 Part 4 of A Grammar of the English Tongue by Samuel Johnson, read for the LibriVox Language Learning Collection, Volume 1. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. If there be an L as in jingle, tingle, tinkle, mingle, sprinkle, twinkle, there is implied a frequency or iteration of small acts, and the same frequency of acts, but less subtle by reason of the clearer vowel A, is indicated in jangle, tangle, spangle, mangle, wrangle, wrangle, dangle, as also in mumble, grumble, jumble, but at the same time the close U implies something obscure or obtunded, and a conjurys of consonants MBL denotes a confused kind of rolling or tumbling, as in ramble, scamble, scramble, womble, amble. But in these there is something acute. In nimble the acuteness of the vowel denotes celerity, in sparkle sp denotes dissipation or an acute crackling, k a sudden interruption, l a frequent iteration, and in like manner in sprinkle unless i and may imply the subtlety of the dissipated guttules. Quick and thin differ in that the former ends with an obtuse consonant, and the latter with an acute. In like manner in squeak, squeak, squeal, squall, brawl, brawl, yall, spall, squeak, shriek, shrill, sharp, shrivel, wrinkle, crack, crash, clash, gnash, plash, crush, hush, hiss, fist, soft, jar, hurl, curl, whirl, buzz, bustle, spindle, dwindle, twine, twist, and in many more we may observe the agreement of such sort of sounds with the things signified. And this so frequently happens that scarce any language which I know can be compared with ours, so that one monosyllable word of which kind are almost all ours emphatically expresses what in other languages can scarce be explained but by compounds, or decompounds, or sometimes a tedious circumlocution. We have many words borrowed from the Latin, but the greatest part of them were communicated by the intervention of the French, as grace, face, elegant, elegance resemble. Some verbs which seem borrowed from the Latin are formed from the present tense, and some from the supines. From the present are formed spend, expend, expendo, conduce, condusso, despise, despicio, approve, approbo, conceive, consipio. From the supines supplicate, supplico, demonstrate, demonstro, dispose, dispono, spatiate, expatiore, suppress, supremo, exempt, eximo. Nothing is more apparent than that Wallace goes too far in quest of originals. Many of these which seem selected as immediate descendants from the Latin are apparently French, as conceive, approve, expose, exempt. Some words purely French, not derived from the Latin, we have transferred into our language as garden, garter, buckler, to advance, to cry, to plead from the French, jardin, jardier, buslier, avancer, crier, plaider. Though indeed even of these part is of Latin original. As too many words which we have in common with the Germans, it is doubtful whether the old two-tons borrowed them from the Latins or the Latins from the two-tons, or both had them from some common original, as wine, venom, wind, dentus, went, theni, way, via, wall, vellum, wallow, volvo, wool, vellus, will, volo, worm, vermus, worth, vertus, wasp, vespa, de, dies, dra, trajo, tame, domo, greek dameo, yoke, jugum, greek zugos, over, upper, super, greek hyper, am, sum, greek imy, break, frango, fly, volo, blow, flow. I make no doubt but the teutonic is more ancient than the Latin, and it is no less certain that the Latin which borrowed a great number of words not only from the Greek, especially the Aeolic, but other neighboring languages, as the Ascan and others, which have long become obsolete, received not a few from the teutonic. It is certain that the English, German, and other teutonic languages retained some derived from the Greek, which the Latin has not, as ax, ox, mit, ford, ferd, dauter, takter, michel, mingle, moon, seer, ore, grave, graph, to grave, to scrape, whole, from greek asini, greek meta, greek porthmos, greek phygator, greek megalos, greek mignio, greek mene, greek xeros, greek grafo, greek holos. Since they received these immediately from the Greeks, without the intervention of the Latin language, why may not other words be derived immediately from the same fountain, though they be likewise found among the Latins? Our ancestors were studious to form borrowed words, however long, into monosyllables, and not only cut off the formative terminations, but cropped the first syllable, especially in words beginning with a vowel, and rejected not only vowels in the middle, but likewise consonants of a weaker sound, retaining the stronger, which seemed the bones of words, or changing them for others of the same organ, in order that the sound might become the softer, but especially transposing their order, that they might the more readily be pronounced without the intermediate vowels. For example, in expendo spend, exemplum sample, excipio scape, extraneous strange, extractum stretched, excrucio to screw, excorio to scour, excorio to scourge, excortico to scratch, and others beginning with X, as also emendo to mend, episcopus bishop, indanish bisp, epistola epistle, hospitality, spittle, hispania, spain, historia, story, and so on. Many of these etymologies are doubtful, and some are evidently mistaken. The following are somewhat harder, Alexander Sander, Elizabetha Betty, Apis B, Aper Bar, P passing into B as in bishop, and by cutting off A from the beginning, which is restored in the middle, but for the old bar or bear we now say bor, as for lang, long, for bane, bane, for stain, stone, aprugna, bran, p being changed into b, and a transposed, as in upper, and g changed into w as in pignus, pawn, lege, law, greek, alopex, fox cutting off the beginning and changing p into f as in pelis, afell, pulis, afoul, potter, father, pavor, fear, polio, file, plio, implio, fill, full, piscus, fish, and transposing O into the middle which was taken from the beginning, apex, a peace, peak, pike, zaphorus, freeze, mustam, stumb, defencio, fence, dispensator, Spencer, ascuto, escuté, French, scout, excalpo, scrape, restoring l instead of r, and hence scrap, scrabble, scrawl, excalpo, scoop, exteritus, start, extonatus, atonatus, stand, stomacus, ma, offendo, find, obstipo, stop, audair, dare, caver, wear, whence aware, beware, wary, warn, warning. For the Latin V consonant formally sounded like our W, and the modern sound of the B consonant was formally that of the letter F, that is, the aeolik, digama, which had the sound of Greek P H, and the modern sound of the letter F was that of the Greek, Greek P H, or P H, ulcis, ulcer, ulcer, sore, and hence sory, sorrow, sorrowful, ingenium, engine, gin, scalinas, leaning, unless you would rather derive it from Greek, cleno, whence incleno, infundibulum, funnel, gagates, jet, projectum, to jet forth, a jetty, cuculus, a cowl. There are syncopes somewhat harder, from tempore, time, from nomine, name, domina, dame, as the French om, fam, gnome, from omine, fomina, nomine, thus pagina, page, Greek proterian, pat, Greek, qipela, cup, cantharis, can, tentorium, tent, praecor, prey, praida, prey, specio, specular, spy, plico, ply, impure, impure, impure, impure, impure, implico, imply, replico, reply, complico, comply, sedis episcopalis, see. A vowel is also cut off in the middle that the number of the syllables may be lessened, as amita, ant, spiritus, sprite, debitum, debt, dubito, doubt, comis, comitus, count, clericus, comitus, count, clerk, quietus, quit, quite, acquieto, to acquit, saparo, to spare, stabilis, stable, stabulum, stable, palaecium, palace, place, rebula, rail, raw, raw, brawl, rabble, rabble, quiseto, quest. As also a consonant or at least one of a softer sound or even a whole syllable, rotundus, round, fragilis, frail, securis, sure, regula, rule, tegula, tile, subtilis, subtle, nomen, noun, decanus, dien, computo, count, subitaneous, sudden, soon, superare, to soar, periculum, peril, mirabile, marvel, as magnus, main, dignore, dein, tingo, stain, periculum, periculum, tinctum, taint, pingo, paint, predare, riche. The contractions may seem harder where many of them meet as Greek, Kiriakos, Kirk, church, presbyter, priest, secristanus, sexton, frango, fregi, break, breach, fagus, greek, phega, beach, af-changed-interface, af-changed-interface, to be, and g into ch-ch, which are letters near a kin. Frigesco, freeze, frigesco, fresh, s-c into s-h, as above in bishop, fish, so in scafa, skiff, skip, and, refigesco, refresh, but veeresco, fresh, phlebotomus, fleem, bovina, beef, vitulina, veal, scutifer, squire, ponatentia, penance, sanctuarium, sanctuary, sentry, casitio, chase, perquistio, purchase, anguila, eel, insula, isle, isle, island, island, insulata, islet, islet, ite, and more contractedly, ey, whence, ounci, ruli, ilai, examinari, to scan, namely by rejecting from the beginning and end, e and o, according to the usual manner, the remainder, salmon, which the Saxons, who did not use x, writ, c-s-a-m-e-n, or s-c-a-m-e-n, is contracted into scan, as from dominus, dan, nomine, noun, abamino, ban, and indeed, apium, examin, they turned into s-c-i-a-m-e, for which we say swarm, by inserting r, to denote the sum of the sum of typically the Chinese, ite, but it... Fourth, Species, Spice, Recito, Read, Ajuvo, Aid, Greek, Aeon, Avum, Eye, Age, Ever, Flocus, Lock, Excerpo, Scrape, Scrabble, Scrawl, Extravagous, Stray, Straggle, Collectum, Clot, Clutch, Collego, Coil, Recaligo, Recoil, Severo, Swear, Stridulus, Shrill, Procurator, Proxy, Pulso, to Push, Calamas, Aquil, Impater, to Impeach, Aglio, Oxy, Wax, and Vinesco, Venue, Wayne, Silabari, to Spell, Puteous, Pit, Granum, Corn, Comprimo, Cramp, Crump, Crumple, Crinkle. Some may seem harsher, yet may not be rejected, for it at least appears that some of them are derived from proper names, and there are others whose etymology is acknowledged by everybody. As Alexander, Elic, Scander, Sander, Sandy, Sanny, Elizabetha, Elizabeth, Elizabeth, Betty, Bess, Margarita, Margaret, Margaret, Meg, Peg, Maria, Mary, Mal, Paul, Malkin, Malkin, Mox, Mathias, Matha, Matthew, Martha, Matt, Pat, Galilmus, Wilhelmus, Gerolamo, Guillaume, William, Will, Bill, Wilkin, Wiccan, Wicks, Weeks, thus Cariaphalus, Floss, Giraffolo, Italian, Girifli, Jillofer, French, Gilliflower, which the vulgar call Julyflower as if derived from the month July, Petroceleonym, Parsley, Portulaca, Perslane, Sidonium, Quince, Sidoniatum, Quidenley, Persicum, Peach, Eruca, Eruc, which they corrupt to earwig as if it took its name from the ear. Annulus Geminus, a Gimel, or Gimbelring, and thus the word Gimbel or Jumble is transferred to other things thus interwoven. Kalka Shows, Kikshas. Since the origin of these and many others, however, forced, is evident, it ought to appear no wonder to any one if the ancients have thus disfigured many, especially as they so much affected monosyllables, and to make the sound the softer took this liberty of maiming, taking away, changing, transposing, and softening them. But while we derive these from the Latin, I do not mean to say that many of them did not immediately come to us from the Saxon, Danish, Dutch, and Teutonic languages, and other dialects, and some taken more lately from the French or Italians, or Spaniards. The same word, according to its different significations, often has a different origin, as to bear a burden from feral. But to bear, once birth, born, bairn, comes from pario, and a bear, at least if it be of Latin original, from fera. Thus perch, a fish, from perca, but perch a measure from pertica, and likewise to perch. To spell is from syllable, but spell an enchantment by which it is believed that the boundaries are so fixed in lands that none can pass them against the master's will from expello, and spell a messenger from epistola, whence gospel, good spell, or godspell, thus frees, or frees, from frigesco, but frees an architectonic word from zophorus, but frees for cloth from frigia, or perhaps from frigesco, as being more fit than any other for keeping out the cold. There are many words among us, even monosyllables, compounded of two or more words, at least serving instead of compounds, and comprising the signification of more words than one, as from script and roll come scroll, from proud and dance prance, from st of the verb stay, or stand, and out, is made stout, from stout and hardy sturdy, from sp of spit or spew, and out comes spout, from the same sp with the termination in is spin, and adding out spin out, and from the same sp with it is spit, which only differs from spout in that it is smaller, and with less noise and force, but sputter is, because of the obscure u, something between spit and spout, and by reason of adding r it intimates a frequent iteration and noise, but obscurely confused, whereas spatter, on account of the sharper and clearer vowel a, intimates a more distinct poise in which it chiefly differs from sputter. From the same sp and the termination arc comes spark, signifying a single emission of fire with a noise, namely sp, the emission, ar, the more acute noise, and k, the mute consonant, terminated, but adding l is made the frequentative sparkle. The same sp by adding r, that is, spr, implies a more lively impetus of diffusing or expanding itself, to which adding the termination ing it becomes spring, its vigor spr imports, its sharpness the termination ing, and lastly in acute and tremulous ending in the mute consonant g denotes the sudden ending of any motion, that it is meant in its primary signification of a single not a complicated exolation. Hence we call spring whatever has an elastic force, is also a fountain of water, and thence the origin of anything, and to spring to germinate and spring one of the four seasons. From the same spr and out is formed sprout, and with the termination ig, sprig, of which the following, for the most part, is the difference. Sprout of a grosser sound imports a fatter or grosser bud, sprig of a slenderer sound denotes a smaller chute. In like manner from str of the verb strive and out comes strout and strut. From the same str and the termination uggle is made struggle, and this gl imports, but without any great noise, by reason of the obscure sound of the vowel u. In like manner from throw and roll is made troll, and almost in the same sense is trundle from throw or thrust and rundle. Thus graph or gruff is compounded of grave and rough, and trudge from tread or trot and drudge. In these observations it is easy to discover great sagacity and great extravagance and ability to do much defeated by the desire of doing more than enough. It may be remarked, one, that Wallace's derivations are often so made, that by the same license any language may be deduced from any other. Two, that he makes no distinction between words immediately derived by us from the Latin, and those which, being copied from other languages, can therefore afford no example of the genius of the English language, or its laws of derivation. Three, that he derives from the Latin often with great harshness and violence words apparently to tonic, and therefore according to his own declaration probably older than the tongue to which he refers them. Four, that some of his derivations are apparently erroneous. Syntax The established practice of grammarians requires that I should hear treat of the syntax, but our language has so little inflection, or variety of terminations, that its construction neither requires nor admits many rules. Wallace therefore has totally neglected it. And Johnson, whose desire of following the writers upon the learned languages made him think of syntax indispensably necessary, has published such petty observations as were better omitted. The verb, as in other languages, agrees with the nominative in number and person, as thou fliest from good, he runs to death. Our adjectives and pronouns are invariable. Of two substantives the noun possessive is in the genitive, as his father's glory, the son's heat. Substransitive require an oblique case, as he loves me, you fear him. All prepositions require an oblique case, as he gave this to me, he took this from me, he says this of me, he came with me, prosody. It is common for those that deliver the grammar of modern languages to omit the prosody, so that of the Italians is neglected by buometti, that of the French by demare, and that of the English by Wallace, Cooper, and even by Johnson, though a poet. But as the laws of meter are included in the idea of grammar, I have thought proper to insert them. Prosody comprises orthoapy, or the rules of pronunciation, and orthometry, or the laws of versification. Pronunciation is just, when every letter has its proper sound, and every syllable has its proper accent, or, which in English versification is the same, its proper quantity. The sounds of the letters have been already explained, and rules for the accent or quantity are not easily to be given, being subject to innumerable exceptions. Such however, as I have read or formed, I shall hear propose. 1 Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the former syllable is commonly accented as childish, kingdom, actist, acted, toilsome, lover, scoffer, fairer, foremost, zealous, fullness, godly, meekly, artist. 2 Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical word have commonly the accent on the latter, as to beget, to be seem, to be stow. 3 Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the verb has commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun on the former syllable, as to descant, a descant, to cement, a cement, to contract, a contract. This rule has many exceptions, though verbs seldom have their accent on the former, yet nouns often have it on the latter syllable, as delight, perfume, for. All dissyllables ending in Y as cranny, in OUR as labor, favor, in OW as willow, wallow, and allow, in L.E. as battle, Bible, in I.S.H. as banish, in C.K. as cambrick, casick, in T.E.R. as to batter, in A.G.E. as courage, in E.N. as fasten, in E.T. as quiet, accent the former syllable. 5 Dissyllable nouns in E.R. as canker, butter, have the accent on the former syllable. 6 Dissyllable verbs terminating in a consonant and E. final, as comprise, escape, or having a diphthong in the last syllable, as appease, reveal, or ending in two consonants as attend, have the accent on the latter syllable. 7 Dissyllable nouns having a diphthong in the latter syllable have commonly their accent on the latter syllable as applause, except words in A.I.N., certain, mountain. 8 Triss syllables formed by adding a termination or prefixing a syllable retain the accent of the radical word, as loveliness, tenderness, contemner, wagoner, physical, bespatter, commenting, commending, assurance. 9 Triss syllables ending in O.U.S. as gracious, arduous, in A.L. as capital, in I.O.N. as mention, accent the first. 10 Triss syllables ending in C.E., E.N.T., and A.T.E. accent the first syllable as countenance, countenance, armament, imminent, elegant, propagate, except they be derived from words having the accent on the last, as connivance, acquaintance, or the middle syllable half a vowel before two consonants as promulgate. 11 Triss syllables ending in Y. as entity, specify, liberty, victory, subsidy, commonly accent the first syllable. 12 Triss syllables in R.E. or L.E. accent the first syllable as legible, theater, except, disciple, and some words which have a position as example, epistle. 13 Triss syllables in U.D.E. commonly accent the first syllable as plenitude. 14 Triss syllables ending in A.T.O.R. or A.T.O.U.R. as creator, or having in the middle syllable a diphthong as endeavor, or a vowel before two consonants as domestic, accent the middle syllable. 15 Triss syllables that have their accent on the last syllable are commonly French as acquiesce, repartee, magazine, or words formed by prefixing one or two syllables to an acute syllable as immature, overcharge. 16 Triss syllables or words of more than three syllables follow the accent of the words from which they are derived as irrigating, contingency, incontinently, commendable, communicableness. We should therefore say disputable, indisputable, rather than disputable, indisputable, and advertisement rather than advertisement. 17 Triss in I.O.N. have the accent upon the antipenult as salvation, perturbation, concoction, words in A.T.O.U.R. or A.T.O.R. on the penult as dedicator, 18. Words ending in L.E. commonly have the accent on the first syllable as amicable, unless the second syllable have a vowel before two consonants as combustible. 19 Words ending in O.U.S. have the accents on the antipenult as auxorius, voluptuous, 20. Words ending in T.Y. have their accent on the antipenult as pusillanimity, activity. These rules are not advanced as complete or infallible, but proposed as useful. Almost every rule of every language has its exceptions. And in English, as in other tongues, much must be learned by example and authority. Perhaps more and better rules may be given that have escaped my observation. Versification is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables according to certain laws. The feet of our verses are either iambic as aloft, create, or trochaic as holy, lofty. Our iambic measure comprises verses of four syllables. Most good, most fair, or things as rare, to call use lost, for all the cost words can bestow, so poorly show upon your praise, that all the ways since half come short. Greaten, with ravished ears the monarch hears. Dryden 6 This while we are abroad, shall we not touch our liar, shall we not sing an ode, or shall that holy fire in us that strongly glowed in this cold air expire? Though in the utmost peak, a while we do remain. Amongst the mountains bleak, exposed to sleet and rain, no sport our hours shall break to exercise our vain. What though bright Phoebus beams refresh the southern ground, and though the princely Thames, with beautyous nymphs abound, and by old cambers streams be many wonders found. Yet many rivers clear hear glide in silver swaths. And what of almost deer, Buxton's delicious baths, strong ale and noble cheer, to swage brim winter's scathes. In places far or near, or famous or obscure, where wholesome is the air, or where the most impure, all times and everywhere, the muse is still in ear. Greaten 8 Of eight, which is the usual measure for short poems. And may at last, my weary age find out the peaceful hermitage, the hairy gown and mossy cell, where I may sit, a nightly spell, of every star the sky doth shoe, and every herb that sips the dew. Milton 10 Which is the common measure of heroic and tragic poetry. Full in the midst of this created space betwixt heaven and earth and skies, there stands a place confining on all three. The triple bound. Whence all things, though remote, are viewed around, and thither bring their undulating sound. The palace of loud fame, her seat of power, placed on the summit of a lofty tower. A thousand winding entries long and wide receive a fresh reports of flowing tide. A thousand crannies in the walls are made, nor gate nor bars exclude the busy trade. Tis built a brass the better to defuse the spreading sounds and multiply the news, where echoes in repeated echoes play, a mart forever full. And open night and day, nor silences within, nor voice express, but a deaf noise of sounds that never cease, confused and chiding like the hollow roar of tides receding from the insulted shore, or like the broken thunder heard from far when jove to distance drives the rolling war. The courts are filled with a tumultuous din of crowds or issuing forth or entering in. A thoroughfare of news, where some devise things never heard, some mingle truth with lies. The troubled air with empty sounds they beat, intent to hear, and eager to repeat. Dryden In all these measures the accents are to be placed on even syllables, and every line considered by itself is more harmonious, as this rule is more strictly observed. The variations necessary to pleasure belong to the art of poetry, not the rules of grammar. Our trochaic measures are of three syllables. Here we may think and pray before death stops our breath. Other joys are but toys. Walton's Angler Of Five In the days of old stories plainly told, lovers felt annoy. Old Ballad Of Seven Peace of well-formed earth, urge not thus your haughty birth. Waller In these measures the accent is to be placed on the odd syllables. These are the measures which are now in use, and above the rest those of seven, eight, and ten syllables. Our ancient poets wrote verses sometimes of twelve syllables, as Drayden's Polyalbian. Of all the Cambrian shires their heads that bear so high. And farthest survey their soils with an ambitious eye, Mervinia for her heels, as for their matchless crowds. The nearest that are said to kiss the wandering clouds, a special audience craves, offended with the throng, that she of all the rest neglected was so long. Looking for herself, when through the Saxons' pride, the godlike race of brute to severed setting side, were cruelly enforced, her mountains did relieve those whom devouring war else everywhere did grieve. And when all wails beside, by fortune or by might, unto her ancient foe resigned her ancient right. A constant maiden still she only did remain. The last her genuine laws which stoutly did retain. And as each one is praised for her peculiar things, so only she is rich in mountains, mirrors, and springs. And holds herself as great in her superfluous waste, as others by their towns and fruitful tillage graced. And of fourteen as Chapman's Homer, and as the mind of such a man that hath a long way gone, and either knoweth not his way, or else would let alone, his purposed journey is distract. The measures of twelve and fourteen syllables were often mingled by our old poets, sometimes in alternate lines, and sometimes in alternate couplets. The verse of twelve syllables, called an Alexandrine, is now only used to diversify heroic lines. Here was smooth, but Dryden taught to join the varying verse, the full resounding line, the long majestic march, and energy divine. Pope. The pause in the Alexandrine must be at the sixth syllable. The verse of fourteen syllables is now broken into a soft lyric measure of verses, consisting alternately of eight syllables and six. She, to receive thy radiant name, selects a whiter space. Fenton. When all shall praise and every lay devote a wreath to thee, that day, for cometh will, that day shall I lament to see. Lewis to Pope. Beneath this tomb an infant lies to earth whose body lent, hereafter shall more glorious rise, but not more innocent. When the archangels trump shall blow, and souls to bodies join, what crowds shall wish their lives below had been as short as thine. Wesley. We have another measure very quick and lively, and therefore much used in songs, which may be called the Anapestic, in which the accent rests upon every third syllable. May I govern my passions with absolute sway, and grow wiser and better as life wears away. Dr. Pope. In this measure a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot. As diogenes surly and proud, Dr. Pope. When present we love, and when absent agree, I think not of iris nor iris of me. These measures are varied by many combinations, and sometimes by double endings, either with or without rhyme, as in the heroic measure. Tis the divinity that stirs within us, tis heaven itself that points out on hereafter, and intimates eternity to man. Addison. So in that of eight syllables they neither added nor confounded, they neither wanted nor abounded. In that of seven, for resistance I could fear none, but with twenty ships had done, what thou brave and happy Vernon hast achieved with six alone. Glover. In that of six, twas when the seas were roaring, with hollow blasts of wind, a damsel lay deploring, all on a rock reclined. Gay. In the Anapestic, when terrible tempests assail us, and mountainous billows affright, nor power nor wealth can avail us, but skilful industry steers right. Ballad. To these measures and their laws may be reduced every species of English verse. Our versification admits a few licenses except a synelipha, or a legion of E in the before a vowel, as the eternal, and more rarely of O in two as to accept, and a synaresis by which two short vowels coalesce into one syllable as question, special, or a word is contracted by the expulsion of a short vowel before a liquid, as avris, temperance. Thus have I collected rules and examples by which the English language may be learned, if the reader be already acquainted with grammatical terms, or taught by a master to those that are more ignorant. To have written a grammar for such as are not yet initiated in the schools would have been tedious, and perhaps at last ineffectual. End of Part 4 of A Grammar of the English Tongue by Samuel Johnson Read by Bill Borscht