bees. The state of my help having compelled me to live more and more in the open air, I have devoted a large portion of my time, of late years, to a careful investigation of their habits, and to a series of minute and thorough experiments in the construction of hives, and the best methods of managing them, so as to secure the largest practical results. Very early in my Aperian studies, I procured an imported copy of the work of the celebrated Huber, and constructed a hive on his plan, which furnished me with favorable opportunities of verifying some of his most valuable discoveries, and I soon found that the prejudices existing against him were entirely unfounded, believing that his discoveries laid the foundation for a more extended and profitable system of beekeeping. I began to experiment with hives of various construction. The result of all these investigations fell far short of my expectations. I became, however, most thoroughly convinced that no hives were fit to be used, unless they furnished uncommon protection against extremes of heat, and more especially of cold. I accordingly discarded all thin hives made of inch stuff, and constructed my hives of doubled materials, enclosing a dead air space all around. These hives, although more expensive in the first cost, proved to be much cheaper in the end than those I had previously used. The bees wintered remarkably well in them, and swarmed early and with unusual regularity. My next step in advance was, while I secured my surplus honey in the most convenient, beautiful, and saleable forms, so to facilitate the entrance of the bees into the honey receptacles, as to secure the largest fruits from their labors. Although I felt confident that my hive possessed some valuable peculiarities, I still found myself unable to remedy many of the casualties to which beekeeping is liable. I now perceived that no hive could be made to answer my expectations unless it gave me the complete control of the combs, so that I might remove any or all of them at pleasure. The use of the huber hive had convinced me that with proper precautions the combs might be removed without enraging the bees, and that these insects were capable of being domesticated or tamed to a most surprising degree. A knowledge of these facts was absolutely necessary to the further progress of my invention, for without it I should have regarded a hive designed to allow the removal of the combs as too dangerous in use to be of any practical value. At first, I used movable slats, or bars, placed on rabbits in the front and back of the hive. The bees were induced to build their combs upon these bars, and in carrying them down to fasten them to the sides of the hive. By severing the attachments to the sides, I was able, at any time, to remove the combs suspended from the bars. There was nothing new in the use of movable bars, the invention being probably at least a hundred years old, and I had myself used such hives on the van's plan. Very early in the commencement of my experiments, the chief peculiarity in my hives, as now constructed, was the facility with which these bars could be removed without enraging the bees, and their combination with my new mode of obtaining the surplus honey. With hives of this construction, I commenced experimenting on a larger scale than ever, and soon arrived at results which proved to be of the very first importance. I found myself able, if I wished to it, to dispense entirely with natural swarming, and yet to multiply colonies with much greater rapidity and certainty than by the common methods. I could, in a short time, strengthen my feeble colonies, and furnish those which had lost their queen with the means of obtaining another. If I suspected that anything was the matter with the hive, I could ascertain its true condition by making a thorough examination of every part, and if the worms had gained a lodgement, I could quickly dispossess them. In short, I could perform all the operations which will be explained in this treatise, and I now believe that beekeeping could be made highly profitable and as much a matter of certainty as any other branch of the rural economy. I perceived, however, that one thing was yet wanting. The cutting of the combs from their attachments to the sides of the hive, in order to remove them, was attended with much loss of time to myself and to the bees, and in order to facilitate this operation, the construction of my hive was necessarily complicated. This led me to invest a method by which the combs were attached to movable frames and suspended in the hives, so as to touch neither the top, bottom, nor sides. By this device, I was able to remove the combs at pleasure, and if desired, I could speedily transfer them, bees and all, without any cutting, to another hive. I have experimented largely with hives of this construction, and find that they answer most admirably all the ends proposed in their invention. While experimenting in the summer of 1851, with some observing hives of a peculiar construction, I discovered that bees could be made to work in glass hives, exposed to the full light of day. The notice, in a Philadelphia newspaper, of this discovery, procured me the pleasure of an acquaintance with Reverend Dr. Berg, pastor of a Dutch Reformed church in that city. From him, I first learned that a Prussian clergyman, in the name of Sirson, pronounced Sirson, had attracted the attention of crowned heads by his important discoveries in the management of bees. Before he communicated the particulars of these discoveries, I explained to Dr. Berg, my system of management, and showed him my hive. He expressed the greatest astonishment at the wonderful similarity in our methods of management, both of us having carried on our investigations without the slightest knowledge of each other's labors. For hives, he found to differ in some very important respects. In the Sirson hive, the combs are not attached to movable frames, but to bars, so that they cannot, without cutting, be removed from the hive. In my hive, which is opened from the top, any comb may be taken out without at all disturbing the others. Whereas in the Sirson hive, which is open from one of the ends, it is often necessary to cut and remove many combs in order to get access to a particular one. Thus, if the tenth comb from the end is to be removed, nine combs must be first cut and taken out. All this consumes a large amount of time. The German hive does not furnish the surplus honey in a form which could be found most saleable in our markets, or which would admit a safe transportation in the comb. Notwithstanding these disadvantages, it has achieved a great triumph in Germany and given a new impulse to the cultivation of bees. The following letter from Samuel Wagner Esquire, cashier of the bank in York, Pennsylvania, will show the results which have obtained in Germany by the new system of management, and his estimate of the superior value of my hive to those in use there. York, Pennsylvania, December 24, 1852, Dear Sir, the Sirson theory, and the system of bee management based thereon, were originally promulgated, hypothetically, in the Eichstadt B. Einen Zeitung, or bee journal, in 1845, and had once arrested my attention. Subsequently, when in 1848, at the instance of the Prussian government, the Reverend Mr. Sirson published his theory and practice of bee culture, I imported a copy which reached me in 1849, in which I translated prior to January 1850. Before the translation was completed, I received a visit from my friend, the Reverend Dr. Berg of Philadelphia, and in the course of conversation on beekeeping, mentioned to him the Sirson theory and system, as one which I regarded as new and very superior, though I had no opportunity for testing it practically. In February following, when in Philadelphia, I left him with the translation in manuscript, up to which period, I dealt whether any other person in this country had any knowledge of the Sirson theory, except Dr. Berg, I had never mentioned it to anyone, save in very general terms. In September 1851, Dr. Berg again visited York, and stated to me your investigations, discoveries, and inventions. During the account Dr. Berg gave me, I felt assured that you had devised substantially the same system as that so successfully pursued by Mr. Sirson. But how far your hive resembled his, I was unable to judge from description alone. I inferred, however, several points of difference. The coincidence as to system, and the principles on which it was evidently founded, struck me as exceedingly singular and interesting, because I felt confident that you had no more knowledge of Mr. Sirson and his labors, before Dr. Berg mentioned him and his book to you, than Mr. Sirson had of you. These circumstances made me very anxious to examine your hives, and induce me to visit your apiary in the village of West Philadelphia last August. In the absence of the keeper, as I informed you, I took the liberty to explore the premises thoroughly, opening and inspecting a number of the hives, and noticing the internal arrangement of the parts. The result was, that I came away convinced that, though your system was based on the same principles as Sirson's, yet that your hive was almost totally different from his, in construction and arrangement. That while the same objects substantially are attained by each, your hive is more simple, more convenient, and much better adapted for general introduction and use, since the mode of using it can be more easily taught. Of its ultimate and triumphant success, I have no doubt. I sincerely believe that, when it comes under the notice of Mr. Sirson, he will himself prefer it to his own. It in fact combines all the good properties, which a hive ought to possess. While it is free from the complication, clumsiness, vain whims, and decidedly objectionable features, which characterize most of the inventions, which profess to be at all superior to the simple box, or to the common chamber hive. You may certainly claim equal credit with Sirson for originality in observation and discovery in the natural history of the honeybee, and for success in deducing principles and devising a most valuable system of management from observed facts. But in invention, as far as neatness, compactness, and adaptation of means to ends are concerned, the sturdy German must yield the palm to you. You will find a case of similar coincidence detailed in the Westminster Review for October 1852, page 267, at sequence. I send you here with some interesting statements respecting Sirson, and the estimate in which his system is held in Germany. Very truly yours, Samuel Wagner, Reverend L. L. Langstrath. The following are the statements to which Mr. Wagner refers. Quote, As the best test of the value of Mr. Sirson's system, it is the results which have been made to flow from it, a brief account of its rise in progress may be found interesting. In 1835, he commenced beekeeping in the common way, with twelve colonies, and after various mishaps which shot him the defects of the common hives and the old mode of management. His stock was so reduced that in 1838, he had virtually to begin anew. At this period, he contrived his improved hive in its router form, which gave him the command over all the combs, and he began to experiment on the theory which observation and study had enabled him to devise. Thence forward, his progress was as rapid as his success was complete and triumphant. Though he met with frequent reverses, about seventy colonies having been stolen from him, sixty destroyed by fire, and twenty-four by a flood. Yet in 1846, his stock had increased to three hundred and sixty colonies, and he realized from them that year, six thousand pounds of honey, beside several hundred weight of wax. At the same time, most of the cultivators in his vicinity, who pursued the common methods, had fewer hives than they had when he commenced. In the year 1848, a fatal pestilence, known by the name of Fowlbrood, prevailed among his bees, and destroyed nearly all his colonies before it could be subdued, only about ten having escaped the malady, which attacked alike the old stocks and his artificial swarms. He estimates his entire loss that year at over five hundred colonies, nevertheless, he succeeded so well in multiplying by artificial swarms, the few that remained healthy, that in the fall of 1851, his stock consisted of nearly four hundred colonies. He must, therefore, have multiplied his stocks more than threefold each year. The highly prosperous condition of his colonies is attested by the report of the Secretary of the Annual Aperian Convention, which met in his vicinity last spring. This convention, the fourth which has been held, consisted of one hundred and twelve experienced and enthusiastic beekeepers from various districts of Germany and neighboring countries, and among them were some who, when they assembled, were strong opposers of his system. They visited and personally examined the apiaries of Mr. Ziersohn. The report speaks in the very highest terms of his success, and of the manifest superiority of his system of management. He exhibited and satisfactorily explained to his visitors his practice and principles, and they remarked, with astonishment, the singular docility of his bees, and the thorough control to which they were subjected. After a full detail of the proceedings, the Secretary goes on to say, Now that I have seen Ziersohn's method practically demonstrated, I must admit that it is attended with fewer difficulties than I had supposed. With his hive and system of management, it would seem that bees become at once more docile than they are in other cases. I consider his system the simplest and best means of elevating bee culture to a profitable pursuit, and of spreading it far and wide over the land, especially as it is peculiarly adapted to districts in which the bees do not readily and regularly swarm. His eminent success in re-establishing his stock after suffering so heavily from the devastating pestilence. In short, the recuperative power of the system demonstrates conclusively that it furnishes the best, perhaps the only means of reinstating bee culture to a profitable branch of rural economy. Ziersohn modestly disclaimed the idea of having attained perfection in his hive. He dwelt rather upon the truth and importance of his theory and system of management. From the Leipzig Illustrated Almanac, report on agriculture for 1846. Quote, bee culture is no longer regarded as of any importance in rural economy, end quote, from the same for 1851 and 1853. Quote, since Ziersohn's system has been made known, an entire revolution in bee culture has been produced, a new era has been created for it, and beekeepers are turning their attention to it with renewed zeal. The merits of his discoveries are appreciated by the government, and they recommend his system as worthy the attention of the teachers of common schools. Mr. Ziersohn resides in a poor sandy district of Middle Silesia, which, according to the common notions of Aperians, is unfavorable to bee culture. Yet despite of this and of various mishaps, he has succeeded in realizing $900 as the product of his bees in one season. By his mode of management, his bees yield, even in the poorest years, from 10% to 15% on the capital invested. And where the colonies are produced by the Aperians own skill and labor, they cost him only about one fourth the price at which they are usually valued. In ordinary seasons, the profit amounts to from 30% to 50%, and in very favorable seasons, from 80% to 100%. End quote. In communicating these facts to the public, I have several objects in view. I freely acknowledge that I take an honest pride in establishing my claims as an independent observer, and as having matured by my own discoveries the same system of bee culture as that which has excited so much interest in Germany. I desire also to have the testimony of the translator of Sierzone to the superior merits of my hive. Mr. Wagner is extensively known as an able German scholar. He has taken all the numbers of the bee journal, a monthly periodical, which has been published for more than 15 years in Germany, and is probably more familiar with the state of Aperian culture abroad than any man in this country. I am anxious further to show that the great importance which I attach to my system of management is amply justified by the success of those who, while pursuing the same system with inferior hives, have attained results which, to common beekeepers, seem almost incredible. Inventors are very prone to form exaggerated estimates of the value of their labors, and the American public has been so often deluded with patent hives devised by a person's ignorant of the most important principles in the natural history of the bee, in which have utterly failed to answer their professed objects, that they are scarcely to be blamed for rejecting every new hive as unworthy of confidence. There is now a prospect that a bee journal will, before long, be established in this country. Such a publication has long been needed. Properly conducted, it will have the most powerful influence in disseminating information, awakening enthusiasm, and guarding the public against the miserable impositions to which it has so long been subjected. Two such journals are now published monthly in Germany, one of which has been in existence for more than fifteen years, and their wide circulation has made thousands well acquainted with those principles, which must constitute the foundation of any enlightened and profitable system of culture. The truth is that while many of the principle facts in the physiology of the honeybee have long been familiar to scientific observers, it has unfortunately happened that some of the most important have been widely discredited. In themselves, they are so wonderful, and to those who have not witnessed them, often so incredible, that it is not at all strange that they have been rejected as fanciful conceits or barefaced inventions. Many persons have not the slightest idea that everything may be seen that takes place in a beehive, but hives have, for many years, been in use, containing only one large comb, enclosed on both sides, by glass. These hives are darkened by shutters, and when opened, the queen is exposed to observation, as well as all the other bees. Within the last two years, I have discovered that with proper precautions, colonies can be made to work in observing hives, without shutters, and exposed continually to the full light of day, so that observations may be made at all times, without in the least interrupting the ordinary operations of the bees. By the aid of such hives, some of the most intelligent citizens of Philadelphia have seen in my apiary the queen bee depositing her eggs in the cells, and constantly surrounded by an affectionate circle of her devoted children. They have also witnessed, with astonishment and delight, all the steps in the mysterious process of raising queens from eggs, which, with the ordinary development, would have produced only the common bees. For more than three months, there was not a day in which some of my colonies were not engaged in making new queens to supply the place of those taken from them, and I had the pleasure of exhibiting all the facts to beekeepers who never before felt willing to credit them. As all my hives are so made that each comb can be taken out and examined at pleasure, those who use them can obtain from them all the information which they need, and are no longer forced to take anything upon trust. May I be permitted to express the hope that the time is now at hand, when the number of practical observers will be so multiplied that ignorant and designing men will neither be able to impose their conceits and falsehoods upon the public, nor be sustained in their attempts to depreciate the valuable discoveries of those who have devoted years of observation and experiment to promote the advancement of Aperian knowledge. Chapter 2 of Langstroth on the Hive and the Honey Bee This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Adam Marsatich, August 2009, Alexandria, Virginia. Langstroth on the Hive and the Honey Bee, by L. L. Langstroth. Chapter 2. The Honey Bee capable of being tamed or domesticated to a most surprising degree. If the bee had not such a necessary and yet formidable weapon, both of offense and defense, multitudes would be induced to enter upon its cultivation who are now afraid to have anything to do with it. As the new system of management which I have devised seems to add to this inherent difficulty by taking the greatest possible liberties with so irascible an insect, I deem it important to show clearly, in the very outset, how bees may be managed so that all necessary operations may be performed in an apiary without incurring any serious risk of exciting their anger. Many persons have been unable to control their expressions of wonder and astonishment on seeing the open hive after hive in my experimental apiary in the vicinity of Philadelphia, removing the combs covered with bees and shaking them off in front of the hives, exhibiting the queen, transferring the bees to another hive, and, in short, dealing with them as if they were harmless as so many flies. I have sometimes been asked if the bees with which I was experimenting had not been subjected to a long course of instruction to prepare them for public exhibition, when in some cases the very hives which I was opening contained swarms which had been brought only the day before to my establishment. Before entering upon the natural history of the bee, I shall anticipate some principles in its management in order to prepare my readers to receive, without the doubts which would otherwise be very natural, the statements in my book, and to convince them that almost anyone favorably situated may safely enjoy the pleasure and profit of a pursuit which has been most appropriately styled the poetry of rural economy, and that, without being made too familiar with a sharp little weapon, which can most speedily and effectually convert all the poetry into very sorry prose. The creator intended the bee for the comfort of man, as truly as he did the horse or the cow. In the early ages of the world, indeed until very recently, honey was almost the only natural sweet, and the promise of a land flowing with milk and honey had then a significance, the full force of which it is difficult for us to realize. The honey bee was, therefore, created not merely with the ability to store up its delicious nectar for its own use, but with certain properties which fitted it to be domesticated, and to labor for man, and without which he would no more have been able to subject it to his control than to make a useful beast of burden of a lion or a tiger. One of the peculiarities which constitutes the very foundation, not merely of my system of management, but of the ability of man to domesticate at all so irascible an insect, has never, to my knowledge, been clearly stated as a great and controlling principle. It may thus be expressed, a honey bee never volunteers an attack, or acts on the offensive, when it is gorged or filled with honey. The man who first attempted to lodge a swarm of bees in an artificial hive was doubtless agreeably surprised at the ease with which he was able to accomplish it, for when the bees are intending to swarm, they fill their honey bags to their utmost capacity. This is wisely ordered, that they may have materials for commencing operations immediately in their new habitation, that they may not starve if several stormy days should follow their emigration, and that when they leave their hives, they may be in a suitable condition to be secured by man. They issue from their hives in the most peaceable mood that can well be imagined, and unless they are abused, allow themselves to be treated with great familiarity. The hiving of bees, by those who understand their nature, could almost always be conducted without the risk of any annoyance, if it were not the case, that some improvident or unfortunate ones occasionally come forth without the soothing supply, and not being stored with honey, are filled with the gall of the bitterest hate against all mankind and animal kind in general, and anyone who dares to meddle with them in particular. Such radicals are always to be dreaded, for they must vent their spleen on something, even though they lose their life in the act. Suppose the whole colony, on selling forth, to possess such a ferocious spirit, no one would ever dare to hive them, unless clad in a coat of mail, at least bee proof, and not even then, until all the windows of his house were closed, his domestic animals bestowed in some safe place, and sentinels posted at suitable stations, to warn all comers to look out for something almost as much to be dreaded as a fiery locomotive in full speed. In short, if the propensity to be exceedingly good-natured after a hearty meal had not been given to the bee, it could never have been domesticated, and our honey would still be procured from the cluffs of rocks or the hollows of trees. A second peculiarity in the nature of the bee, and one of which I continually avail myself with the greatest success, may be thus stated. These cannot, under any circumstances, resist the temptation to fill themselves with liquid sweets. It would be quite as easy for an inveterate miser to look with indifference upon a golden shower of double eagles falling at his feet and soliciting his appropriation. If then we can contrive a way to call their attention to a treat of running sweets, when we wish to perform any operation which might provoke them, we may be sure that they will accept it, and, under its genial influence, allow us without molestation to do what we please. We must always be particularly careful not to handle them roughly, for they will never allow themselves to be pinched or hurt without thrusting out their sting to resent such an indignity. I will always keep a small watering pot or sprinkler in my apiary, and whenever I wish to operate upon a hive, as soon as the cover is taken off and the bees exposed, I sprinkle them gently with water sweetened with sugar. They help themselves with the greatest eagerness, and, in a few moments, are in a perfectly manageable state. The truth is that bees managed on this plan are always glad to see visitors, and you cannot look in upon them too often, for they expect at every call to receive a sugar treat by way of a peace offering. I can superintend a large number of hives, performing every operation that is necessary for pleasure or profit, and yet not run the risks of being stung, which must frequently be incurred in attempting to manage, in the simplest way, the common hives. Those who are timid may, at first, use a bee dress, though they will soon discard everything of the kind, unless they are of the number of those to whom the bees have a special aversion. Such unfortunates are sure to be stung whenever they show themselves in the vicinity of a beehive, and they will do well to give the bees a very wide berth. Aparians have, for many years, employed the smoke of tobacco for subduing their bees. It deprives them, at once, of all disposition to sting, but it ought never to be used for such a purpose. If the construction of the hives will not permit the bees to be sprinkled with sugar water, the smoke of burning paper or rags will answer every purpose, and the bees will not be likely to resent it, whereas, when they recover from the effect of the tobacco, they not unfrequently remember, and in no very gentle way, the operator who administered the nauseous dose. Let all your motions about your hives be gentle and slow, accustom your bees to your presence. Never crush or injure them in any operation. Acquaint yourself fully with the principles of management detailed in this treatise, and you will find that you have but little more reason to dread the sting of a bee than the horns of your favorite cow or the heels of your faithful horse. End of chapter 2. Chapter 3 of Langstroth on the Hive and the Honey Bee. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Adam Marcicic, August 2009, Alexandria, Virginia. Langstroth on the Hive and the Honey Bee by L. L. Langstroth. Chapter 3. The queen or mother bee, the drones, and the workers, with various highly important facts in their natural history. Bees can flourish only when associated in large numbers, as a colony. In a solitary state, a single bee is almost as helpless as a newborn child. It is unable to endure even the ordinary chill of a cool summer night. If a strong colony of bees is examined, a short time before it swarms, three different kinds of bees will be found in the hive. First, a bee of peculiar shape, commonly called the queen bee. Second, some hundreds, more or less, of large bees called drones. Third, many thousands of a smaller kind, called workers or common bees, and similar to those which are seen on the blossoms. A large number of the cells will be found filled with honey and bee bread, while vast numbers contain eggs and immature workers and drones. A few cells of unusual size are devoted to the rearing of young queens, and are ordinarily to be found in a perfect condition only in the swarming season. The queen bee is the only perfect female in the hive, and all the eggs are laid by her. The drones are the males, and the workers are females, whose ovaries, or egg bags, are so imperfectly developed that they are incapable of breeding, and which retain the instinct of females only so far as to give the most devoted attention to feeding and rearing the brood. These facts have all been demonstrated repeatedly, and are as well established as the most common facts in the breeding of our domestic animals. The knowledge of them, in their most important bearings, is absolutely essential to all those who expect to realize large profits from an improved method of rearing bees. Those who will not acquire the necessary information, if they keep bees at all, should manage them in the old fashioned way, which requires the smallest amount either of knowledge or skill. I am perfectly aware how difficult it is to reason with a large class of beekeepers, some of whom have been so often imposed upon, that they have lost all faith in the truth of any statements which may be made by anyone interested in a patent hive, while others stigmatize all knowledge which does not square with their own, as book knowledge, and unworthy the attention of practical men. If any such read this book, let me remind them again, that all my assertions may be put to the test, so long as the interior of a hive was to common observers a profound mystery ignorant and designing men might assert what they pleased, about what passed in its dark recesses, but now when all that takes place in it can, in a few moments, be exposed to the full light of day, and everyone who keeps bees can see and examine for himself the man who attempts to palm upon the community, his own conceits for facts, will speedily earn for himself the character both of a fool and an imposter. The queen bee, or as she may be more properly called the mother bee, is the common mother of the whole colony, she reigns therefore most unquestionably by a divine right, as every mother is, or ought to be, a queen in her own family. Her shape is entirely different from that of the other bees, while she is not near so bulky as a drone, her body is longer, and of a more tapering or sugarloaf form than that of a worker, so that she has somewhat of a wasp-like appearance. Her wings are much shorter in proportion than those of the drone or worker, the underpart of her body is of a golden color, and the upper part darker than that of the other bees. Her motions are unusually slow and matronly, although she can, when she pleases, move with astonishing quickness. No colony can long exist without the presence of this all-important insect. She is just as necessary to its welfare as the soul is to the body, for a colony without a queen must as certainly perish as a body without the spirit hastened to inevitable decay. She is treated by the bees, as every mother ought to be, by her children, with the most unbounded respect and affection. A circle of her loving offspring constantly surround her, testifying, in various ways, their dutiful regard, offering her honey, from time to time, and always, most politely getting out of her way, to give her a clear path when she wishes to move over the combs. If she is taken from them, as soon as they have ascertained their loss, the whole colony is thrown into a state of the most intense agitation. All the labors of the hive are at once abandoned. The bees run wildly over the combs, and frequently, the whole of them rush forth from the hive, and exhibit all the appearance of anxious search for their beloved mother. Not being able anywhere to find her, they return to their desolate home, and by their mournful tones reveal their deep sense of so deplorable a calamity. Their note, at such times, more especially when they first realize her loss, is of a peculiarly mournful character. It sounds something like a succession of whales on the minor key, and can no more be mistaken by the experienced beekeeper for their ordinary, happy home, than the piteous moanings of a sick child can be confounded by an anxious mother with its joyful crowings when overflowing with health and happiness. I am perfectly aware that all this will sound to many, much more like romance than sober reality. But I have determined, in writing this book, to state facts, however wonderful just as they are, confident that they will, before long, be universally received, and hoping that the many wonders in the economy of the honeybee will not only excite a wider interest in its culture, but will lead those who observe them, to adore the wisdom of him who gave them such admirable instincts. I cannot refrain from quoting here the forcible remarks of an English clergyman, who appears to be a very great enthusiast in bee culture, quote, every beekeeper, if he have only a soul to appreciate the works of God, and an intelligence of an inquisitive order, cannot fail to become deeply interested in observing the wonderful instincts, instincts akin to reason, of these admirable creatures, at the same time that he will learn many lessons of practical wisdom from their example. Having acquired a knowledge of their habits, not a bee will buzz in his ear without recalling to him some of these lessons, and helping to make him a wiser and a better man. It is certain that in all my experience, I never yet met with a keeper of bees who was not a respectable, well-conducted member of society, and a moral, if not a religious man. It is evident, on reflection, that this pursuit, if well attended to, must occupy some considerable share of a man's time and thoughts. He must be often about his bees, which will help to counteract the baneful effect of the village in. Whoever is fond of his bees is fond of his home, is an axiom of irrefragable truth, and one which ought to kindle in everyone's breast a favorable regard for a pursuit which has the power to produce so happy an influence. The love of home is the companion of many other virtues, which, if not yet developed into actual exercise, are still only dormant, and may be roused into wakeful energy at any moment. The fertility of the queen bee has been much underestimated by most writers. It is truly astonishing. During the height of the breeding season, she will often, under favorable circumstances, lay from two to three thousand eggs a day. In my observing hives, I have seen her lay at the rate of six eggs a minute. The fecundity of the female of the white ant is much greater than this, as she will lay as many as sixty eggs a minute. But then her eggs are simply extruded from her body to be carried by the workers into suitable nurseries, while the queen bee herself deposits her eggs in their appropriate cells. On the way in which the eggs of the queen bee are fecundated, I come now to a subject of great practical importance, and one which, until quite recently, has been attended with apparently unsuperable difficulties. It has been noted that the queen bee commences laying in the latter part of winter, or early in spring, and long before there are any drones or males in the hive. See remarks on drones. In what way are these eggs impregnated, huber by a long course of the most indefatigable observations, through much light upon this subject? Before stating his discoveries, I must pay my humble tribute of gratitude and admiration to this wonderful man. It is mortifying to every scientific naturalist, and I might add, to every honest man acquainted with the facts, to hear such a man as huber abused by the various quacks and imposters. While others who have appropriated from his labors, nearly all, that is of any value in their works, to use the words of pope, damn with faint praise, assent with civil leer, and without sneering, teach the rest to sneer. Huber, in early manhood, lost the use of his eyes. His opponents imagined that, in stating this fact, they have thrown merited discredit on all his pretended discoveries. But to make their case still stronger, they delight to assert that he saw everything through the medium of his servant Francis Burnins, an ignorant peasant. Now this ignorant peasant was a man of strong native intellect, possessing that indefatigable energy and enthusiasm which are so indispensable to make a good observer. He was a noble specimen of a self-made man, and afterwards rose to be the chief magistrate in the village where he resided. Huber has paid the most admirable tribute to his intelligence, fidelity and indomitable patience, energy and skill. It would be difficult to find, in any language, a better specimen of the true Baconian or inductive system of reasoning than Huber's work upon bees, and it might be studied as a model of the only true way of investigating nature, so as to arrive at reliable results. Huber was assisted in his investigations, not only by Burnins, but by his own wife, to whom he was engaged before the loss of his sight, and who nobly persisted in marrying him, notwithstanding his misfortune, and the strenuous dissuasions of her friends. They lived for more than the ordinary term of human life, in the enjoyment of uninterrupted domestic happiness, and the amiable naturalists scarcely felt, in her assiduous attentions, the loss of his sight. Milton is believed by many to have been a better poet for his blindness, and it is highly probable that Huber was a better Aperian for the same cause. His active and yet reflective mind demanded constant employment, and he found in the study of the habits of the honeybee full scope for all his powers. All the facts observed, and experiments tried by his faithful assistants, were daily reported to him, and many inquiries were stated and suggestions made by him, which would probably have escaped his notice if he had possessed the use of his eyes. Few have such a command of both time and money as to enable them to carry on for a series of years, on a grand scale, the most costly experiment. Aperians owe more to Huber than to any other person. I have repeatedly verified the most important of his observations, and I take the greatest delight in acknowledging my obligations to him, and in holding him up to my countrymen as the Prince of Aperians. My readers will pardon this digression. It would have been morally impossible for me to write a work on bees, without saying at least as much as this, invindication of Huber. I returned to his discoveries on the impregnation of the queen bee. By a long course of experiments, most carefully conducted, he ascertained that, like many other insects, she is fecundated in the open air, and on the wing, and that the influence of this lasts for several years, and probably for life. He could not form any satisfactory conjecture, as to the way in which the eggs, which were not yet developed in her ovaries, could be fertilized. Years ago, the celebrated Dr. John Hunter, and others, supposed that there must be a permanent receptacle for the male sperm, opening into the passage for the eggs called the overduct. Ceresone, who must be regarded as one of the ablest contributors of modern times to Aperian science, maintains this opinion, and states that he has found such a receptacle filled with the fluid, resembling the semen of the drones. He nowhere, to my knowledge, states that he ever made microscopic examinations, so as to put the matter on the footing of demonstration. In January and February of 1852, I submitted several queen bees to Dr. Joseph Lady of Philadelphia for a scientific examination. I need hardly to say to any naturalist in this country that Dr. Lady has obtained the very highest reputation, both at home and abroad, as a skillful naturalist and microscopic anatomist. No man in this country or Europe was more competent to make the investigations that I desired. He found, in making his dissections, a small globular sac, not larger than a grain of mustard seed, about one-thirty-third of an inch in diameter, communicating with the overduck, and filled with a whitish fluid, which when examined under the microscope, was found to abound in spermatozoa, or the anemeculae, which are the unmistakable characteristics of the seminal fluid. Later in the season, the same substance was compared with some taken from the drones, and found to be exactly similar to it. These examinations have settled on the impregnable basis of demonstration, the mode in which the eggs of the queen are vivified. In descending the overduck to be deposited in the cells, they pass by the mouth of this seminal sac, or spermathica, and receive a portion of its fertilizing contents. Small as it is, its contents are sufficient to impregnate hundreds of thousands of eggs. In precisely the same way, the mother wasps and hornets are fecundated. The females alone of these insects survive the winter, and they begin, single-handed, the construction of a nest, in which, at first, only a few eggs are deposited. How could these eggs hatch if the females which laid them had not been impregnated the previous season? Dissection proves them to have a spermathica similar to that of the queen bee. Of all who have written against Huber, no one has treated him with more unfairness, misrepresentation, and, I might almost add, malignity than who-ish. He maintains that the eggs of the queen are impregnated by the drones, after she has deposited them in the cells, and accounts for the fact that brood is produced in the spring, long before the existence of any drones in the hive, by asserting that these eggs were deposited and impregnated late in the previous season, and have remained dormant all winter in the hive. And yet the same writer, while ridiculing the discoveries of Huber, advises that all the mother wasps should be killed in the spring, to prevent them from founding families to commit depredations upon the bees. It never seems to have occurred to him that the existence of a permanently impregnated mother wasp was just as difficult to be accounted for as the existence of a similarly impregnated queen bee. Effect of retarded impregnation on the queen bee I shall now mention a fact in the physiology of the queen bee more singular than any which has yet been related. Huber, while experimenting to ascertain how the queen was fecundated, confined some of his young queens to their hives by contracting the entrances so that they were not able to go in search of the drones until three weeks after their birth. To his amazement, these queens whose impregnation was thus unnaturally retarded never laid any eggs, but such as produced drones. He tried the experiment again and again, but always with the same result. Some beekeepers, long before his time, had observed that all the brood in a hive were occasionally drones and, of course, that such colonies rapidly went to ruin. Before attempting any explanation of this astonishing fact, I must call the attention of the reader to another of the mysteries of the beehive. It has already been remarked that the workers are proved by dissection to be females, all of which, under ordinary circumstances, are barren. Occasionally, some of them appear to be more fully developed than common, so as to be capable of laying eggs. These eggs, like those of queens whose impregnation has been retarded, always produce drones. Sometimes, when a colony has lost its queen, these drone-laying workers are exalted to her place and treated with equal respect and affection by the bees. Huber ascertained that these fertile workers were generally reared in the neighborhood of the young queens, and he thought that they received some particles of the peculiar food, or jelly, on which the queens are reared. See royal jelly. He did not pretend to account for the effect of retarded impregnation. He made no experiments to determine the facts as to the fecundation of these fertile workers. Since the publication of Huber's work nearly 50 years ago, no light has been shed upon the mysteries of drone-laying queens and workers until quite recently. Searsone appears to have been the first to ascertain the truth on this subject, and his discovery must certainly be ranked as unfolding one of the most astonishing facts in all the range of animated nature. This fact seems, at first view, so absolutely incredible that I should not dare to mention it, if it were not supported by the most indubitable evidence, and if I had not, as I have already observed, determined to state all important and well ascertained facts, without seeking, by any concealments, to pander to the prejudices of conceited and often very ignorant beekeepers. Searsone advances the opinion that impregnation is not needed in order that the eggs of the queen may produce drones, but that all impregnated eggs produce females, either workers or queens, and all unimpregnated ones, males or drones. He states that he found drone-laying queens in several of his hives, whose wings were so imperfect that they could not fly, and that on examination they proved to be unfecundated. Hence he concluded that the eggs of the queen bee, or fertile worker, had from the previous impregnation of the egg which produced them sufficient vitality to produce the drone, which is a less highly organized insect, and one inferior to the queen or workers. It had long been known that the queen deposits drone eggs in the large or drone cells, and worker eggs in the small or worker cells, and that she makes no mistakes. Searsone inferred, therefore, that there was some way in which she was able to decide as to the sex of the egg before it was laid, and that she must have a control over the mouth of the seminal sac, so as to be able to extrude her eggs, allowing them to receive or not, just as she pleased, a portion of its fertilizing contents. In this way, he thought she determined the sacs, according to the size of the cells in which she laid them. Mr. Samuel Wagner of York, Pennsylvania, has recently communicated to me a very original and exceedingly ingenious theory of his own, which he thinks will account for all the facts without admitting that the queen bee has any special knowledge or will on the subject. He supposes that when she deposits her eggs in the worker cells, her body is slightly compressed by the size of the cells, and that the eggs, as they pass the spermotheca, receive in this manner its vivifying influence. On the contrary, when she is egg laying in drone cells, this compression cannot take place, the mouth of the spermotheca is kept closed, and the eggs are, necessarily, unfecundated. This theory may prove to be true, but at present, it is encumbered with some difficulties and requires further investigation before it can be considered as fully established. Leaving then the question whether the queen exercises any volition in this manner, for the present undecided, I shall state some facts which occurred in the summer of 1852 in my own apiary, and shall then endeavor to relieve, as far as possible, this intricate subject from some of the difficulties which embarrass it. In the autumn of 1852, my assistant found, in one of my hives, a young queen, the whole of whose progeny was drones. The colony had been formed by removing part of the combs containing bees, brood and eggs, from another hive. It had only a few combs, and but a small number of bees. They raised a new queen in the manner which will hereafter be particularly described. This queen had laid a number of eggs in one of the combs, and the young bees from some of them were already emerging from the cells. I perceived, at the first glance, that they were drones. As there were none but worker cells in the hive, they were reared in them, and not having space for full development, they were dwarfed in size, although the bees, in order to give them more room, had pieced out the cells so as to make them larger than usual. Size accepted, they appeared as perfect as any other drones. I was not only struck with the singularity of finding drones reared in worker cells, but with the equally singular fact that a young queen who at first lays only the eggs of workers should be laying drone eggs at all, and at once conjectured that this was a case of a drone laying unimpregnated queen, as sufficient time had not elapsed for her impregnation to be unnaturally retarded. I saw the great importance of taking all necessary precautions to determine this point. The queen was removed from the hive, and carefully examined. Her wings, although they appear to be perfect, were so paralyzed that she could not fly. It seemed probable, therefore, that she had never been able to leave the hive for impregnation. To settle the question beyond the possibility of doubt, I submitted this queen to Dr. Joseph Lady for a microscopic examination. The following is an extract from his report. Quote, The ovaries were filled with eggs, the poison sack was full of fluid, and I took the whole of it into my mouth. The poison produced a strong metallic taste, lasting for a considerable time. And at first, it was pungent to the tip of the tongue. The spermotheca was distended with a perfectly colorless, transparent, viscid liquid, without a trace of spermatozoa, end quote. This examination seems perfectly to sustain this theory of serosone, and to demonstrate that queens do not need to be impregnated in order to lay the eggs of males. I must confess that very considerable doubts rested on my mind, as to the accuracy of serosone's statements on this subject, and chiefly because of his having hazarded the unfortunate conjecture that the place of the poison bag in the worker is occupied in the queen by the spermotheca. Now this is so completely contrary to fact, that it was a very natural inference that this acute and thoroughly honest observer made no microscopic dissections of the insects which he examined. I consider myself peculiarly fortunate in having enjoyed the benefit of the labors of a naturalist, so celebrated as Dr. Lady for microscopic dissections. The exceeding minuteness of some of the insects which he has completely figured and described almost passes belief. On examining this same colony a few days later, I obtained the most satisfactory evidence that these drone eggs were laid by the queen which had been removed. No fresh eggs had been deposited in the cells, and the bees, on missing her, had commenced the construction of royal cells to rear if possible another queen, a thing which they would not have done if a fertile worker had been present by which the drone eggs had been laid. Another very interesting fact proves that all the eggs laid by this queen were drone eggs. Two of the royal cells were, in a short time, discontinued, and were found to be empty, while a third contained a worm, which was sealed over the usual way, to undergo its changes from a worm to a perfect queen. I was completely at a loss to account for this, as the bees having an unimpregnated drone laying queen ought not to have had a single female egg from which they could rear a queen. At first I imagine they might have stolen it from another hive, but when I opened this cell it contained, instead of a queen, a dead drone. I then remembered that Huber had described the same mistake on the part of some of his bees. At the base of this cell was an extraordinary quantity of the peculiar jelly or paste, which is fed to the young that are to be transformed into queens. The poor bees and their desperation appear to have dosed the unfortunate drone to death, as though they expected, by such liberal feeding, to produce some hopeful change in his sexual organization. It appears to me that these facts constitute all the links in a perfect chain and demonstrate beyond the possibility of doubt that unfecundated queens are not only capable of laying eggs, this would be no more remarkable than the same occurrence in a hen, but that these eggs are possessed of sufficient vitality to produce drones. Aristotle, who flourished before the Christian era, had noticed that there was no difference in appearance between the eggs producing drones and those producing workers, and he states that drones only are produced in hives, which have no queen. Of course the eggs producing them were laid by fertile workers. Having now the aid of powerful microscopes, we are still unable to detect the slightest difference in size or appearance in the eggs, and this is precisely what we should expect if the same egg will produce either a worker or a drone, according as it is or is not impregnated. The theory which I propose will, I think, perfectly harmonize with all the observed facts on this subject. I believe that after fecundation has been delayed for about three weeks, the mouth of the spermatheca becomes permanently closed, so that impregnation can no longer be affected, just as the parts of a flower, after a certain time, wither and shut up, and the plant is incapable of fructification. The fertile drone-laying workers are, in my opinion, physically incapable of being impregnated. However strange it may appear, or even improbable, that an unimpregnated egg can give birth to a living being, or that the sex can be depended on impregnation, we are not at liberty to reject facts, because we cannot comprehend the reasons of them. He who allows himself to be guilty of such folly, if he seeks to maintain his consistency, will be plunged, sooner or later, into the dreary gulf of atheism. Common sense, philosophy and religion alike teach us to receive all-undoubted facts in the natural and the spiritual world, with becoming reverence, assured that, however mysterious to us, they are almost beautifully harmonious and consistent in the sight of him whose understanding is infinite. There is something analogous to these wonders in the bee, in what takes place in the aphids or green lice which infest our rosebushes and other plants. We have the most undoubted evidence that a fecundated female gives birth to other females, and they in turn to others still, all of which, without impregnation, are able to bring forth young, until at length, until a number of generations, perfect males and females are produced, and the series starts anew. The unequaled facilities furnished by my hives have seemed to render it peculiarly incumbent upon me to do all in my power to clear up the difficulties in this intricate and yet highly important branch of Aperian knowledge. All the leading facts in the breeding of bees ought to be as well known to the beekeeper as the same class of facts in the rearing of his domestic animals. A few crude and hasty notions, but half understood and half digested, will answer only for the old fashioned beekeeper who deals in the brimstone matches. He who expects to conduct beekeeping on a safe and profitable system must learn that on this, as on all other subjects, knowledge is power. The extraordinary fertility of the queen bee has already been noticed. The process of laying has been well described by the Reverend W. Dunbar, a Scotch Aperian. Quote, When the queen is about to lay, she puts her head into a cell, and remains in that position for a second or two to ascertain its fitness for the deposit which she is about to make. She then withdraws her head, curving her body downwards, inserts the lower part of it into the cell. In a few seconds, she turns half round upon herself and withdraws, leaving an egg behind her. When she lays a considerable number, she does it equally on each side of the comb. Those on the one side being as exactly opposite to those on the other as the relative position of the cells will admit. The effect of this is to produce the utmost possible concentration and economy of heat for developing the various changes of the brood. End quote. Here as at every step in the economy of the bee, our minds are filled with an admiration as we witness the perfect adaptation of means to ends. Who can blame the warmest enthusiasm of the Aperian in view of a sagacity which seems scarcely inferior to that of man? The eggs of bees, I quote from the admirable treatise of beevan, quote, are of a lengthened oval shape with a slight curvature and of a bluish white color being besmeared at the time of laying with a glutinous substance. They adhere to the bases of the cells and remain unchanged in figure or situation for three or four days. They are then hatched, the bottom of each cell presenting to view a small white worm. When it's growing so as to touch the opposite angle of the cell, it coils itself up to use the language of swammerdom like a dog when going to sleep and floats in a whitish transparent fluid which is deposited in the cells by the nursing bees and by which it is probably nourished. It becomes gradually enlarged in its dimensions till the two extremities touch one another and form a ring. In this state it is called a larva or a worm. So nicely do the bees calculate the quantity of food which will be required that none remains in the cell when it is transformed into a nymph. It is the opinion of many eminent naturalists that farina does not constitute the soul food of the larva but that it consists of a mixture of farina, honey, and water partly digested in the stomachs of the nursing bees. The larva having derived its support in the manner above described for four, five, or six days according to the season, the development being retarded in cool weather and badly protected hives continues to increase during that period till it occupies the whole breath and nearly the length of the cell. The nursing bee is now sealed over the cell with a light brown cover externally more or less convex. The cap of a drone cell is more convex than that of a worker and thus differing from that of a honey cell which is paler and somewhat concave. The cap of the brood cell appears to be made of a mixture of bee bread and wax. It is not airtight as it would be if made of wax alone but when examined with a microscope it appears to be reticulated or full of fine holes through which the enclosed insect can have air for all necessary purposes. From its texture and shape it is easily thrust off by the bee when mature, whereas if it consisted wholly of wax the young bee would either perish for lack of air or be unable to force its way into the world. Both the material and shape of the lids which seal up the honey cells are different because an entirely different object was aimed at. They are of pure wax to make them airtight and thus to prevent the honey from souring or candying in the cells. They are concave or hollowed inwards to give them greater strength to resist the pressure of their contents. To return to bee van, quote, the larva is no sooner perfectly enclosed than it begins to line the cell by spinning round itself after the manner of the silkworm, a whitish silky film or cocoon by which it is encased as it were in a pod. When it has undergone this change it is usually borne the name of nymph or pupa. The insect has now attained its full growth and the large amount of nutriment which it has taken serves as a store for developing the perfect insect. The working bee nymph spins its cocoon in 36 hours. After passing about three days in the state of preparation for a new existence it gradually undergoes so great a change as not to wear a vestige of its previous form but becomes armed with a firmer male and with scales of a dark brown hue. On its belly six rings become distinguishable by which slipping one over the other enables the bee to shorten its body whenever it has occasion to do so. When it has reached the 21st day of its existence, counting from the moment the egg is laid, it comes forth a perfect winged insect. The cocoon is left behind and forms a closely attached and exact lining to the cell in which it was spun. By this means the breeding cells become smaller and their partitions stronger. The oftener they change their tenets and may become so much diminished in size as not to admit of the perfect development of full-sized bees. Which are the respective stages of the working bee? Those of the royal bee are as follows. She passes three days in the egg and is five in a worm. The workers then close her cell and she immediately begins spinning her cocoon, which occupies her 24 hours. On the 10th and 11th days and a part of the 12th, as if exhausted by her labor, she remains in complete repose. Then she passes four days and a part of the fifth as a nymph. It is on the 16th day, therefore, that the perfect state of queen is attained. The drone passes three days in the egg, six and a half as a worm, and changes into a perfect insect on the 24th or 25th day after the egg is laid. The development of each species, likewise, proceeds more slowly when colonies are weak or the air cool, and when the weather is very cold, it is entirely suspended. Dr. Hunter has observed that the eggs, worms, and nymphs all require a heat above 70 degrees of Fahrenheit for their evolution." In the chapter on protection against extremes of heat and cold, I have dwelt at some length upon the importance of constructing the hives in such a manner as to enable the bees to preserve, as far as possible, a uniform temperature in their tenement. In thin hives exposed to the sun, the heat is sometimes so great as to destroy the eggs and the larvae, even when the combs escape from being melted. And the cold is often so severe as to check the development of a brood, and sometimes to kill it outright. In such hives, when the temperature out of doors falls suddenly and severely, the bees at once feel the unfavorable change. They are obliged in self-defense to huddle together to keep warm. And thus large portions of the brood comb are often abandoned, and the brood either destroyed at once by the cold, or so enfeebled that they could never recover from the shock. Let every beekeeper in all his operations remember that brood comb must never be exposed to a low temperature so as to become chilled. The disastrous effects are almost as certain as when the eggs of a setting hen are left, for too long a time by the careless mother. The brood combs are never safe when taken for any considerable time from the bees, unless the temperature is fully up to summer heat. The young bees break their envelope with their teeth, and assisted as soon as they come forth, by the older ones, proceed to cleanse themselves from the moisture and exuviae with which they were surrounded. Both drones and workers on emerging from the cell are, at first gray, soft, and comparatively helpless so that some time elapses before they take wing. With respect to the cocoons spun by the different larvae, both workers and drones spin complete cocoons, or enclose themselves on every side. Royal larvae construct only imperfect cocoons, open behind, and enveloping only the head, thorax, and first ring of the abdomen. When Huber concludes, without any hesitation, that the final course of their forming only incomplete cocoons is, that they may thus be exposed to the mortal sting of the first hatched queen, whose instinct leads her instantly to seek the destruction of those who would soon become her rivals. If the royal larvae spun complete cocoons, the stings of the queens seeking to destroy their rivals might be so entangled in their meshes that they could not be disengaged. Such, says Huber, is the instinctive enmity of young queens to each other, that I have seen one of them, immediately on its emergence from the cell, rush to those of its sisters, and tear to pieces even the imperfect larvae. Hitherto philosophers have claimed our admiration of nature for her care in preserving and multiplying the species, but from these facts, we must now admire her precautions in exposing certain individuals to a mortal hazard. End of Chapter 3, Part 1