 So my name is Julie Gardner Robinson and I'm a Food and Nutrition Specialist for the Extension Service and I'd like to welcome you to our Wednesday weekly webinar. And I want to remind you of some upcoming webinars. So if you have friends that might benefit, please let them know. These are always free and they last about an hour. So next week our webinar speaker will be Glenn Muskie, who's our Rural and AgriBusiness Enterprise Development Specialist. So take a look at that. And we'll also have our food scientist talking to us about safe food handling during processing and selling local foods. And I'll be your speaker in April and you can see the rest of the upcoming line-up. So we're about halfway through our 10 webinars now. So people have just fixed and you probably already figured this out. But we tried some of the smiley faces and hands and those sorts of things. As we go through this, if you have questions, you can go ahead and type them into the number five, the chat pod. And Esther will keep an eye on that just in case you have a question as we go through. We have you all in listening mode. So go ahead and feel free to type in or contact us after the event as well. I want to show you a little bit about what our website looks like in case you haven't actually gone to the website. Under that first underlined area, check out the webinar schedule. We are posting the archive. So if you missed one and you really want to see it, we've uploaded those to YouTube so you can watch those at your convenience. We have a whole bunch of really brand new information under the Learn More about North Dakota's specialty crops. We've just uploaded 10 handouts about some of the fruits and vegetables that are considered specialty crops. Plus there's a lot of other gardening information that we have added to that site. And if you scroll down the page, which I can't do in the way I've copied this on here, but you can see information for food entrepreneurs and local foods information as well. So there's a wealth of information on this website. And you can use any of that that you want. So go ahead and copy it, hand it out, whatever you want to do. I'm happy that Esther is joining us. This is a piece that Esther and I worked on last year. This is one of the pieces under the leafy green section of the website. It's a nice, a lot of A-page handouts. There's a lot of fun working on it. So it includes everything about growing it and also making salads and salad dressings and those sorts of things. So we have another one in the works probably for next year, which will be about apples. And I'd like to give you a little introduction about our guest speaker. Esther McGinnis is an NDSU Extension Horticulturalist for Eastern North Dakota. And she's also an assistant professor within the Department of Plant Sciences. She's director of the North Dakota Master Gardener program. And she earned her master's and PhD in Applied Plant Sciences from the University of Minnesota. And currently, she researches native plants for rain gardens, spotted wing, gazaphala in North Dakota fruits, and high tunnel cut flower production. So I'm really happy to introduce my friend, Esther McGinnis, who's going to tell us about the Down and Dirty and the Never Greenhouses Extension. Well, thank you, Julie. You're making a nice introduction. I'm almost a little embarrassed. But I'm happy to count Julie as my friend. And yes, we're going to get Down and Dirty today and talk about manure. So let's get down to it. Well, food safety is a very serious topic for us. Now, how many of you knew that one out of every six Americans gets sick from a food board pathogen? All right, so let's see you raise your hands here. How many of you knew that that many Americans, almost 50 million Americans get sick each year? So we have a few individuals that were aware of this. That's great. It's a huge number. And fortunately, I haven't been sick this year, but I have in the past. And it's not fun. So each year, 128,000 people are hospitalized, and 3,000 of them die. Mostly it's the individuals that are elderly, the really young children, and those that have compromised immune systems that are most likely to suffer from food safety outbreaks. Now, if you shift over to the graph that's on the right-hand side, it'll show you the different food items that can cause food safety outbreaks. So produce, meat and poultry, dairy and eggs, and fish and shellfish. Well, I was shocked to find out that it's not meat and poultry that produces the most number of illnesses, it's produce. So horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, and nuts produce more illnesses than meat and poultry, dairy and eggs, and fish, and shellfish. And they contribute to 23% of the deaths. So today I'm going to talk about different hot button issues in food safety. So manure and wild animal manure, herbicide residues, and I'll finish up with some greenhouse issues. So we have plenty of manure here in North Dakota. It's a byproduct of our cattle ranches and of our dairy farms. Now manure is a very valuable soil amendment. So we really do value it. It produces nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, some great soil nutrients. It's wonderful for improving the soil structure. So if you live in the eastern part of North Dakota, well, where you have clay soils, if you work some manure into your soil, it'll help improve drainage. Now if you're on the western side of North Dakota where you have sandy soils, you add organic matter like manure and it'll help with your water holding capacity. So manure is absolutely wonderful for soils and it is also readily available. But the problem is that there is a food safety risk that comes along with manure. So animals like our horses, our cows, our chickens and pigs harbor various bacterial pathogens in their intestines. So they're very common, E. coli, salmonella and listeria. Campylobacter is becoming a little bit more common. And then we have parasites like geridia and cryptosporidium. So these are all excreted in the manure. Now manure has been linked to outbreaks in produce. So 2006 was a banner year for outbreaks. We had one in spinach that was a multi-state outbreak. It was caused by E. coli and led to over 100 hospitalizations and three deaths. They were able to trace that back to a single spinach producer that was farming on land leased from an Angus cattle rancher. So what they did is they gathered some of the manure from the cattle and they tested the water on this particular ranch and the E. coli that was present in the manure and water was what was linked to the spinach and the hospitalizations. Similarly, Taco Bell had an outbreak in 2006. They actually had two outbreaks at the same time. One involved lettuce and E. coli and they found that it was traced to a farmer growing iceberg lettuce near a dairy farm. So there was some seepage from the manure piles. And then we get to cantaloupe in 2011. I think a lot of people remember cantaloupe because that was more recently. That was caused by Listeria. And this was a little bit more unique. They really had to do a lot of detective work to find out what caused this. But we had a cantaloupe farmer and he had some melons that he could not sell because they were not of good quality and he could certainly not market them. So he was hauling them to a feedlot to feed to some cattle. Well, this truck had actually run over some manure, brought it back to the food processing plant and then people were walking through the manure into the food processing plant. So manure has definitely been linked to outbreaks. So manure pathogens are transported in a lot of different ways. It's blown by dust and debris. There was a study in 2015 in Nebraska and this was a really interesting study. We had some researchers that were growing spinach and turnip greens near a feedlot. Now they placed these plots at 60, 120 and 180 meters from the feedlot where of course there was some manure piles. Well, they went and analyzed all the greens and they found that there was E. coli in every one of those distances. So manure can blow into produce that's 180 meters away or just shy of 600 feet. We see that manure pathogens are spread from runoff from cattle and hog operations. You can have direct flooding. You can have it running into your irrigation water and then of course carried by feral animals such as wild pigs. And then people of course are known to transport it on their shoes and trucks and clothes. But of course what's the most common way to transport manure to our crops? It's not just from seepage from farms. We are actually using it as a fertilizer for our crops. And there are three types of manures that we use. We use raw manure, aged manure and composted manure. Now they all have different levels of risks as far as foodborne illness. So we have raw manure. This is fresh manure right off the farm. It's very high in soluble forms of nitrogen. And in fact, the nitrogen may be in a form that will burn your crops. Now of course it will carry a lot of viable weed seeds, particularly in horse manure. And it has the highest risk of foodborne illness because that manure is still fresh. There hasn't been time for the weather to break down and kill the bacteria that's in it. We then have aged manure. So this is manure that has just been stored for at least six months. There'll be some viable weed seeds in it. And it has a medium risk of foodborne illness. There's been some time for the various bacterial pathogens to die, but not enough time. So it's really shocking that these bacterial pathogens can persist for so long in the manure. And then we get to composted manure. So this is manure that has gone through the composting process so that the interior of the piles had heated up to 130 degrees and then there needs to be regular turning of that pile. Now composted manure has the lowest risk of foodborne illness. Now the FDA in fact was so concerned about the food safety aspects of manure that they were going to write a proposal on it for the Food Safety Modernization Act. And the initial proposal, they wanted to have a nine month waiting period between when you applied it and incorporated it into the soil and when you could harvest it. And this was for raw manure. Now they received so much pushback on it that they actually withdrew this portion of the Food Safety Modernization Act. Now the FDA's act in fact would have exceeded the organic standards for manure. So the FDA decided that they were going to step back and study the situation. They're going to do a risk assessment to try and determine just how risky manure is. Now this is going to take five to ten years, so they're just starting this process. But they're collecting data on the prevalence of pathogens and which ones are present in different animal manures. Now we certainly know that chickens have salmonella, but they also have E. coli and other bacteria. They're going to study how long pathogens survive in the soil. We know they can survive for many, many months. But how long? How long do we have to wait until the level of risk is lowered? Then they're going to study how the manure is applied and incorporated and the timing of it and how to mitigate the risk. And then they'll look at the different categories of manure. They'll look at raw manure, aged manure and composted manure. And then what happens is you have incompletely composted manure. With the Food Safety Modernization Act, they do give some advice. They say that if you're applying raw manure, do so in a manner that does not contact covered produce during application and minimizes the potential for contact. So essentially they're telling producers, you know, don't side dress or top dress your vegetables with raw or aged manure. And then if you're like an apple producer or growing some sort of tree fruit, you don't apply raw manure in your orchards if you are going to gather up the fallen fruit. The FSMA goes on to say it's prudent to follow the National Organic Standards regarding manure application. So the National Organic Standards are codified in Chapter 7 of the Code of Federal Regulations. And it comes up with kind of a two-prong system for applying manure. So they're saying if the manure is not composted, you need to wait 120 days after incorporating the manure before harvesting a product whose edible portion is in contact with the soil surface. So this would include your leafy vegetables. So your lettuce and your kale has to grow through the soil. And of course there could be some splashing of the soil onto the leaves. We have melons and cucurbits, you know, so our cucumbers and zucchini and squash are resting on the ground. And then we have our root vegetables like carrots and beets and strawberries. They're all making contact with the ground so you don't want to put down raw or aged compost within 120 days of when you intend to harvest them. Now if you're talking about vegetables that are not touching the soil, then the rule is 90 days. You have to wait 90 days to harvest your tomatoes, your peppers, and your beans. So what does this mean for North Dakota and for the Great Plains? Well, spring application just doesn't seem to do. If you're going to be harvesting in June and July, it's better if you apply your raw and aged manure in the fall and then incorporate it. So you're giving it time for the bacterial pathogens to break down through the freezing and thawing cycle. That helps. Now during the time in which the manure is frozen, you can't count that time. The manure is, in fact, the pathogens are not breaking down. So it's better to put it down in the fall. So there's time in the fall and the early spring for all the different cycles and such to take their course and for the pathogens to break down. Now we're coming to composted manure. Composted manure may still pose some food safety risks because the question is, are you really, in fact, completely composting it? Are you making sure that you're reaching proper temperatures and staying there for a recommended amount of time? And do you really know that your source of composted manure is doing it the right way? So when you're composting manure for food safety, these are the standards that should be applied. If you're composting in a vessel or a static aerated pile, you want to make sure that you're reaching a minimum temperature of 131 degrees if not higher and staying there for 72 hours. Since the pile is aerated, the whole pile should, in fact, heat up. Now if you're composting in a non-aerated pile, which is what most individuals do, you have to maintain that temperature for 15 days and then turn the pile at least five times over the course of those 15 days. So you want to make sure you're turning it because every time you turn it, the temperature will go up for the pile. And then you'll make sure that the material that was on the outside will get incorporated to the interior of the pile and heat up. We're finding that small home compost piles will not heat up enough and as such may not be completely composted. So we are concerned about the small home compost piles of manure. Now once you have in fact composted your manure for the appropriate amount of time, you're not done. You need to cure the compost for an additional two months. So it allows the manure, the composted manure to stabilize and then the temperatures will start coming down over those two months. So you see composting is way more complex than a lot of us had anticipated. Now I'm not the expert on composting manure at NDSU. We have a web page at agndsu.edu slash manure that has a bunch of publications regarding how to compost animal manure and certain guidance on that. Now for those of you that are interested in testing what nutrients are in your manure, you can certainly contact the NDSU Soil Testing Lab in Fargo or AgVice Laboratories in Northwood. So we find that with manure, the nutrients can vary from batch to batch. So it is best in fact to test them to make sure you know what sort of nutrients you're going to be getting when you apply that. So a lot of people ask me, can I wash these bacterial pathogens off my lettuce or off my beets? And the answer is maybe not. So there have been various studies that have been done. They did a study on spinach where they were able to track the bacteria. The bacteria was taken up by the roots, so like E. coli and Salmonella. Now fortunately, the bacteria did not travel throughout the plant. It was restricted to the roots. But it was still eye-opening to see that in fact it is taken up by the plant. Now we're more worried about the bacteria entering the leaves. So your lettuce and your spinach have what we call our stomata. So these are pores that are on the underside of the leaves. The pores open to allow carbon dioxide to be taken up. At the same time, the bacteria can enter the interior of the leaves and stay there and multiply. So washing is not going to take care of that. Now when it comes to melons and root vegetables, it's on the surface. But if there's an injury, if there are some small cuts, the bacteria can hide in those little nooks and crannies. The same is true of sprouts. So we've probably all heard about various food outbreaks regarding alpha-alpha sprouts. And that's because our seeds are not smooth. If you look at the seeds under a microscope, you'll see there are various niches and nooks and crannies. And that's where the bacteria hide. You can try and sanitize the surface of the seed, but it's not going to be enough. So you really can't always wash off the pathogens from your produce, but it's still a very good idea to wash your produce when you bring it home. You can't eradicate all the bacteria, but you can certainly decrease the numbers that are on the surface of it. So I certainly recommend washing all your fruits and vegetables. So any questions before I talk about wild animals and pets? So I'm not seeing anything in the chat box, so I'll keep going, but I'm happy to answer any questions as I go along. So animals, wild animals can be a problem, particularly if they are wandering through your vegetable garden. We found that deer were a cause of an outbreak in Oregon in 2011. So there was an E. coli outbreak in strawberries. And I felt so bad for this producer. This was a multi-state outbreak. We had 15 people ill, and one person died. And it was all because he had deer that were walking through his field. So they found deer feces in the strawberry field, and that's what contaminated the strawberries. So under the Food Safety Modernization Act, people are advised to scout and not harvest contaminated areas. You notice that you have wild animals going through a field, or you may notice that there's like bird poop on it. Don't harvest those areas. You don't give that a wide berth. And then exclude your pets from the area, too. So dogs carry various parasites like roundworms. I think somewhere between 60% and 80% of puppies harbor roundworms. Of course, they are eventually treated, but still it's an issue. So we don't like to see dogs and cats wandering through gardens or fields. Now, cats are a problem because they can transmit toxoplasmosis. So you've all heard about litter boxes. So pregnant women are not supposed to change the litter box while they're pregnant. Well, that's because a toxoplasmosis can have adverse effects on the fetus. But we're also learning that toxoplasmosis may be linked to mental illness, to schizophrenia. Now, I don't know how sound those studies are. That's just starting to break in the news. But I do know that we want to be a little bit more careful about not letting cats wander through our fields and our gardens if you can help it. And then you get to raccoons. Raccoons have a form of roundworm that, although it's rare in humans, can in fact cause brain damage and death. So we don't like to see raccoons at all in gardens. Most of them are in fact infested with this form of roundworm. So make sure to exclude your animals. Now, the Food Safety Modernization Act doesn't cover this, but it's a good idea if you're going to be producing vegetables for sale to take all the precautions that you can. So fencing is good if you can fence out the deer and keep out cats and dogs. Now, if you can't afford a fence, repellents can work. So repellents with putrified egg. Egg solids tend to work better than other repellents, but they're not always effective. Now, if the deer are really hungry, they're still going to come in. Now, you would never want to spray your repellents on your vegetables because most of the repellents are not food safe, but you could certainly spray it around the perimeter of the garden. Some people like to install sprinkler motion detectors. That seems to help with animals. And then make sure that your garden or your field is not attractive and does not promote good habitat for animals. So if you have a call pile, keep that away from your garden. Cut the grass around your garden so it's not providing habitat for rodents. And then you don't want to attract birds to your garden. So don't feed the birds around your garden. You'd want to put your bird feeders far away from it. And then use common sense. You know, scout around your garden and don't harvest what appears to be the contaminated areas. Herbicide residue. So herbicide is not addressed by the Food Safety Modernization Act, but I thought I would include it here because we've been talking about soil amendments. And this is such a huge issue for North Dakota and for all of the Midwest. Now, I've been working as the Extension Horticulturist for three years, but I've been so surprised that probably a good 50% of my calls in the middle of summer are due to some sort of herbicide damage. So herbicide is a big issue in the Midwest and throughout the Great Plains. Now, we do have a lot of herbicides that are used agronomically. Now, most of the damage that I see comes from spray drift, but it can certainly be passed along through soil amendments. So our herbicides that are full of pyridines like curtail, stinger, and milestone, they persist. They certainly persist in soil and in soil amendments. And then, of course, our herbicides that we use in turfgrass, like Confront and Millennium Ultra, which are commonly used by commercial lawn care companies. So what happens with herbicide residue is it can be on hay or straw. So if you spray your ditch, your hay becomes contaminated with that herbicide, and then you may decide to put that hay in your garden as mulch. So that's one way of depositing herbicide residue in your garden, or it can be through manure. So you have your horses that are eating hay that have been sprayed with herbicide. The herbicide does not break down in the intestines of the animal. It passes through the animal into the manure. So we've had several individuals that have purchased manure and incorporated into their gardens and have lost several years of growth because the herbicide residue has persisted in the soil. Now this can happen through compost. So we have individuals that spray their lawn with lawn herbicide. They then mow the lawn and then take the cuttings to the Municipal Compost Center. So the Municipal Compost Center has no way of screening out these contributions from lawns that are sprayed with herbicide. So it's certainly possible to buy compost that is contaminated with herbicide residue. So if you're a gardener, you need to be careful about your soil amendments because you could certainly lose your crop. And then the other thing is your crop yield would be reduced and you would not want to be selling produce or giving produce to the general public that has herbicide in it. So plant damage can vary depending on the species and on the particular herbicide that's used. But usually you'll feel a little bit of cupping or else you can see kind of this distortion of the plant leaves. Horticultural crops tend to be some of the more sensitive crops when it comes to herbicide residue in the soil. So our peas and beans, members of the Solanaceae family, sunflowers, lettuce and cucurbits are all very sensitive to herbicide residue. So you need to ask questions before you incorporate soil amendments. So if you're buying in manure or spreading hay, make sure you ask questions about the origin and if there's a possibility of herbicide residue. But what I tell most people to do is do a plant bioassay. So this is a real simple science experiment you can do at home. If you take a representative sample of the manure or the compost that you're going to spread in your field and then you mix it in a one-to-one ratio with some potting soil. So fill up, you know, three or four pots and then also plant some or just have some pots that are your controls. So the controls are just going to have potting soil. You then plant a seed from a susceptible species like bean, pea or sunflower. So you plant those seeds in the pots and then you grow them until you can see three sets of true leaves. At that time you can evaluate if your controls look the same because the ones that have manure are compost in them. If they look comparable and healthy, then you know that there's not a huge amount of herbicide residue in your soil amendment. However, if your plants look like they're twisted and distorted, you're not going to want to incorporate that manure or compost into your soil. So any questions on that? All right, so we'll move on to greenhouse safety. So this is another hot button issue for food safety concerns. Now fortunately, the risk is lower in greenhouse production than in field production. You're usually using sterile soil as media. You usually don't have wildlife parading through your greenhouse and you're less likely to have flooding that can carry bacteria into your greenhouse. But I wouldn't say that greenhouse production is without risks. In 2014 we had cucumbers that were infested with salmonella and we ended up with a multi-state outbreak with lots of hospitalizations. Now that was caused by poor greenhouse sanitation. So we'll talk about some of the hot spots in your greenhouse. So there are four main areas of risk. Water, soil is substrates, facilities, and people. So if you are putting together a greenhouse, you want to have some sort of plan to examine the risk in these four areas as well as other areas. Now various universities do have documents that you can use for risk analysis of your own operation. So water is very important. Now I'm not going to go into great detail on water because one of the other speakers in a previous week talked in detail about water testing, which is always a good idea. Now the one thing I wanted to add, though, is if you are in certain areas of North Dakota where there's a fair amount of arsenic poisoning, you're going to want to have your well water tested for arsenic. So I get a couple calls every year from different individuals that are suffering from arsenic poisoning. We do have some issues in the state where people have buried old arsenic pesticides and have abandoned those sites. So now we have arsenic that's leaching into wells and such. So it is an issue in limited areas of the state, and I'm sure it's an issue in other states as well. So you want to make sure that you don't have arsenic in your well water. Another issue to think about is, you know, assuming that your water source is portable and safe, also think about how you're watering. Are you watering with hoses and water breakers? If that's the case, you want to make sure that your hoses or your water breakers are not touching the ground of your greenhouse. That's another source of contamination. Soilless substrates. So when you're growing in a greenhouse, you're not using mineral soils, you're using soilless substrates. Usually something that is peat-based, but they can certainly be perlite added in. Then we have some producers that are growing in rock wool and oasis strips and such. So you want to make sure that whatever substrate you're growing in is sterile. Make sure you're purchasing it from a reliable source that is following good manufacturing processes. So make sure you know where that's coming from. And then if you have soilless substrates, don't store the bags on the floor. So that's a picture in the right-hand side where the bags are right on the floor. That's not good from a food safety standpoint. Make sure that your bags are closed until you're ready to use them. Now if you only use up half a bag, figure out a way to close that bag so you don't have contaminants falling into that. Now people can be a source of contaminants. So you want to make sure that you have hand-washing stations. I would say you could probably knock out 80% of the food safety issues in greenhouses with appropriate hand-washing stations. You'd be surprised. There are a lot of people that are harvesting your tomatoes and cucumbers in greenhouses that are not washing their hands. Now as far as clothing and shoes, that can be a source of contamination. You don't want to go into the dairy barn and then wear those clothes into your greenhouse. So there's that potential of cross-contamination. If you are coming from the dairy barn, you may want to change your clothes and put on dedicated footwear for the greenhouse. Visitors can be a source of contaminants too. It's better not to have visitors parading through your greenhouse. If you do have a few visitors, make sure that they wash their hands and don't touch the produce. And it's always good if they can put on booties over their shoes so they're not contaminating the greenhouse with their shoes. And then a little bit of common sense. Sick people should not be working in the greenhouse. If people have a fever, they're vomiting or have diarrhea or a sore throat, they should not be working in the greenhouse. Send them home. Facilities. There are a lot of risks here in the facilities. Think about test control again. Make sure that you're not leaving the door open of the greenhouse. Put screens on your windows. Make sure that birds are not flying in. And keep the rodents out. Have trapped near your doors. You want to make sure you're using non-toxic bait. And then don't attract them to your greenhouse. Don't put your call piles around that. And don't have your cats crawling through the facility. I know cats are good molesters, but we still don't want to have cats in a greenhouse facility where you are growing edible crops. And then finally, think about cleaning and sanitation. Come up with a plan. Cleaning and sanitation are not the same thing. Cleaning is essentially getting rid of dirt on surfaces. Sanitation is actually killing the bacterial pathogens. So make sure that you're doing both. The usual order is you want to rinse any surface where you're putting your vegetables. You then clean it. You rinse again. You sanitize and you rinse. Then you want to make sure that the sanitation products that you're using are food safe. All right. That concludes my presentation. Before I open up the discussion, I wanted to do a little bit of shameless promotion. We're doing a high tunnel construction field day here in Cass County out at the Absoraka Research Farm. So that's about 40 minutes west of Fargo. We're going to be constructing a greenhouse. We welcome people to come and watch or even participate in the process. So if this would help you, we would welcome you. And in fact, we'll even include lunch. Especially for crop block grant that will help us here. So if in fact you're interested in that, you can certainly email me. And then once we have things going, we're going to be growing cut flowers and vegetables in Absoraka, botanel, and Williston. So if you're on the other side of the state, you could certainly visit the Williston REC. I know we'll be having field days there in the summer. All right. Does anyone have any questions for Esther? Let's go ahead and type them in the box. I posted the survey link. And you also will receive that by email if you registered for the webinar usually. Any questions? Ask Esther a question. Besides this high tunnel construction field day, do you have any Master Gardener classes coming up? Well, I'll have a Master Gardener class starting in September. I think it starts September 9th and then goes until the first Friday in December. But we certainly have a lot going on. We're going to have the Master Gardener pollinator garden program where we hope to build 15 or 16 pollinator gardens across North Dakota to be used as teaching gardens. And I see we have a question from Cynthia. How good is the compost from the Fargo landfill these days? Well, Cynthia, I think it depends. I believe that most of the time the compost is good. Now, unfortunately, I only see the bad times. So when things work well, I don't hear from people. I only hear when something goes horribly wrong in their garden. So I certainly hear when the compost is sometimes contaminated with residue. I think for the most part, the compost is good, but it certainly doesn't hurt to do the bioassay where you plant some susceptible seeds in it and see how it grows. But I also know that sometimes the compost that comes from these municipal landfills may not be entirely cured. In the past, we did a test on it to see how much ammonia and how much carbon dioxide was giving off. And we showed that, in fact, the compost was not as cured as we would like to have seen it. So maybe the better thing to do is bring home some compost and let it sit for a little bit and try that plant bioassay before you incorporate it into your field or into your garden. So a good question. Anybody else? I know manure is such a sexy topic, isn't it? You remind her. I'm getting a yip. Well, I'm not seeing any more questions, Esther. Thank you very much for providing this information. Of course, I love to hear about food safety. We will have another Wednesday weekly webinar next week. And I posted a link to the survey in the chat box. But again, you'll also receive it. I have some prizes. We're going to do some prize drawings of a little incentive coming up. And you also can print a certificate. So if you're a part of the Master Gardener program, by taking part in this, you will have earned some credit toward the continuing education. Or you can just show all your friends that you attended this workshop. All right. Thank you very much, everybody. If you have any questions, I ask you don't hesitate to email me. OK. See you next week.