 2e porte de chapter 3 de Mutual Aid, un facteur d'évolution. C'est un Voxe-recording de Libravox. Toutes les recordings de Libravox sont dans le domaine public. Pour plus d'informations ou de volontaires, visitez Libravox.org. Recording by Enku. Mutual Aid, un facteur d'évolution, par Peter Kropotkin. 2e porte de chapter 3, Mutual Aid Amongst Vages. Beaucoup de pages de tracage pourraient être written about the harmony which prevails in the villages of the Polynesian inhabitants of the Pacific islands. But they belong to a more advanced stage of civilization. So we shall now take our illustrations from the far north. I must mention however before leaving the southern hemisphere that even the few agents whose reputation has been so bad appear under a much better light since they begin to be better known. A few French missionaries who stay among them know of no arc of malevolence to complain of in their clans consisting of from 120 to 150 souls. They practice the same primitive communism as the Papua's. They share everything in common and treat their old people very well. Peace prevails among these tribes. Open footnotes. LFMorschal, une mission scientifique au cap-own Paris, 1883. Volume 1 pages 183-201. Close footnotes. With the Eskimos and the nearest congeniers, the Tinclects, the Kuloshos and the Aleuts, we find one of the nearest illustrations of what men may have been during the glacial age. Their implements hardly differ from those of Paleolithic men, and some of the tribes do not yet know fishing. They simply spear the fish with a kind of harpoon. Open footnotes. Captain Holmes expedition to East Greenland. Close footnotes. They know the use of iron, but they receive it from the Europeans or find it on rock ships. Their social organization is of a very primitive kind, though they already have emerged from the stage of communal marriage. Even under the gentile restrictions. They live in families, but the family bonds are often broken. Husbands and wives are often exchanged. Open footnotes. In Australia, whole clans have been seen exchanging all their wives in order to conjure a calamity. Open bracket. Post-Sujian Zoo. And week-long guest cheats. They're family like 1890, page 342. Close bracket. More brotherhood is their specific against calamities. Close footnotes. The families, however, remain united in clans, and how could it be otherwise? How could they sustain the hard struggle for life unless by closely combining their forces? So they do end the tribal bonds or close us where the struggle for life is hard as, namely in North East Greenland. The Longhouse is a usual dwelling, and several families lodge in it, separated from each other by small partitions of ragthors with a common passage in the front. Sometimes the house has the shape of a cross, and in such case, a common fire is kept in the center. The German expedition, which spent a winter close by one of those longhouses, could ascertain that no quarrel disturbed the peace, no dispute arose about the use of this narrow space throughout the long winter. Scalding, or even in kind words, are considered as a misdemeanor, if not produced under the legal form of process, namely the Niff Song Open Footnote. Dr. H. Rink, The Eskimo Tribes, page 26, Open Bracket, Medi-les-zeir, Gronland, Volume 11, 1887, Close Bracket, Close Footnote, Close Cohabitation, Close Interdependence, or Sufficient for Maintaining Century of the Century, that deep respect for the interests of the community, which is characteristic of Eskimo life. Even in the larger communities of Eskimos, public opinion formed the real judgment seat, the general punishment consisting in the offenders being shamed in the eyes of the people Open Footnote. Dr. Rink, Locke, seat page 24, Europeans grew in the respect of Roman law or seldom capable of understanding that force of tribal authority. In fact, Dr. Rink writes, it is not the exception but the rule that white men who have stayed for 10 or 20 years among the Eskimo, would turn without any real addition to their knowledge of the traditional ideas upon which their social state is based. Though white men, whether a missionary or a trader, is firm in his dogmatic opinion that the most vulgar European is better than the most distinguished native, the Eskimo Tribes, page 31, Close Footnote. Eskimo life is based upon communism, what is obtained by hunting and fishing belongs to the clan, but in several tribes, especially in the west, under the influence of the dents, private property penetrates into the institutions. However, they have an original means for obviating the inconveniences arising from a personal accumulation of wealth which would soon destroy the tribal unity. When a man has grown rich, he convokes the folk of his clan to a great festival and after much eating distributes among them all his fortune. Under Yukon River, they also an alien family distributing in this way 10 guns, 10 full 4, 10 full 3rd dresses, 200 strings or beads, numerous blankets, 10 wolfers, 200 beavers and 500 siblings. After that they took off their festival dresses, gave them a way and putting on all rag first, addressed a few words to the king's folk, saying that although they are now poorer than any one of them, they have won their friendship. Open Footnote, Dahl, Alaska and its resources, Cambridge, US 1870, Close Footnote, like distributions of wealth, appear to be a regular habit with the Eskimos and to take place at a certain season after an exhibition of all that has been obtained during the year. Dahl saw it in Alaska, Jacobson at Igmitok in the vicinity of the Bering Strait, G-Brest Proat mentions it among the Vancouver Indians and Dr. Rink who describes the periodical exhibitions. Just mentioned adds, the principal use of the accumulation of personal wealth is for periodically distributing it. He also mentions Open Bracket, Locke, page 31, Close Bracket, the destruction of property for the same purpose, Open Bracket of maintaining equality, Close Bracket, Close Footnote. In my opinion, these distributions reveal a very old institution, contemporaneous with the first apparition of personal wealth, they must have been a means for re-establishing equality among the members of the clan, after it had been disturbed by the enrichment of a few. The periodical redistribution of land and the periodical abandonment of wealth depths which took place in historical times with so many different races, Open Bracket, Semites, Aureons, etc. Close Bracket, must have been a survival of that whole custom, and the habit of either burying with the dead or destroying Open His Grave, all that belong to him personally, a habit which we find among all primitive races, must have had the same origin. In fact, while everything that belongs personally to the dead is burnt or broken Open His Grave, nothing is destroyed of what belong to him in common with the tribe, such as both of the communal implements of fishing. The destruction bears open personal property alone. At a later epoch, this habit becomes a religious ceremony. It receives a mystical interpretation and is imposed by religion when public opinion alone proves incapable of enforcing its general observance. And finally, it is substituted by either burning simple models of the dead man's property, Open Bracket as in China, Close Bracket, or by simply carrying his property to the grave and taking it back to his house after the burial ceremony is over. A habit which still prevails with the Europeans as regards swords, crosses, and other marks of public distinction, Open Footnote. The high standard of the tribal morality of the Eskimos has often been mentioned in general literature. Nevertheless, the following remarks open the manners of the Aleuts, nearly akin to the Eskimos, will better illustrate savage morality as a whole. They were written after a tenuous stay among the Aleuts by a most remarkable man, the Russian missionary Vinyaminov, I summed them up mostly in his own words. Endurability Open Bracket Hero, Close Bracket, is the chief feature, it is simply colossal. Not only do they bathe every morning in the frozen sea and stand naked on the beach inhaling the icy wind, but their endurability even when at hard work on insufficient food surpasses all that can be imagined. During a protected scarcity of food, the Aleut kills first for his children, he gives them all he has and himself for. They are not inclined to stealing that was removed even by the first Russian immigrants, not that they never steal. Every Aleut would confess having some time to learn something, but it is always a trifle, the whole is a childish. The attachment of the parents to their children is touching, though it is never expressed in words or pettings. The Aleut is with difficulty moved to make a promise, but once he has made it, he will keep it whatever may happen. Open Bracket and Aleut made Benjaminov a gift of dried fish, but it was forgotten on the beach in the hurry of a departure. He took it home, the next occasion to send it to a missionary was in January, and in November and December, there was a great scarcity of food in the Aleut encampment, but the fish was never touched by the starving people and in January it was sent to his destination, Close Bracket. The accord of morality is both arid and severe, it is considered shameful to be afraid of another edible death, to ask pardon from an enemy, to die without ever having killed an enemy, to be convicted of stealing to capsize a boat in the harbor, to be afraid of going to sea in stormy weather, to be the first in a party on a long journey to become an invalid in case of scarcity of food, to show greediness when spoil is divided, in which case everyone gives his own part to the greedy man to shame him, to divulge a public secret to his wife, being two persons on a hunting expedition, not to offer the best game to the partner, to both of his own deeds, especially of invented ones, to scold anyone in scorn, also to beg to pet his wife in other people's presence, and to dance with her to bargain personally. Selling must always be made through a third person, who set us the price, for a woman it is a shame not to know steering, dancing and all kinds of woman's work, to pet her husband and children, or even to speak to her husband in the presence of a stranger. Open Food Note Venyaminov Memoirs Relative To the District of Unalaska Open Bracket Russian Clothes Bracket Three Volumes St. Petersburg 1840 Extraction in English From the above or given in dolls Alaska A like description of the Australian's morality is given in nature 12 Page 639 Close Food Note Such is Aleut Morality, which might also be further illustrated by their tales and legends. Let me also add that when Venyaminov wrote Open Bracket in 1840, Close Bracket, one murder only had been committed since the last century in a population of 60,000 people, and that among 1,800 Aleuts, not one single common law offense had been known for 40 years, this will not seem strange if we remove that scolding, scawning, and the use of rough words are absolutely unknown in Aleut life. Even the children never fight and never abuse each other in words. All they may say is Your mother does not know swing or your father is blind of one eye. Open Food Note It is most remarkable that several writers Ven Bracket, Midian Doth, Shrank, Ofinch, Close Bracket describe the Osteaks and Samoyettes in almost the same words. Even when drunken, the carrels are insignificant. For a hundred years, one single murder has been committed in the Thrundra. Their children never fight. Anything may be left for years in the Thrundra. Even food and gin, and nobody will touch it, and so on. Gilbert Sprott never witnessed a fight between two sub-natives of the eight Indians of Vancouver Island. Quarreling is also rare among their children. Open Bracket, Rink, Locke, Seat, Close Bracket, and so on. Close Food Note Many features of savage life remain however epousel to Europeans. The high development of tribal solidarity and the good feelings with which primitive folk or animated towers each other could be illustrated by any amount of any amount of reliable testimony. And yet it is not the less certain that those swim savages practice infanticide, that in some cases they abandon their old people and that they blindly obey the rules of blood revenge. We must then explain the coexistence of facts which to the Europeans' mind seem so contradictory at the first sight. I have just mentioned how they are lived for their stoves for days and weeks and gives everything edible to his child and how the bushman mother becomes a slave to follow her child. And I might feel pages with illustrations of the really tender relations existing among the savages and the children. Travellers continually mention them incidentally. Here you read about the fun love of the mother, there you see a father wildly running through the forest and carrying upon his shoulders his child bitten by a snake or a missionary tells you the despair of a parent and the loss of a child whom he had saved a few years before from being implicated at its birth. You learn that the savage mothers usually nurse their children till the age of four and that in the new he brides on the loss of especially the beloved child. Its mother or aunt will kill herself to take care of it in the overworld. Open foot node Jill coated in garland and weights anthropology 5 641 see also pages 636 to 640 where many facts of parental and filial love born coated cause foot node and so on. Like facts or met with by the score so that when we see that these same loving parents practice infanticide we are bound to recognize that the habit open bracket whatever its ulterior transformations may be cause bracket took its origin under the sheer pressure of necessity as an obligation towards the tribe and a means for rearing the already growing children the savages as a rule do not multiply without stint as some English writers put it on the contrary they take all kinds of measures for diminishing the birthrate a whole series of restrictions which european certainly would find extravagant or imposed to that effect and they are strictly obeyed but not withstanding that primitive folk cannot rear all the children however it has been remocked but as soon as they succeeded in increasing their regular means of subsistence they at once begin to abandon the practice of infanticide and the whole the parents obey that obligation reluctantly and as soon as they can afford it they retort to all kinds of compromises to save the lives of their newborn as has been so well pointed out by my friend Ali Roklu pen foot node primitive folk London 1891 close foot node they invent the lucky and unlucky days of births and spare the children born on the lucky days they try to postpone the sentence for a few hours and then say that if the baby has lived one day it must live all its natural life open foot node Géaland locks in 636 close foot node they hear the cries of the little ones coming from the forest and maintain that if heard before birth they miss fortune for the tribe and as they have no baby for being no creatures for getting rid of the children every one of them recalls before the necessity of performing the cruel sentence they prefer to expose the baby in the wood rather than to take its life by violence ignorance but cruelty maintains infanticide and instead of moralizing the savages with summons the missionaries would do better to follow the example of Veniaminov who every year till his old age cause the sea of occats in a miserable boat or travel on dogs among his churches supplying them with bread and fishing implements he thus had really stopped infanticide the same is true as regards what superficial observers described as parasite we just now saw that the habit of abandoning old people is not so widely spread as some writers have maintained it to be it has been extremely exaggerated but it is occasionally met with among nearly all savages and in such cases it has the same origin as the explosion of children when a savage feels that he is a burden to his tribe when every morning his share of food is taken from the mouths of the children and the little ones are not so stoical as they are for others they cry when they are hungry when every day he has to be carried among across the stony beach over virgin forest on the shoulders of younger people there are no invalid carriages no destitutes to wield them in savage lands he begins to repeat what the old russian peasants say until now a day to join the desire d'allure pour un naap pour coin open bracket I live over people's life it is time to retire close bracket and he retires he does what the soldier does in a similar case when the salvation of his detachment depends upon its further advance and he can move no more and knows that he must die if left behind the soldier implose his best friend to render him the lost service before leaving the encampment and the friend with shivering hands discharges his gun into the dying body so the savages do the old man ask himself to die he himself insists upon this lost duty towards the community and obtains the consent of the tribe he digs out his grave he invites his kin's fork to the lost sporting meal his father has done so it is now his turn and he pours with his kin's fork with mocks of affection the savage so much considers death as part of his duty towards his community that he not only refuses to be rescued when bracket as mufat has told close bracket but when a woman who had to be emulated on her husband's grave was rescued by missionaries and lost taken to an island she escaped in the night she lost a broad sea arm swimming and rejoined her tribe to die on the grave open foot nerd her skin coated in geland and weight anthropology fifth six hundred and forty close foot nerd it has become with them a matter of religion but the savages as a rule are so reluctant to take anyone's life otherwise that in fight but none of them will take open himself to shed human blood and they resort to all kinds of stratagems which have been so forcefully interpreted in most cases they abandoned the old man in the wood after having given him more than his share of common food or thick expeditions have done the same when they no more could carry their invalid comrades leave a few days more maybe there will be some unexpected rescue was European men of science when coming across these facts are absolutely unable to stand them they cannot reconcile them with a high development of tribal morality and they prefer to cause a doubt upon the exactitude of absolutely reliable observers instead of trying to explain the parallel existence of the two sets of facts a high tribal morality together with the abandonment of a parent and infanticide but if the same Europeans were to tell a savage that people extremely amiable fun of their own children and so impressionnable that they cry when they see him as fortune simulated on a stage in Europe within a student's throw from dance in which children die from sheer want of food the savage too would not understand them I remember how they near I tried to make some of my tungus friends understand our civilization of individualism they could not and they resorted to the most fantastical suggestions the fact is that a savage put up in ideas of a tribal solidarity in everything for bad and for good is as incapable of understanding a moral European who knows nothing of that solidarity as the average European is incapable of understanding the savage but if our scientist had lived amidst a whole starving tribe which does not possess among them all one man's food for so much as a few days to come he probably might have understood their motives so also the savage if he had stayed among us and received our education maybe would understand our European indifference towards our neighbors and our royal commissions for the prevention of baby foaming Stone houses make stone in herds where Russian peasants say but he ought to live in a stone house first similar remarks must be made as we got cannibalism taking into account all the facts which were brought to light during a recent controversy on this subject at the Paris anthropological society and many incidental remarks scattered throughout the savage territory we are bound to recognize that that practice was brought into existence by sheer necessity but that it was further developed by superstition and religion into the proportions it attained in Fiji or in Mexico it is a fact that until this day many savages are compelled to deliver corpses in the most advanced state of protection and that in cases of absolute scarcity some of them have had to desinter and to feed upon human corpses even during an epidemic these are ascertained facts but if we now transport ourselves to the conditions which men had to face during the glacier period in a damp and cold climate with but little vegetable food at his disposal if we take into account the terrible ravages which scurvy still makes among underfed natives and remember that meat and fresh blood are the only restorative which they do we must admit that man who formerly was a granivorous animal became a flesh eater during the glacier period he found plenty of deer at that time the deer often migrated in the arctic regions and sometimes they entirely abandoned a territory for a number of years in such cases his lost resources disappeared during like hot dryers cannibalism has been resorted to even by Europeans and it was resorted to by the savages until the present time they occasionally give over corpses of their own dead they must have devoured then the corpses of those who had to die the people died convinced that by their death they were rendering a law service to the tribe this is why cannibalism is represented by some savages as of devine origin as something that has been ordered by a messenger from the sky but later on it lost its character of necessity and survived as a superstition enemies had to be eaten in order to inherit their courage and at a still later epoch the enemies eye or heart was eaten for the same purpose while among other tribes in having a numerous prize food and a developed mythology evil gods thirsty for human blood were invented and human sacrifices recriered by the priests to appease the gods in this religious phase of its existence cannibalism attained its most revolting characters Mexico is a well known example and in Fiji where the king could eat any one of his subjects we also find a mighty cause of priests a complicated theology W.T. Pritchard Polynesian reminiscences London 1866 page 363 causeful note and a full development of autocracy originated by necessity cannibalism became at a later period a religious institution and in this form it survived long after it had disappeared from among tribes which certainly practiced it in former times but did not attain the theoretical stage of evolution the same remords has been made as regards infanticide and the abandonment of parents in some cases they also have been maintained as a survival of olden times as a religiously kept tradition of the post I will terminate my remords by mentioning another custom which also is a source of most erroneous conclusions I mean the practice of blood revenge all savages are under the impression that blood shed must be revenge by blood if anyone has been killed or if the rumours die if anyone has been wounded the aggressor's blood must be shed there is no exception to the rule not even for animals so the hunter's blood is shed on his return to the village when he has shed the blood of an animal that is the savage conception of justice a conception which yet prevails in western Europe as rigorous murder now when both the offender and the offender belong to the same tribe the tribe and the offender person settle their affair c'est remarquable qu'en cas d'une sentence de mort personne ne s'occupera pas de lui-même pour être un exécutaire tout le monde fasse son ton ou donne son bleu avec un hatchet à l'aide d'un moteur bleu à l'époque de l'époque le prière s'arrête la victime c'est encore plus tard qu'il sera le roi jusqu'à la civilisation invente le roi de l'Hangman c'est basque d'un remarque sur le sujet de leurs hommes la troisième page bleue 1-36 un souvenir de l'hôpital de l'hôpital je suis dit que professeur E. Nice a survivu dans les exécutions militaires jusqu'à notre propre époque dans le milieu des portions du 19e siècle c'était l'hôpital de l'hôpital le roi de l'hôpital de l'hôpital 12 s'est appelé pour tirer le victime de l'hôpital avec 11 coutures de boules et 1 couture bleue comme les soldats n'avaient jamais vu qui l'avaient tous les soldats pouvaient consulter en pensant qu'il n'était pas un de les murderers mais quand l'offender s'agit d'un autre tribe et que le tribe, pour une raison ou d'autre refusera la compensation alors que l'offender le tribe décide de tirer le victime c'est une primité pour autant considérer que tout le monde s'exprime comme une affaire tribe dépendant de l'approval tribe qu'ils pensent facilement que le clan est responsable pour tout le monde s'exprime donc l'offender peut-être s'occuper d'un membre de l'offender ou des relatives de l'offender dans l'Afrique et de l'Aérosphere c'est un habitant très élevé mais si une fête a été commettie le prochain clan doit restaurer l'équivalent de l'offender et puis regarder le 5e A.H. Poste africainiste, jurisprudence le biais 1887 volume 1, plus de 77 l'offender peut s'occuper d'une fois d'autre que l'offender en essayant d'inviter un membre il peut s'occuper de l'offender ou s'occuper plus d'un membre et cela devient une fête pour un nouveau fête alors que les législateurs primitifs sont attentionnés en nécessitant la rétolation pour être limité d'un an pour un an une fête pour un an, une fête pour une fête une fête pour une fête c'est professeur M.Kovalevsky modernes customes et anciennes russiennes, russiennes qui contiennent de nombreuses considérations sur ce sujet. C'est remarquable, d'ailleurs, que nous avons la plus primitif d'un membre ou d'un membre plus rare que peut-être d'un membre qui peut atteindre des proportions abnormales, spécialement avec des mountaineers qui ont été portés à l'hôpital par des invédeurs foreigns, comme les mountaineers de Côte-Élysée et surtout ceux de Bonheu, les délacs. Avec les délacs qui ont été allés à l'hôpital, un jeune homme ne pouvait pas être proclamé de l'âge avant qu'il s'accorde le membre de un ennemi. Cette pratique de hôpital était compliquée dans un travail modern en anglais, l'opinion de C.Kolbock, l'hôpital de Bonheu, l'année 1881. J'ai été dit, d'ailleurs, par Sir Hugh Glow, qui était le gouvernement de Bonheu pour longtemps, mais l'hôpital de Bonheu qui s'occupe de ce livre est grossement exagérité. Tout de suite, mon informat a des mêmes termes sympathétiques que l'hôpital de Bonheu. Laisse-moi ajouter que Mary Kingsley parle dans son livre sur l'Afrique dans les mêmes termes sympathétiques que les fans qui ont été représentés formalement comme les canibales les plus terrifs. Il s'imagine, d'ailleurs, que cette affirmation était une exagération grossée. En plus, le hôpital de Diyak s'occupe d'un autre aspect quand l'hôpital d'Hôpital n'est pas actué par toute la patiente personnelle. Ce que l'hôpital s'occupe d'une obligation morale juste comme l'hôpital européen qui s'occupe d'un autre principle d'hôpital pour hôpital ainsi que l'hôpital d'un murder à l'hôpital. L'hôpital de Diyak et l'hôpital d'un hôpital s'occupe d'un autre aspect que l'hôpital de Diyak n'est pas actué par l'hôpital ou par tous ceux qui le connaissent comme des personnes sympathétiques comme le book The Skull qui a donné un pétier terrible d'un hôpital de hôpital comme l'hôpital de Diyak je suis allé assister à un high place en la skill de civilisation robes et fêtes sont entièrement nones entre elles elles sont aussi très truie si je n'ai pas toujours obtenu la toute la vérité j'ai toujours eu à moins rien que la vérité de elles j'ai j'ai vécu le même de les malais Open Bracket, pages 209 et 210 Open Bracket La décision de la boxe est complètement collaborée par ce type d'hôpital d'Ida Je l'ai fully reconnait que je devais plus longtemps travailler entre elles J'ai usually found them honest, good and reserved Much more so than any other nation I knew One foot Ida Pifer men's weight well trades when 1856 Volume 1, page 116 Sequence, c'est aussi moulir et 10 minutes, Dutch possessions en hockey pélégique, India coated by Elysee Ruclu, en géographie universelle 13, crossfoot knot Stoltz use almost the same language when speaking of them but their yaks usually have but one wife and treat her well they are very sociable and every morning the whole can goes out for fishing, hunting or gardening in large parties their villages consist of big huts each of which is inhabited by 8 dozen families and sometimes by several hundred persons fully living together they show great respect for their wives and often of their children and when one of them falls ill the women nurse him in turn as a rule they are very moderate in eating and drinking such as the dark in his real daily life it would be a tedious repetition if more illustrations from savage life were given wherever we could we find the same sociable manners, the same spirit of solidarity and when we end either to penetrate into the darkness of both ages we find the same tribal life the same associations of men however primitive for mutual support therefore Darwin was quite right when he saw in men's social qualities the chief factor for his further evolution and Darwin's vulgarisers are entirely wrong when they maintain the contrary the small strength and speed of men open bracket he wrote, close bracket his want of natural weapons etc or more than counterbalance firstly by his intellectual faculties open bracket which he remarked on another page have been chiefly or even exclusively gained for the benefit of the community cause bracket and secondly by his social qualities which led him to give and receive aid from his fellow men Descent of men, second edition pages 63-64 close footnot in the law century the savage and his life in the state of nature were idealized but now men of science have gone to the opposite extreme especially since some of them anxious to prove the animal origin of men but not conversant with the social aspects of animal life began to charge the savage with all imaginable bestial features it is evident however that this exaggeration is even most unscientific than also's idealization the savage is not an ideal of virtue nor is he an ideal of savagery that the primitive man has one quality elaborated and maintained by the very necessities of his hard, struggleful life he identifies his own existence with that of man with that of his tribe and without that quality mankind never would have attained the level it has attained now primitive folk has been already said so much identify their lives with that of a tribe but each of their acts however insignificant is considered as a trivial affair their whole behavior is regulated by an infinite series of unwritten rules of propriety which have fruit of their common experience as to what is good or bad that is beneficial or harmful for their own tribe of course the reasonings open which their rules of propriety are based sometimes are absurd in the extreme many of them originate in superstition and all together in whatever the savage does he sees but the immediate consequences of his acts he cannot foresee their indirect and ulterior consequences the simply exaggerating a defect with which Bentham report civilized legislators absurd ou not the savage obeys the prescriptions of the common law however inconvenient they may be he obeys them even more blindly than the civilized men obeys the prescriptions of the written law his common law is his religion it is his very habit of living the idea of a clan is always present to his mind and self restriction and self sacrifice in the interest of a clan or of daily occurrence if the savage has infringed one of the smaller tribal rules he is prosecuted by the moqueries of the women if the infringement is grave he is tortured day and night by the fear of having called a calamity upon his tribe if he has wounded by accident any one of his own clan and thus has committed the greatest of all crimes he grows quite miserable he runs away in the woods and is ready to commit suicide unless the tribe absolve him by inflicting upon him a physical pain and shed some of his own blood c'est bas chance mens india page 7 page 238 within the tribe everything is shared in common every morcelle of food is divided among all present and if the savage is alone in the woods he does not begin eating before he has loudly shouted fries an invitation to anyone who may hear his voice to share his meal mcluco mcle c'est la même habite avec le tenteur en short, within the tribe the rule of each for all is supreme so long as the separate family has not yet broken up the tribal unity but that rule is not extended to the neighboring clans or tribes even when they are federated for mutual protection each tribe or clan is a separate unity just as among mammals and birds the territory is roughly allotted among separate tribes therefore, the boundaries are respected when entering the territory of his neighbors one must show that he has no bad intentions the louder one here else is coming the more confident he wins and if he enters the house he must deposit his hatchet at the entrance but no tribe is bound to share its food with the others it may do so or it may not therefore the life of the savage is divided into two sets of actions and appears under two different ethical aspects the relations within the tribe and the relations with the outsiders and open bracket like our international law close bracket the intertribal law widely differs from the common law therefore when it comes to a war the most revolting realities may be considered as so many claims upon the admiration of the tribe this double conception of morality process through the whole evolution of mankind and maintains itself until now the europeans have realized not immense at any rate in eradicating that double conception of ethics but it also must be said that while we have in some measure extended our ideas of solidarity in theory at least of the nation and partly over other nations as well we have lessened the bonds of solidarity within our own nations and even within our own families the appearance of a separate family amidst the clan necessarily disturbs the established unity a separate family means separate property and accumulation of wealth we saw how the iskimos obviate its inconveniences and is one of the most interesting studies to follow in the course of ages the different institutions open bracket, village communities guilds and so on close bracket by means of which the masses endeavoured to maintain the tribal unity that withstanding the agencies which were at work to break it down on the other hand through demands of knowledge which appeared at an extremely remote epoch when they confounded themselves with witchcraft also became a power in the hands of the individual which could be used against the tribe they were carefully kept in secrecy and transmitted to the initiated only in the secret societies of witches shamans and priors which we find among all savages by the same time wars and invasions created military authority as also cost of warriors whose associations or clubs acquired great powers however at no period of men's life were wars the normal state of existence while warriors exterminated each other and the priors celebrated their massacres the masses continued to live their daily life they prosecuted their daily toil and it is one of the most interesting studies to follow that life of the masses to study the means by which they maintained their own social organization which was based upon their own conceptions of equity mutual aid and mutual support of common law in a word even when they were submitted to the most ferocious theocracy or autocracy in the state end of the second part of chapter 3 recording by Enko if you would like to send me an email you can reach me at enkobilal.com that's i-n-k-o-b-i-l-a-l at yahoo.com chapter 4 of mutual aid a factor of evolution this is a libravox recording all libravox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit libravox.org recording by Enko mutual aid a factor of evolution by Peter Kropotkin chapter 4 mutual aid among the barbarians it is not possible to study primitive mankind without being deeply impressed by the sociability it has displayed since its very first steps in life ce sont des sociétés humaines qui ont été found in the relics of both the oldest and the latest to an age and when we come to observe the savagers whose manners of life are still those of neolithic men we find them closely bound together by an extremely ancient clan organization which enables them to combine their individual weak forces to enjoy a laughing command and to progress man is no exception in nature he also is subject to the great principle mutual aid which grants the best chances of survival to those who best support each other in the struggle for life these were the conclusions arrived at in the previous chapters however as soon as we come to a higher stage of civilization and refer to history which already has something to say about that stage we are bewildered by the struggles and conflicts which it reveals the old bonds seem entirely to be broken stems are seen to fight against stems, tribes against tribes individuels against individuals and out of the chaotic contests of hostile forces, mankind is used divided into and slaves with despots separated into states always ready to wage war against each other and with this history of mankind in his hands, the pessimist philosopher triumphantly concludes that warfare and operation are the very essence of human nature, that the warlike and predatory instincts of man can only be restrained certain limits by a strong authority which enforces peace and thus gives an opportunity to the few and nobler ones to prepare a better life for humanity in times to come and yet as soon as the everyday life of man during the historical period is submitted to a closer analysis and so it has been of late by many patients today of very early institutions it appears at once under quite a different aspect leaving aside the preconceived ideas of most historians and their pronounced predilection for the dramatic aspects of history we see that the very documents they have usually produced are such as to exaggerate the port of human life even to struggles and to underrate its peaceful moods the bright and sunny days are less sight of in the gales and storms even in our own time, the cumbersome records which we prepare for the future historian in our press, our law courts our government officers and even in our fiction and poetry suffer from the same one-sidedness they hand down to posterity the most minute descriptions of every war every battle and skirmish every contest and act of violence every kind of individual suffering but they hardly bear any trace of a countless acts of mutual support and devotion which every one of us knows from his own experience they hardly take notice of what makes the very essence of our daily life our social instincts and manners no wonder then if the records of the past were so imperfect the peace of all never failed to chronicle the petty wars and calamities which harass their contemporaries but they paid no attention whatever to the life of the masses although the masses chiefly used to toil peacefully while the few indulged in fighting the epic poems, the inscriptions of monuments, the treaties of peace nearly all historical documents bear the same character they deal with beaches of peace not with peace itself so that the best-intentioned historian a distorted picture of the time he and the others to depict and to restore the real proportion between conflict and union we are now bound to enter into a minute analysis of thousands of small facts and things indications accidentally preserved in the relics of a pause to interpret them with a aid of comparative technology and after having heard so much about what used to divide men to reconstruct stone by stone other institutions which used to unite them here long history will have to be re-returned on new lines so as to take into account these two currents of human life and to appreciate the port played by each of them in evolution but in the meantime we may have it ourselves of the immense preparatory work recently done towards restoring the leading features of the second current so much neglected from the better known periods of history we may take some illustrations of the life of the masses in order to indicate the port played by mutual support during those periods and in so doing we may dispense open bracket for the sake of brevity close bracket from going as for back as the Egyptian or even the Greek and Roman antiquity for in fact the evolution of mankind has not had the character of one un broken series several times civilization came to an end in one given region with one given race and began a new elsewhere among other races but as each fresh start it began again with the same planned institutions which we have seen among the savages so that if we take the lost start of our own civilization when it began afresh in the first centuries of our era among those whom the Romans call the barbarians we shall have a whole scale of evolution beginning with the gents and ending in the institutions of our own time to these illustrations the following pages will be devoted men of science have not yet settled upon the causes which some 2000 years ago drove whole nations from Asia into Europe and resulted in the great migrations of barbarians which put an end to the west roman empire one goes however is naturally suggested to the geography as he contemplates the ruins of popular cities in the deserts of central Asia or furthest the old beds of rivers now disappeared and the wild outlines of lakes now reduced to the size of mea ponds it is desiccation a quite recent desiccation continues still at a speed which we formerly were not prepared to admit point foot note, numberless traces now disappeared or found over central west and north Asia shares of the same species as those now found in the caspian sea scattered over the surface of the soil as for east as halfway to lake Aral and or found in recent deposits as for north as Kazan traces of caspian gulf formerly taken for old beds of the amu intersect the turquovan territory deduction must surely be made for temporary periodical oscillations but with all that desiccation is evident and it progresses at a formerly unexpected speed even in the relatively wet parts of southwest Siberia the succession of reliable surveys recently published by Yadrin Sef shows that villages have grown up on what was 80 years ago the bottom of one of the lakes of the Chinese group while the other lakes of the same group which covered hundreds of square miles on 50 years ago or now mea ponds in short the desiccation of north west Asia goes un attaque which must be measured by centuries instead of by the geological units of time of which we formerly used to speak against it men was powerless when the inhabitants of north west Mongolia and east Turkistan saw that water was abandoning them they had no course open to them but to move down the broad valleys leading to the blue lands and to first west wards the inhabitants of the plains all civilizations had thus disappeared proved now by the remarkable discoveries in Mongolia on the Orcon and in the L'Occitane Depression open bracket by Dimitri Clemens cross bracket stems of the stems were thus thrown into Europe compelling over stems to move and to remove those centuries in succession west wards and east wards in search of new and more oldest permanent abodes research were mixing with research during those migrations aborigines with immigrants orians with oral altaliens and it would have been no wonder if the social institutions which had kept them together in their mother countries had been totally wrecked during the stratification of research which took place in Europe and Asia but they were not wrecked they simply underwent the modification which was required by the new conditions of life the tutons, the cells, the Scandinavians the Slavonians and others when they first came in contact with the Romans were in a transitional state of social organization the clan unions based upon a real or super common origin had kept them together for many thousands of years in succession but these unions could answer their purpose as there were no separate families within the genes or clan itself however for causes already mentioned separate patriarchal family had slowly but steadily developed within the clans and in the long run it evidently met the individual accumulation of wealth and power and the hereditary transmission of both the frequent migrations of the barbarians during wars or near horse turned the division of the genes into separate families while the dispersing of stems and the mingling with strangers offered singular facilities for the ultimate disintegration of those unions which were based upon kinship the barbarians were stood in a position of either seeing their clan dissolving to lose aggregations of families of which the wealthiest especially if combining societal functions or military repute with wealth would have succeeded in imposing their authority upon the others or of finding out some new form of organization based upon some new principle many stems had no force to resist disintegration they broke up and were lost for history but the more vigorous ones did not disintegrate they came out of the ordeal with a new organization the village community which kept them together for the next 15 centuries or more the conception of a common territory appropriated or protected by common efforts was elaborated and it took the place of the vanishing conceptions of common descent the common guns gradually lost their character of ancestors and were endowed with a local territorial character they became the gods or saints of a given locality the land was identified with its inhabitants territorial unions grew up instead of the consanguine unions of all and this new organization evidently offered many advantages under the given circumstances it recognized the independence of the family and even emphasized it the village community disclaiming all rights of interference in what was going on within the family enclosure it gave much more freedom to personal initiative it was not her style in principle to union between men of different descent and it maintained at the same time this is recreation of action and thought while it was strong enough to oppose the dominative tendencies of minorities or resort priers and professional or distinguished warriors consequently it became a primary cell de la future organization and with many nations the village community have retained this character until now it is now known and scarcely contested that the village community was not a specific feature of the Slavonians nor even of the ancient tutans it prevailed in England during both the Saxon and Norman times and partially survived till the last century open footnote if I follow the opinions of open bracket to name modern specialists only close bracket not those of Mr. Seabomb open bracket Mr. Denman Ross can only be named for the sake of completeness close bracket it is not only because of the deep knowledge and concordance of views of these three writers but also an account of the perfect knowledge of the village community altogether a knowledge the one of which is much felt in the otherwise remarkable work of Mr. Seabomb the same remark applies in a still higher degree to the most elegant writings of Fistel de Coulonge whose opinions and passionate interpretations of all texts are confined to himself close footnote it was at the bottom of a social organization of all Scotland, all Ireland and all Wales in France, the communal possession and the communal allotment of arable land by the village folk molt persisted from the first centuries of our era till the times of the gut who find the folk molt too noisy and therefore abolished them it survived roman rule in Italy and revived after the fall of the roman empire it was the rule with the Scandinavians the Slavonians the Finns the bracket in the Pithaya as also probably the Kila Kunta cross bracket, the cows and the lives the village community in India post and present, Orian and non Aryan is well known for the epochmaking works of Sir Henry Main and Eiffelstone as described it among the Afghans we also find it in the Mongolian Ulus the Kabil Tadot the Javanese Dessa the Malayan Kuta and under a variety of names in Abyssinia the Sudan in the interior of Africa with natives of both Americans with all the small and large tribes of the pacific archipelagos in short we do not know one single human race or one single nation which has not had its period of village communities this fact alone disposes of the theory according to which the village community in Europe would have been a servile growth it is anterior to serve them and even servile submission was powerless to break it it was a universal phase of evolution a natural outcome of the clan organization with all those times at least which have played or play still some part in history open footnote the literature of the village community is so vast that but a few works can be née those of Sir Henry Main, Mr. Seabomb and Walter's Dust Althe Wallace, Burn Bracket Burn 1859, Cross Bracket or well known popular sources of information about Scotland, Ireland and Wales for France, P. Violet preceder l'histoire du droit français droit privé 1886 et several of his monographes bibliothèques de l'école des shorts Babou le village de l'ancien régime Open Bracket, Vermeer in the 18th century Cross Bracket, third edition 1887 Burn Maire, Daniel etc for Italian Scandinavia the chief works on them in lave-laise primitive property German version by K. Butcher for the Finns, Reince Vorela Snigoln first 16 Cosskinen Finnish guest-kitch 1874 and various monographes for the life and cause professor Lut Citschitz in Serbiania Vesnil 1891 for the tutors besides the well-known works of Maurea, some Open Bracket or Dutch Richardson, Gerrit Vefazum, Cross Bracket also Dan, Open Bracket, Jose Volkeva Derung, Lange-Baudiche Tudian, Cross Bracket, Janssen Gronel etc, for India besides H-Main and the Works, he names Sojourn, Fiaz, Orient Village for Russia and South Slavonian Sikavelin, Bosnikov, Sokolovsky Kovalevsky, Efmenko Ivanishev, Cross Bracket Open Bracket, copies by Biographical Index up to 1880 in the Shownik, Svedenny Obstinich of the Russian Geographical Society, Cross Bracket for general conclusions besides lave-laise la propriété, Morgans, Janssen Society the Piazz, Kulchuk, Getschitz Post-Dogwood etc also the lectures of M. Kovalevsky Open Bracket, table des origines et de l'évolution de la famille et de la propriété Stockholm, 1890 Cross Bracket, many special monographes ought to be mentioned the attackers may be found in the excellent list given by P. Violet in Tora Privé and Tora Public for other research, C. Subsequent Nodes, Cross Foot Nodes it was a natural growth and absolute uniformity in its structure was therefore not possible as a rule it was a union between families considered as of common descent and owning a certain territory in common but with some stems and under certain circumstances the families used to grow very numerous before they threw off new buds in the shape of new families five, six or seven generations continued to live under the same roof or within the same enclosure owning the joint household and cattle in common including the families at the common house they kept in such case to what ethnologin knows as the joint family or the undivided household which we still see all over China in India, in the South Slavonian, Zadruga and occasionally fine in Africa, in America, in Denmark in North Russia and West France Open Foot Nodes several authorities are inclined to consider the joint household as an intermediate stage between the clan and the village community and there is no doubt that in very many cases the village communities have grown up out of undivided families Nevertheless, I consider the joint household as a fact of a different order we find it within the genes on the other hand we cannot affirm that joint families have existed at any period without belonging either to a genes or to a village community or to a guru I consider early village communities as slowly originating directly from the genes and consisting according to racial and local circumstances either of several joint families or of both joint and simple families or open bracket especially in the case of new settlements close bracket of simple families only if this view be correct we should not have the right of establishing the series genes, compound family, village community the second member of the series having not the same ethnological value as the two others the appendix ninth close foot node with other steps or in other circumstances not yet well specified the families did not attain the same proportions le grand-son et occasionnelly les sons laissent le household as soon as they were married and each of them started a new cell of his own but joint or not clustered together or scattered in the woods the families remain united into village communities several villages were grouped into tribes and the tribes joined into confédération such was the social organizations which developed among the so called barbarians when they began to tell more or less permanently in Europe a very long evolution was required before the gents or clans recognized the separate existence of a patriarchal family in a separate hut but even after that had been recognized the clan as a rule knew no personal inheritance of property the few things which might have belonged personally to the individual were either destroyed on his grave or buried with him the village community on the contrary fully recognized the private accumulation of wealth within the family and its hereditary transmission but wealth was conceived exclusively in the shape of movable property including cattle, implements, orms and the dwelling house which like all things that can be destroyed by fire belonged to the same category open footnotes, stub, bear, track, zoo, guest kitchen, desk, douche, tent which page 62 of those footnotes as to private property in Lenn the village community did not and could not recognize anything of the kind and as a rule it does not recognize now the Lenn was the common property of the tribe or of the whole stem and the village community itself earned its part of the tribal territory so long only as the tribe did not claim a redistribution of the village allotments the clearing of the woods and the breaking of the prairies being mostly done by the communities or at least by the joint work of several families always with the consent of the community the clear plots were held by each family for a term of 412 or 20 years after which term they were treated as parts of their arable Lenn earning common, private property or possession forever was an incompatible with the very principles and the religious conceptions of the village community as it was with the principles of the Gens so that a long influence of the Roman law and Christian church which soon accepted the Roman principles were required to accustom the barbarians to the idea of private property in Lenn being possible open footnote, the few traces of private property in Lenn which are met with in the early Barberian period or found with such terms the Batavians, the Franks in Gaulle those bracket as have been for a time under the influence of the imperial rule see Inama, Stier next die Osbildung, the agro-saint Grunheer, Schafton in Dushlin the first 1878 also Breselier Newbrook, Knack, Demalterin Dushlin, Wreck pages 11-12 gutted by Kowalewski, modern custom and ancient law 166, 1st, 134 close footnote and yet even when such property or possession for an unlimited time was recognized the owner of a separate estate remained a co-proprietor in the wastelands of forest and grazing grounds moreover we continually see especially in the history of Russia that when a few families acting separately had taken possession of some land belonging to tribes which were treated as strangers they were soon united together and constituted a village community de 4 generations began to profess a community of origin a whole series of institutions partly inherited from the clan period have developed from that basis of common ownership of land during the long succession of centuries which was required to bring the Barbellian under the dominion of states organes upon the Roman or Byzantine pattern the village community was not only a union for guaranteeing to each one his fair share in the common land but also a union for common culture for mutual support in all possible forms for protection from violence and for a further development of knowledge national bonds and moral conceptions and every change in the judicial military, educational or economical manners had to be decided at the four nodes of the village the tribe over confederation the community being a continuation of the gents it inherited all its functions it was the universitas the mayor a world in itself common hunting, common fishing and common culture of the orchards of the plantations of fruit trees was the rule with the old gents common agriculture became the rule in the Barbellian village communities through the direct testimony to this effect is scarce and in the literature of antiquity we only have the passages of Giodorus and Julius Caesar relating to the inhabitants of the Lipari Islands one of the Celtic Iberian tribes and the Swaves but there is no lack of evidence to prove that common agriculture was practiced in the Iberian tribes the Franks and the Old Scotch are rich and Welsh Moria's Moria's Moria's Moria's Moria's Moria's Moria's Moria's Moria's Moria's Moria's Moria's Moria's Moria's 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