 Diolch yn fawr. Jack of all Traig's Master of Nom is basically two of the cross here. I am basically Professor Daniel George as a substitute, so this is really my way of a vacuum, but this is a marvellous excuse to explore some of the things that I've been interested in for a very long time, going back into the 1950s, and some of you will probably recognise, but not all of you because it's a very young audience here. These are the characters from the radio series Journey into Space, and when that was produced, which was in 1953, people were recovering from one of the worst periods of austerity we ever had, and people were very positive, thinking about going into space, going to Mars, and in this programme, they got to the moon in 1965 and to Mars a few years later, very impressively, and they did it actually in a rather good technical style, and that was because they had terrific advisers on the programme. Now, that's austerity period I think is here now, and we need to have a good look at what we're doing in space exploration, and that's what this talks about. I will ask you one question last time, to think about till the end of the talk, which is what's the Scottish connection here between these guys you could see? Try and think about what that might be. You'll find some strange references to Scotland in the story as you go through it. Scotland is a peculiar country for developing ideas and where ahead of its time, and I've almost found that fascinating. Before I start, I would like to say on behalf of most of the scientific community who are represented in Glasgow, is that today we lost one of the really great theoretical physicists and cosmologists, Steve Hawking, who died in the early hours of this morning, and he's probably been one of the most amazing scientists that's been around in the UK, if not in the world, because not only has he solved some amazing problems and made us think very hard about things, but he's been able to communicate that to ordinary people, and he's probably produced more real stimulus on some of the hardest signs of science that anyone has done. Most science that you see on television is so dumb down to the field, to the so-called man in the street, that it's not worth listening to. They don't see any joy in anything, but he was really good at getting past that, and I think it's only right that so much has suffered and said that he did a doubt-rich job to last with that illness for that long. He's an amazing fortitude, so I thought I'd just say that. OK. Now, to turn to something slightly different, I thought we'd have to start this talk, and I thought I would do, this is the age of Donald Trump and fake news and things like that, so I'm going to give you a fake quote. People I know have been using this quote for years, but there was a person before Donald Trump, and he was called Dan Quayle. Dan Quayle was last president for the first George Bush, and his job as last president is to be in charge of NASA, the Perinaltics and Space Administration, and the popular story is that he came before NASA with this huge audience of thousands of people sitting there wondering what he was going to do about the bunch of things like this, and started off by saying, the space is big. Really big. Unfortunately, the budget wasn't. A one that I'm going to try and get at tonight is that there's something bigger than space, which is the cost of trying to explore it with human beings. And we're in a period of austerity, we need to think how big we are. And just to show you how big it is, I'm not going to go very far to this, because you just ring up our neighbours to see how big space is. And here we are. This is the biggest nearby galaxy, the Andromeda galaxy. It's only 2.5 million light-years away, and it takes light about 220,000 years to cross from one side to the other. Why it's interesting is it looks exactly like our galaxy, the Milky Way. It's only recently been shown this year that it is almost exactly the same size. And the reason why we need to think about this is we all have bad neighbours. This is a bad neighbour. This neighbour is coming towards us, at a slight angle, and it will hit us in 4,000 billion years. That's why we need to develop serious space travel, and we've got some time to do it. So this is what the talk is about. I'll just go through a bit of history, some aspirations. We have the technology, a little common wall story. They have some serious stuff on the costs of space flight, by which I mean human space flight, is where I take my argument. And what the hazards are, they're doing something really stupid, like trying to colonise Mars. My attitude towards finding an austerity way of doing this, so we can explore space on the cheap, and more leisurely, and more intelligently, is to look at some of the models that have necessarily emerged since the early space programme. So I'm going to do a couple of examples. One of which is remote sensing, which we have something to do with it in Glasgow, and robots and swarms, which we also have something to do with. I'll just put that in some general pictures. This is a gigantic topic, and I can't cover everything. But the big strange thing in all this is, what about these billionaires, like Elon Musk and things like that? One reason that I'm glad I've actually put something in on this is that Stephen Hawking did a lot for the billionaires who are entering space flight or trying to promote space flight by just being a champion for it, and he's done a marvellous job on that. And I'll conclude. So, when it will start, once the Tim Seel Skolski in 1903 worked out the theory of what we needed to do to go into space racing with rockets. He wasn't well-known in our house, I was an 18 country. We're angry everyone was well-equipped to understand space flight, because Jules were in HG Wales and moved their adventures into space as they ran out of things to do on the earth. And the only serious person around was a real experimentalist Robert Goddard, who's here, and he's here to get on with it. That's what he did. The rockets of his inspired rocket societies in America, Germany, Soviet Union and Britain. The British Interparnation Society was founded in 1933 and their most insignificant moment was when I joined in 1957. Being British, we did it differently from everybody else. The British Interparnation Society was full of real experts. They designed rockets that were going to build liquid-fuelled rockets to fly into space. Then the government thought of them by the Explosives Act of 1875 which represented all this in the UK. So only theory was allowed, so we didn't do very much. But Werner von Braun in Germany managed to swing the entire Nazi vengeance program around to his way of thinking and building V2 rockets with the aid of slave labour which wasn't really recognised until after the war. He also was the person who developed the post for US military rockets and ultimately the Saturn V rocket that got them to the moon. Similar stuff was going on in the Soviet Union. The military and travelling in space that all was mixed together. This is him here talking to all these military people at the British Ignisile Agency. There are people that agree with all this. Two are stronger than the Royals. Spencer Jones and Woolly, who is his successor in early 1957. Both of them independently said space travel is a bunk or space travel is not a bilge. I have to look at these words and find out what these really mean. Now these have to be much more fragrant in close these cases these guys knew exactly what they were talking about I totally agree with them. If they had seen this first slide they would say yes that's what we mean. We aren't going to run drunk with it. Not soon. But a few weeks after the first talking went up and then in 1961 Yuri Gagarin in the case of the first person in space the only thing I can say about these guys was that we died now. The Lord Kelvin did the same thing he said radio has no future in 1897 well they didn't have the presenters I think that was the problem. Well we have the technology this is a pass on really to the moon the glory days six landings on the moon twelve astronauts all together in the period of 1968 to 1972 public lost interest about 1972 and it's been a struggle to keep that part of the dream alive. It was a cure military and economic battle between the Soviet Union and America that made this happen but the brilliant science and engineering going on here how they did this with the rubbish computers they had in those days they just don't know if it's quite incredible. So there we are someone walking on the moon and you can guess which one it is because the one with the camera is Armstrong and he's slowly graphing his friend who's not older but not everyone believed it and it died down from the skepticism along with the fact that things like this but it was resurrected by Capricorn One which was a Hollywood movie in 1957 which brought it all back again it's never gone away there were people who would go through the photographs and Matthew said okay that could do it so where's the money gone is what I'm saying Anyway, here's a cold war story for you which will show you sort of things that went on there were spy satellites from the early days and mainly because they're practically being shot down so spy satellites were done quite early this is the Baikonur rocket base in the Soviet Union in early 1961 and you can see here that there's various things to look at if you were skilled you would see there's all sorts of stuff in here here you can see quite clearly on the bottom left and the top right two huge rockets and you can't quite see that I suppose but there were people trained to take those images and turn them into droids so there's one which is pretty scruffy of two rockets on the launcher and this is what a single one looks like you can see this thing it's big it's about the size of a Saturn 5 rocket this is the Soviet moon rocket and the space race that we all remember hearing about in the 1970s was a real race because NASA knew the Soviet Union had a rocket that could go to the moon this is their moon rocket they built about seven of them so what happened this was early 1969 well there's the moon rocket that's the Soviet photograph and this was the photograph taken again by a spy satellite in autumn 1969 and you can see that that base was being blown to pieces it's been a huge explosion there and this was known and if you look at the Soviet logs in February 1969 one of the M1 rockets this China moon rocket's failed July 3 just before the American moon landing another one failed at launch and later on in 1971 and 1972 the others failed these two in 1969 stopped the chances of Russia going directly to the moon when it didn't leave at all and NASA knew that and this was not widely known it was known a bit in the scientific community but it wasn't widely known that this was a real race and there's no way of knowing that that rocket could have been that long anyway it's an extraordinary thing on July 20th Armstrong or Rhinand on the Moon well this brings these to some of the hazards how many astronauts are there being this is quite difficult because it keeps changing but I've tried to count this up I think there's been 562 most in Earth orbit 12 landed on the moon but it's 12 in space mainly through the shuttle program where we lost two shuttles during training to 13 and if you look at the number of fatalities due to rocket explosions pre-1945 were about 15 which is remarkably low actually and then 1960 to 2007 280 people have been killed worldwide in rocket explosions you don't hear about that very often but it's a serious number so 320 fatalities and this is how much it cost in real terms this is a billion US dollars here on the vertical axis normalised it to 2014 and the year from 1960 to 2020 is a lot over here actually it's 2018 the massive budget which is typical of space budgets in many ways and some of it's hidden because it's military but it's like a long shot much the biggest spender and it's 19.1 billion dollars at the moment per year and you can see the peak in the period when the Apollo missions were on that massive group peak there and it was 4% of the gross domestic product to the United States at that time huge investment and then there's all these other bombs on here it's quite hard to make sense out of this but it's been pretty flat-ish since the mid 90s basically and yet they're preparing for a lot of things how does it split? well manned spaceflight takes 8.7 billion dollars the scientific side takes 5.7 billion that works out as the total is the US defence budget which is 6.86 billion and the UK defence budget is about 56 billion so it's about 34% of our budget there's lots of infrastructure like all the things that are needed for the mission controls and things and stage ground stations and things like that so there's a huge amount of money and spent hot stuff how does the science budget work out? that's only 5.7 billion the largest amount is primary science and then the three little ones are astrophysics and telescopes heliophysics and the James Webb telescope which is going to replace the Hubble in a few years that budget is roughly similar to the entire UK science resource budget that has an overall span in NASA's budget it's quite small and it's actually not very well done NASA's big projects were Apollo it took 11 years and that was the biggest apparently biggest cost but in fact the space shuttle has been bigger it's been a 30 year program and the international space program is 21 years and the Mars mission which is a big purple bit at the bottom it's going to take 18 years and its present estimate which I think is ultra conservative is 450 billion dollars there they are I'll tell you why they're so ridiculous they talk so they are being happy they've got a PC being a Mac I've said this completely different and then there are other people who have come up with the billionaires like Elon Musk and this is SpaceX the Falcon heavy has just gone into orbit carrying instead of a lot of concrete which is what we normally put in the third stage when you're testing a launch ship he put his car in there and all sorts of things maybe you'll see more of that later and he wants to put this thing on Mars in a few years and you can pay a lot of money to do it you go with it there are other big players in space I put this in at the last minute just to show that I've not ignored everyone the really big player that's interesting is China and it's thanks to the buck than anybody else over a long period of time they've had a space program and it's mixed up with the military as well so it's been fed hard in the military but it's been quite amazing and even India has got a pretty big program there's done some quite good stuff there and if you compare any of those figures with the US they're nowhere near it so it looks at first as if the Americans have got it signed up and the Hubble telescope cost 6 billion over 20 years so-called the Wilkinson probe 0.1 was $150 million it's nothing 10 plus years Mars Curiosity it came down by an autonomous robot lowered it to the ground to me the biggest breakthrough yet in space exploration a robot on its own landed that thing and in the future you'll see the same kind of thing going back into space with samples and so on the Webb telescope which will replace Hubble 9 billion it's no more small projects but actually really worth more and I wanted to mention this Wilkinson microwave anisotropy probe it's launched in 2001 what did it do well it wrote down the age and flatness of the universe it looked to the distribution of ordinary matter dark matter dark energy, the origin of galaxies all kinds of stuff and it got the top three citations in physics and astronomy for this decade and a Nobel Prize so it was amazing stuff $150 million for that and we've got guys going at the end in depth experiments with gel over things in the International Space Station never got near this $1 billion to put them there I just don't see there's a comparison so what's the balance well human space flight has cost half the mass of Earth the scientific returns have been pretty poor mostly derived from the unmanned space programs Hubble was launched and serviced by the shuttle though so it needed humans to fix it at one point and that's the important point again in near Earth lots of satellites are launching up here but nowhere near as the numbers have gone up from different sites there's been about 10,000 satellites plus each month 30 or 40 go up is a good document and yet only 99 will launch by the space shuttle and it was a bit of a disaster when it came down to it and Congress has got here now and GPS and things we take to communications, satellite TV all this stuff huge amounts of money in this I couldn't figure out what the total amount is if it's seriously big the people making money out of it so something's good which is good, it's a big market so what's the evolution of space flight in the new millennium well near human space flight is in resurgence scientific exploration is about in orbit telescopes like the web telescopes the gravitational wave detector system in space which I think would be really brilliant probes autonomous probes robot landers and so on lots of new technology, new emerging technologies there's been strong commercialisation and there's been a kick in the seat of the pats of the people through the conventional rocket industry by these billionaires that have come on and it made new things happen and there's lots of new emerging technologies and the thing that is slightly worrying is this new rush to put humans on Mars is a bit of a problem I love putting a spoiler in here now because if you're trying to make a mystery out of this to the rest of the time but I think putting humans on Mars is costly, suicidal and unproductive so that's my point at the end of this I can any country really afford to justify the huge cost to sustain human beings in messing around in a really hostile solar system this is not like Antarctica or the top of Everest this stuff is really, really dangerous and I'll say something about the ethics so Mars, this mission to Mars it's been around since Obama was talking about things in fact we should have gone in 1985 but the lack of public funding then stopped all that so that's the spirit Mars is an interesting thing it's about one and a half times out of the distance we are from the sun so we've got to use light years and things where it's not light years it takes eight minutes for the light to get from the sun to the earth and it takes about 12 minutes for the light to get from the sun to Mars so that's the distance and remember we were talking about light years when we were thinking about solar systems itself and so on what's good about it, well you feel less heavy the gravity is about a third of the earth we love it you can't breathe too well the atmosphere is carbon dioxide, 96% so it's taxable presumably there's argon, nitrogen, not much 0.15% oxygen doesn't sound too good the mean temperature is minus 63 Celsius with a high of 35 in some places a wind speed is quite low 65 miles per hour 100 miles per hour and you don't feel it because the density is so low it's really really low density and a really low pressure it's 0.006 atmospheres one atmosphere is our pressure and it's 1000s of that so that's quite historically so actually moving around on Mars in the movies this is a picture of Mount Sharp from Curiosity Rover which was one lot put down there by the robot Mars machine teleoperated partly from the earth with proper scientific instruments on it which is looking at the chemical composition of the planet and trying to get at this hill but it's making this it's doing well and we found loads out it shows that the radiation on Mars is pretty lethal there's no biosphere ultraviolet from the sun which is about half what it is on earth comes straight out so that all the other cosmic rays and everything else that's like is an exceptionally dangerous radiation hazard environment all the dust you see there is electrified it's all electrostatics there are very strong environmental effects which I want to go into about living on Mars what I really love which is such a great idea because people are pining on doing this mission before they actually found out what was there but lots of the probes like Curiosity have already found that the soil is toxic most of the soil is allophase effing 203 it's now outside and things like olive iron and lots of smashed up volcanic materials turned to a fine dust the dust on Mars has the consistency of talcum powder I'm not making this up Curiosity has gone and looked at the stuff and it's fired lasers as it is measured it knows exactly what we're doing with but the toxic soil is perchlorate I was going to say something that sounds more positive than I've probably but the positive thing is that what perchlorate is good for well it's calcium CLO4 twice so there's a lot of oxygen in there and this of course uses a rocket fuel in solid state rockets so we can get back there's oxygen there so we can get the oxygen out we use the chlorine to clean the loot so that should be ok the other problem is that what's the concentration of perchlorate well if you look at your warning things on anything with perchlorate you'll see that it's very tiny amounts are really dangerous to humans and many living things and the amount from the soil on Mars is between a half and one percent of the soil the toxic soil it's not real soil because there's no organisms but the top half is toxic so it's lethal and because it's calcium powder how are you going to clean it out of the filters? so you send it to people there and they say oh sorry what happened to health and safety? the dust effects are bad you can completely obscure the planet but once in a time by the clouds which is set up it's not strong winds so it's a very thin atmosphere and this stuff will witness garbage and pass all this toxic stuff all the way around everything you've got so you could live 1,000 feet underground it breaks the question what do you do about crew health? journey into space they took a doctor with them so they don't really talk about all that and they actually went through some of this stuff it's quite interesting and they're worried about carbon dioxide it's not good to breathe and how long do you last do you take out on yourself? so the crew health is an issue there's other stuff prolonged low gravity, prolonged low light psychological effects of isolation from the earth lack of using the internet social media that's it well I've been arguing for going this for a second well this has all been studied and is ignored by the newspaper but there are millions of people well not really it's hundreds of people we've volunteered to help with this in 2007 to 2011 there was an experiment between Russia the ESA, the European Lop and China to simulate living on Mars for 520 days I mean it's just, you couldn't make this stuff up I'm not even going to explain this to you but they just did this stuff and said it's fine no problem I was just sitting on earth I'm probably going to leave it for a game there was milky toxic there at all they didn't have me fail they didn't have any Apollo 13 moments when they shut down the whole system and said what are you going to do now with the duct tape they didn't do that anyway they've been lurking this stuff and lots of young people volunteer for this all time this is it, absolutely amazing you don't see old people volunteer for this it's a good thing well just getting to Mars is a problem there's the solar wind which is deadly ionizing radiation to the rest of us it's going to hit that spacecraft for several months as you're making your journey from the earth to Mars and then it's still there when you get out and go through customs on the right you can see this is the sun that's being blotted out in the middle here it's a time lapse as you can read at the bottom 2001 at a coronal mass ejection if you look carefully it says boom it certainly goes off and it's really good again there it is and that's the size of the sun inside that little circle so that was big and if that's showing up like that that's a lot of serious high energy stuff that's being chucked out in space and if you're on the earth from the big coronal mass ejection it's saying you're right at you it can knock out not just your GPS systems it can knock out power stations it's serious in fact we can still worry about this but usually it misses but if you're out in space and that thing's spreading out you've got a little tiny spaceship you need to worry fortunately people like Ruth Batenford I met many years ago a lot of the lab in Oxford she had a brilliant idea how do you do justice by yourself if you work in the nuclear industry making bombs? so what's the good use of a bomb? well she said originally you could put a nuclear bomb just going off all the time continuously going off behind a spacecraft and that would form a big plasma and if you had a little magnet in the spacecraft that would interact with the plasma and you would get a magnetosphere around the spacecraft just like the magnetic field of the earth causes a magnetosphere which you can see in this picture on the right that's the earth supposedly exaggerated distances here there's the sun here's a wave of garbage coming out and these are the lines of magnetic force of the field surface around the earth which is a dipole all bent to one side by the plasma that's impinging on it here's the shock wave and that magnetosphere is what saves this planet and getting exact by all this rubbish that the sun's checking out if you're in a spacecraft can you do the same? and she said originally we just put a bomb there anyway that got a lot of publicity and she got a lot more money and that she's done it properly wonderful stuff what you can see in the bottom slide is their idea this is a European collaboration here's a big superconducting magnet and here is part of the space vessel and this is the crew courses and there is a region here which is called the safe region the diamagnetic cavity which is a little bit like this region here where you put a hole where it's safe and what they've done is they've introduced a plasma into this region and because of this magnetic field here the plasma forms this shock wave and protects the documents now the earth's magnetic field I never know what to do with you so I've forgotten how Gauss and Nerstans and things work Tesla's the earth's magnetic field is about 44,000 nano Tesla's I just think 44,000 what you need to stop the solar wind and use the solar wind to protect you by making this artificial magnetosphere around in the spacecraft is a few hundred nano Tesla's so you can do it with quite a small magnet and the idea is you only turn this on when you need it to you get the bad morning and you see somebody building up and then you turn it on and you may want to turn this on big very strong magnetic fields in case something really nasty happens like a coronal mass ejection and this is what their idea is and this is a laboratory thing that has done that of an actual experiment doing this full scale system and how do you make the plasma originally we were going to think of having nuclear drive or something but you could just inject xenon xenon ions around the spacecraft there's enough according to this model to put a productive area around it the problem is this has never been tested in space and there's all sorts of other issues but I think it's a cool idea and I think that's good thinking that's thinking in advance of how you might solve this it doesn't stop with big ejections you've never got to cover that and the worst that's an ex-class solar flare from 2014 it's a real picture they have different wavelengths to show you the effect you can see the horrible thing coming up that's serious high energy X-rays and one thing we know about X-rays they go through metals like spacecraft fairly easily there are ethical issues about all this genetic damage there's been a twin experiment done Kelly went into space three years ago on the space station leaving his twin brother who's not an astronaut on Earth and when he came back a year later they started looking at his genetics checked his DNA found all sorts of interesting things because he changed his height all sorts of things happened to his space most of that are recovered after a few months but there's been a substantial shift in his DNA he's genetically different now from what he was before that's one year so you imagine sitting on Mars where you're going to get the same problems and then it's low gravity all the factors are there some of you have said we'll have one way mission why don't we just call them suicide missions we'll give them ins and volunteers and just go out there I just cannot see what the legal basis for that is Master Stay project maybe this is what we'll do when we can't feed all the attention as much longer than this because Brits will send all their way out to Mars anybody searching the NHS so that's solved that problem well journey to the stars oh come on 4.7 light years there was a nearby plant 5 stars has an exo plant plant outside of the solar system which is rocky which probably means uninhabitable but that's the nearest neighbor we know so I think those astronomers were quite correct space travel in these big distances at the moment is bum because you cannot see the path we're not ready for this and if a large distance is involved you better do something moody skew that travel actually there are people who think you can do that one is really interesting I wasn't going to mention this but it's insane so I think if you look at general relativity carefully enough there are ways of distorting spacetime to make a bubble around a spacecraft and it could fly faster than the speed of light in some of the region so you'd have to cover huge distances very effectively and if you do the maths on this it's a useful result because what's really nice no one does this if you're a theoretician so you never do the numbers properly if you do them dimensionlessly so you don't know how big anything is and I speak from experience here if you do the numbers, put the numbers in you need energies which are like collapsing a whole galaxy converting the maths into energy to get this effect to work so I don't think that's a worry ok so what else would you do well there are two approaches in our austerity that I wanted to talk about just to briefly go through some of the models there automatic remote sensing means can we do I think we're clever about the way we sense information from a distance as long as I already do this when they're looking at science and something there are other things we can do like exploring Mars and things like that from a distance I'll give you some examples of that unmanned probes, we already know they're called drones in warfare and there are also these annoying little camera things that fly around photographing you when you're somebody in the car and those can be made autonomous quite easily now we know nothing about artificial intelligence or robotics to do that the first robotic landers like Curiosity which I say is their big achievement is to land that module of Curiosity itself by this thing wobbling over looking at the ground figuring it it didn't do it perfectly the reason they had to do it was not because this is the intelligent way to do it they did it because the alternative is to use airbags now the Brits use airbags when they put vehicle 2 up and we know what happened to that when the lander is big enough an airbag is not good enough to land with so they're having to land properly now and the billionaires have shown us how to do that so that's nice there's lots of new and emerging technology which is not time to sort of come as intelligent days of processing possible to billions of amounts of data now which is starting to appear in astronomy and in space analysis and so on the autonomous robots now exist you can see these funny dogs that are wandering around from Boston Dynamics they look quite cute but they're military that's what they were designed to be military machines they're exceptionally dangerous I think because I don't think you can train them at least I don't wheel a lot with a floor artificial intelligence in the real sense it's not advanced a lot but in practical senses it's advanced enormously and we haven't really used that properly low cost space flight is now you can reduce the cost by huge amounts by using the boosters again and it's not just changing the methods of propulsion and so on and the stuff I'm really interested in is swarms now when Febrto satellites there's hundreds of these up already these are things about the size of a brick a complete communication system you can chuck them up into orbit of some spacecraft and free ride off of the spaceship and you can use those to moving lower orbits for instance to distribute the internet to say Africa or something like that that's a kind of good practical sense of using it and these things are passing the signal from one to another and between the ground lots of advanced electronics and systems engineering are going in there a lot more about it is growing every other satellite that's going up is one of these things I'm interested in the really small ones particularly smart dust which is things that are robotic systems about the size of the grade of the satellite that's on the silly side of things at the moment but not entirely as you'll see let's just look at some quickly on remote sensing this is a map of Mars from the Mars orbit laser alternative experiment which map Mars in detail it's called a code it's low is blue and this is very low this is the helax base massive area it's so big that it's pushed the Earth up well Mars it's pushed up on the other side you would realise this is an ordinary map that's one side of the planet that's the other side of the map it's shut up and what's it got there a massive volcano here this huge marina valley along here is the most amazing chaotic region and over here is a nice quiet spot it's called Sidonia that's its coordinates on Google Mars Google Mars will take you there but it does not give you the route well that was an interesting theme because in 1976 NASA released a photograph from the Viking mission that had gone to Mars of the Sidonia region a region of about 50km and what did they find in the photograph, I didn't really see this it was a batch processor this is the most cracked photograph I've ever seen and the benefit of being a bad processor there is the famous space on Mars well I remember when this picture came out and I thought that's the rubbish that's one of the worst photographs I've ever seen because it's been overblown it's been processed and you can see the noise every black spot in here is noise the white spots too I mean it's full of noise and you want to ask yourself what's the pixel of a solution we'll come back to that later well that's the face on Mars and it's very interesting that Glasgow had a party always North Kelvin side second grade school existed during the 1970s until the mid 90s and it merged with Cleveland in Helvedale in the late 90s and it was finally demolished in 2003 and what Chris O'Cain who I've never met I understand that he was a member of staff who encouraged the students to look at those massive photographs and look at all that area and they saw pyramids there as well as the face and one of those pyramids is called the NK pyramid after North Kelvin side because that's good it's absolutely amazing and I was teaching in this processing and pattern recognition at the time which is very boring to my students so I was doing it all through space so I was digging out stuff from friends I had in NASA they were sending me the raw data and we said we won't look at those so then we heard about these people so I thought I don't believe there's pyramids there which is a scientific approach so we looked at the raw data that's actually good data from that region you can just see the face on Mars there we went over this step here there's all kinds of plastic there this is one of the better raw data images of the whole region and there's stuff in there well we processed it that was 1977 data that's our processing of it really bad because the pixel resolution was awful something like 45 meters per pixel and most of the bits that you've got were on a 64 pixel by a 64 pixel array so anyone who sees faces measures sharp angles of that resolution well so we looked at it and kept the students happy for a bit and that was processed that particular was in 1996 and the reason we did it is because I was getting resurrected then because in 1998 we knew we were going to get a high resolution which is a better resolution in 1998 this is the original region up here of these pyramids and there's this particular pyramid this is not the NK pyramid but it's an interesting one and everyone sort of blurred their ways and said yes these are straight angles and places, this is the Egyptians got here first it appeared in Doctor Who so it must be a show this is our this is the Glasgow image processing which is just as good as ours I took the raw data and at the same evening we had this stuff you can actually see boulders on here which are quite big they're sort of a 14 foot across that sort of size then you can see the deep structure here this is quite clearly a meser it's just like parts of Amazon it's hard material which has been weathered away by the Martian winds or toxic stuff and I'm not sure I've shown you the NK pyramid but it is, that's the pyramid so that forever is Glasgow's contribution to Mars this is the face on Mars I took the original data and instead of trying to get what I wanted I looked at the raw data and used the scientific stuff to extract all the garbage and that's not an easy thing to do in image processing 43 meters per pixel resolution and that's what the raw image looks like 64x64 array my people say I needed that space but humans are good at saying that this is what we did which is a very fancy software which I won't talk about here but allowed us to reconstruct a three dimensional image from this information in a sort which is what other people have been feeding on the information they might make in the image video we did this because of work I was doing on molecular electronics that I tried to image molecules of atomic force microscopy so it's a complicated business this is what we got that's one view of it this is a side view it doesn't look anything like a face if you're a mum or a baby I'm going to say that this is the better data that came in 1998 at the face that's the raw data that's my first pass of it before I corrected for the projection the peculiar that's the original rubbish up here and here is this the user and the story but that's remote sensing with limited information really bad signals you just suffer by doing it properly you extend that to putting something with only a few pixels resolution out of the nearby star system sending the data back over many years maybe we could do things by just being smart about it what people tend to do it's like computing if you've got big computing you don't think about the problem it's pushing on with big computing even if you have an analytical solution why do you do that? I don't know this is the best photograph we have the European Space Agency a raid for them they did stereo cameras high resolution this is down to 1.4 meters for pixel resolution and there is their best shot at the face on Mars even with the correct colours there's my picture from the 64 pixel thing I don't think there's a lot of difference in that actually and it shows you that if you do the right thing that you build the information out by thinking about it it's stopping it at smarter so that's the thing about remote sensing and that applies to lots of things that people do in space we went on to look at craters partly varied craters heavily eroded craters we used AI techniques and so on we were able to take a picture of a crater from the data from spacecraft reconstruct a mathematical model of it automatically and reconstruct three dimensional maps so we could then look at interesting things like this field here is a field of varied craters partly varied craters and we could extract the craters structures under here automatically and get 3D profiles of them this is really beautiful this looks like a circle these are boulders this region is about 200 meters across and these streaks are little dust-dell streaks on the surface of Mars and as boulders all over we just ran that through the software and it came out with a whole set of nested varied craters structures and that's actually quite an interesting system it's been varied under the sand and the indentations presumably allow the boulders to follow the indentations there's slight correlation in that so you can see the circle where it's supposed to be we did the same for looking at the chicks look crater in Mexico by looking at artesian wells this is my brother-in-law who's a geologist on that project the second austerity approach is still looking at things like swarms swarms and smart dust there's a lot of dust on Mars there's a dust force a lot of water force dust flying over the edge of the crater this is one of these sand root dunes and this is smart dust this thing in the middle one to two millimetres across this was worked out in the late 90s and I had these people doing this in that period and they got an entire system on there with sensors, communications, everything two millimetre sites and we were interested in okay you can do all this stuff and they were thinking of using it for surveillance techniques and things we were literally very interested in this but I want to know how the hell you could move this stuff around so it could be useful for people that are investigating exploring a region on their own and sending you the information there's even ways that tiny things like this can send a big signal to you using phases of rating too much of this talk so something that's the size of the grave and the sound, how could moats move and communicate I start thinking about Martian exploration and we came up with some ideas aimed at 2021 nanotechnology trillions of devices on a small scale The way the mass moves on Mars is it, the motion of the smoke dust is identical to the motion of the sand or the particles on Mars. Its motion of windblorn sand that's worked out by an na right corner to the back end Hoox, way back in the 1940s and 1950s. The basic process is called rotation of particles, are prints of the air and by the impacts of other particles they sort of pop and float along and then go down and then they wave and come out again. Mae'r uchelch yn ddaill yn y Ddeudol o'r llwydoedd o'r Arsenaeth Cymru, mae'n ddod yn safon, mae'n ddiddio'r sian ar y flatt, ac mae'n gilydd y ddod i gyd yn ymgyrchol, ac yn ddiddio'r cyffredig yn ymgyrchol. Mae'n gwneud o'r lle'r lle, mae'r lleon i gyfosib. Mae'n defnyddio'r lleon i'r llwydoedd i'r lle i wneud o'r bod nhw, Mae yw ymddi. Yn hyn mae'n gweithio'r amllwyddiadau, mae'r rhaglenol ym hyn yn golygu. Yn y llyddiadau ym 100 yma gyda un n Eren, ennill yn y penedigau ar gyfer cymdeithasol, lydym yn awddiadau, yna'r bwrth yma. Mae'r hydrodynamicys, mae'n unrhyw. Mae'r hydrodynamicys, sy'n meddwl yn y rowdydd... Mae hynny'n gallu willa iddo. Felly mae gennym ddigon o fuddiad o éw. Mae'n ddiddorsion i'r ddiadwyd yma chi'n gondol ychydig. Ieach y fwrdd yn deall yw yw'r cyfrif yw'r ffordd. Fy fyddwn i'r ffordd, rwyno beth yw'n ddisgrifi'r ffordd. Fyddwn i'r ffordd, ddisgrifi'r ffordd, rwyno beth yw'n deall. Rwy'n dechrau'n fyddiatod diwethaf a'r cyfrif yn gynyddiad ddisgrifi'r ffordd. Fyddwn i yn chysyllti 2009, i gael eich collim arall yr cyfrif. Ie', yn chysyllti'r ddisgrifi'r ffordd, felly roeddwn i'r gwyllion wasanaeth yn y solio a'r siŵr o'r lŵr. Wrth nawr, mae'r gwynhau'n ddysguedig sydd, a mae'n bywch arno ar fath o wydd ymwylliant, yw'r drwf yn ddechrau, a ydych chi wedi bod yn ddweud o'r fath. Byddwn yn gwneud wnaetol gofod ddod o'r ystafell o'r byw deitio ar gael ei wneud. Dyna eich bod gwneud yw eich bod yn ddysguedig. Rwy'n ei wneud o'r pafur ac yn ystod hynny ar gyfer staffau o'r Prihau. Mae'r defnyddu sy'n ystafell o'r llerion. Felly mae'n meddwl am ystafell, mae'n meddwl mewn gwirio'r gorfodau gyda'r rhaid i'w ddechrau'r ddechrau. Mae'n gallu'r idea o'r gwirio ei gallu gwirio'r busu dod o ddisgu'r teimloedd cyfnodig, oherwydd y gweithio'r meddwl a'r modigau'r modigau, os yw'r modigau'r modig, ac rydyn nhw'n byw i'n meddwl ar gyfer y cyfnodig cyfnodig. Cyddiw'r eich archifau rwy'n ei gwrdd. Ac mae'n gweithio'n gweithio arall, a mae'n gweithio ar y cyflwmp. Mae'n gweithio'n gweithio'n gweithio. Mae'n gweithio'n gyflwmp. Mae'n gweithio'n gwneud o'r ysgolau. Mae'r ffordd gyda Llywodraeth Gwylolig yn gweithio ar y cyflwmp. y ffalcon hefyd rocket Paid power ffalu relon musk Ffalu space X a Tesla a yn allwythogau a hwnna'r llw'r Allwn ac yn fwy fawr Macur, mae'n bod gwiaith gyda'n gwneud ac hwnna'n gweithio rocket cael de, BFR mae'n bwysig hollu ffalcon Rocket a ymlingodd ac mae'n pethau b52 Cymru hwnna'n gwych ar USA mae'r bwysig Cymru hwnna'n ysgule Mae'r amser yn llwydbeth i'r mawr. Rwy'n deall felly mae'n rhywbeth o'i'r mawr. Rwy'n credu wedi gyrhaf o'r system ran yn ymdeithasol. Mae'r rai yn bryd, ond mae'r cyd, ond mae'r cyllid yn dweud. Rwyf wedyn yn rhoi cerddau iawn. Mae'n ddod yn gynllun yma. Rwy'n gyrmunodd hynny ymgyrch yn ei wneud i gyrfa i felly eu gwasanaeth yn gweithio. i'w ddweud unrhywuniaeth ymgwrdd hyn. Felly mae'r prosesau ar gyfer y syniadau hyn, mae'n cymryd yn gyntaf y 2016, ac mae'r casfodd yn 2016. Yn ystod, mae'r cyfryd yn cyfrifio'r cyfryd yn cynyddiant ac mae'n cefnwys iddo, mae'n gyffredin, mae'n cyfrifio'r cyffredin yn cyfrifio'r cyffredin. Yn ymgylch, mae'n gweithio'n cerdd yn ein 1,000 centio ymlaen cyfrifio'r cyfrifio cyfrifio, Ie'r wawb tyfnwys, ein bod yn ddechrau tyfnwys, ac yw'r un i'r arfer, a'r rhaid hyn o ddweud ffraeg ddaf yn ddweud ar ddweud, a ddoch i'r ddweud i ddweud i'r ddweud i'r ddweud i'r ddweud i'r ddweud i'r ddweud i'r rhaid. A byddai 50-20 cent o syniad yn ddweud. Iewn oedd yn i amser i'r ddweud i'r syniad a ddweud i'r ddweud. Ond ydyn ni'n ysgu iawn i'n y Proxamus Centauri V, y tu'r ysgawr honno yn gwir ywager ac fe yw ddyn nhw'n rhaid i'w dwinu ychydig, mae'r pethau cymdeithasol yn gwybod gw'n gwybod gwneud ond maen nhw ymlaen. Fe oedd yn galwio fawr eraill arfer y cyfle a oedd y dynnu o'r ffordd o yn ysgawr sydd. Ta'r rhai o'r lles o le'n weld lles ychydig am yr oedraeth, ac mae'n sefydlu o'r hyn ymwysgau am gyfrannu â'r rhannu, Am ychydig eich cymryd yw hefyd, maill sy'n ei ddyn nhw'n gwneud, mae ychydig iawn ar ddi, rwy'n gwneud eich haf hwn i mi i adael. Mae'n gynghwytoedd gathered, mae'n gynghwytoedd, mae'n gwneud a phasidd, yw'r cyfrifeth o'r cyfrifeth a'n gwyllgor i fod yn hi. Mae'n ymrhaeg, mae'n gwych ar gyfer yma, mae'n cyfrifethoedd i ddysg wrthaill, mae'n cyfrifeth a'n cyfrifeth, yw pob rahyd, Anyway, that's the big thing. Let me finish it now so we have over shifting slightly here. My conclusions. Mount space exploration outside near Earth orbit is costly, suicidal and non-productive. Automatical robotics is the better way we are doing all this. Swarm intelligence which is cooperative robotics basically, network together, we know how to do giant networks now. This is all doable stuff. I was a lot of lofnodraethau gyda H swimming fair into the stelafin pros. I don't see why they do this small things. I would do some bigger things but the problem is they can't get enough thrust if nothing is lost in life, it might have been on this in 2007, may have paid on this which is to use an iron engine which is low thrust, you can leave it on for a year and then you leave an iron engine on for a year. That's problems a bit I mean engines actually exist. You could get something up to not close to the people, but certainly a decent percentage you get the same result. And you'd have a lot more fire party to play around. So there's other ways of doing this, but it's a great thing. So nanostats and panostats have been established already in the core technology. The wireless networking and swarms has been looked at in massive detail over the years of genitals devoted to this. It's a conference where there's been a thousand people and we put our ideas there, and I listened to stuff that just amazed me at what's going on. Distributed to telescopes and sensors I'm in play for, I can't see why we can have a smart network of spacecraft. We can't have the, you know, you look at some of these giant mirrors that we've got in telescopes in Chile, there's hundreds of different mirrors all moved in sync to get the signal. You can do that by putting cameras out in space knowing the position of each and locking all those signals together. We could build giant telescopes in space with swarms, and I think that's some future in that. Telescopes in space is definitely a good idea, and lots of sensors. So let's draw more thought and share the cost and benefits with other people. And one of the final things I want to say is, it's always, I think when you try to talk on the subject, someone always says aliens. And after Brexit, we'll all be aliens. Looking for alien life, my view is better by love. Because if they're smarter than us, then there's mean as us, we don't want to know them. But I thought we should end on a happy note. And this is a real photograph taken from Elon Musk's, keep wanting to say Tusk, his Musk, different man. This is his car, a Tesla Roadster, and his personal clutch. Inside the open spacecraft, this is the payload thing, it opened up. And in there is this mannequin playing music, and there's a toy car in there as well. Clever marketing, this will be available on Christmas, folks. I'm not joking. If they put the toy car there with a mannequin in it so they can sell it, doesn't it? It's brilliant. So is this the end? Or is it the beginning of something interesting? Thank you very much.