 The elements of reasoning are a list of factors that are designed to make people aware of the different elements involved in the process of reasoning. The elements of reasoning framework is developed by the Foundation for Critical Thinking. Within this framework, reasoning is understood as a process where people use data, information and assumptions to infer conclusions from a perspective in attempting to answer a question or solve a problem with consequences then resulting from the conclusions drawn. From this definition, we can draw a number of elements to the reasoning process including purpose, problem, assumptions, information, concepts, point of view, inference and consequences and in this module we'll be going over each of these elements separately. Reasoning is purposeful in nature. A central part of reasoning is a deliberate effort to construct inferences so as to reach justifiable conclusions. This differs from other cognitive activities such as daydreaming in which the mind operates without focus on achieving some results. Reasoning is a concerted activity that requires a degree of effort. Because it is goal-orientated, it is something that can be done with varying degrees of success. One may or may not succeed in the given purpose of solving a problem, understanding something, formulating a plan, proving one's case etc. In this respect also, it differs from daydreaming where the concepts of success and failure do not really apply. Thinking is a skill. It is a skill that everyone has to some degree, but is also a skill that everyone can improve. In this respect, effective reasoning involves choosing significant and realistic purposes, taking time to state one's purpose clearly, distinguishing the given purpose from related purposes, checking periodically to be sure one's activities are still aligned with the overall purpose of the reasoning process. Next, we'll talk about problem solving. Everyone thinks almost all of the time. However, reasoning is a particular kind of mental activity that is focused in some way on solving a problem, planning an action, studying for an exam, defining a position on a controversial issue etc. To reason means to figure out with standards. All reasoning is an attempt to figure something out or to solve a question. This involves a number of factors, taking time to clearly and precisely state the question at issue. Possibly breaking the question into sub-questions, expressing the question in several ways to clarify its meaning and scope, identifying if the question has one right answer, is a matter of opinion or requires reasoning from more than one point of view. Thirdly, assumptions. Not everything can be questioned all of the time. All reasoning is based upon some set of assumptions. People who think critically seek a clear understanding of the assumptions they are making and the assumptions that underlie the reasoning of others. They are able to distinguish between assumptions that are justified in the context and those that are not. It is necessary to note that assumptions generally function at the unconscious or subconscious level of thinking and thus typically have not been critically examined by the thinker. Assumptions are often the ground for prejudice, stereotypes, bias, distortions and other errors in one's reasoning that one would not like to be aware of. Effective reasoning means assessing those assumptions as well as those of others to determine whether those assumptions are based on sound reasoning and evidence and if not attempting to reconstruct them so. People must want to seek out in their thinking unjustifiable assumptions generated and maintained through naive egocentrism or sociocentric tendencies. To achieve high standards in thinking one must try to clearly identify one's assumptions and determine whether they are justifiable. In doing this it is necessary to exercise balanced judgment in considering how assumptions are shaping one's point of view. Fourthly, point of view. All reasoning is done from some point of view. The world is complex and any given phenomenon may be understood from many different dimensions. If we take just a single individual person and try to give definition to them one will note the many ways in which we could do this social, psychological, economic, biological etc. All of which would lead to different processes of reasoning and different conclusions. One's reasoning will only ever be a partial account of the world and it is important to identify what is the main point of view that we are using and make this explicit. In identifying points of view one can seek other perspectives and identify their strengths as well as their weaknesses. In presenting one's point of view and assessing the perspectives of others inclusiveness, open-mindedness, empathy and balance of judgment are required. In contrast with preference which is only ever a partial subjective interpretation in seeking objective reasons one is looking for a balanced assessment or judgment of different subjective accounts while maintaining an awareness to one's own perspective in reconstructing and judging them. Fifth, information. All reasoning is based on data or information of some kind. A reason is fundamentally based on evidence given and that evidence is ultimately information of some kind. Whenever we construct a case whether we are a researcher, a manager, a lawyer or just a child wishing to obtain more pocket money from their parents if this is done through reasoning then it will be based on information of some kind. An argument is only ever as good as the premise and the information contained in those premises. Claims should be restricted to those supported by the information provided. Information comes in varying degrees of quality thus it is necessary to always ask where the information is coming from and make some assessment to its potential validity and accuracy. Search for information that opposes one's position as well as information that supports it. Make sure that all information used is clear, accurate and relevant to the question at issue. Make sure sufficient information has been gathered to present a balanced case. Sixth, concepts. All reasoning is ultimately created by concepts and ideas. Being able to clarify and express clearly the abstract ideas used within the process of reasoning is of fundamental value. Conceptual frameworks are what give structure to reasoning. By defining well the concepts, categories and the interrelationships being used we can create sound, clear and coherent reasoning that can be easily communicated. As we talked about previously concepts are the building blocks of reasoning and they need to be well built that is to say well defined. It is important to identify the concepts being used and the definition of those concepts. Concepts should be used with care and precision. Likewise to avoid confusion and miscommunication concepts need to be used in keeping with established usage. Different concepts mean and do different things. It is important to understand the precise meaning of concepts and how they will shape the case being formulated. Effective reasoning involves the use of abstraction in order to define different levels to a conceptual framework. With higher, more abstract concepts used to structure lower, more concrete ideas. Understanding the use of abstraction enables the appropriate structuring and categorization of an argument and thus the capacity to present complex issues in an accessible, intelligent and coherent form. 6. Inference. All reasoning contains inference through which we draw conclusions. The inference is the logical set of connections that takes us from one place, the premise, to another, the conclusion. Without inference, there is no reasoning. For example, the statement, I like butter cookies because I like them, involves no reasoning and is not a rational argument because the premise and the conclusion are essentially the same. There is no logical inference between them. Reasoning contains inference by which we draw conclusions and give meaning to data. Effective reasoning involves the process of thinking about something in a logical way in order to infer a conclusion or judgment based upon information. Thus it is important not only to identify the information and concepts being used but also the logical connections that are being drawn between them. It is the way that we interrelate the information that gives new meaning to the conclusions which may make the argument of value. The processes of inference are studied within logic. There may be deductive formal processes that involve certainty where the conclusion follows for certain from the premises or they may involve varying degrees of uncertainty as studied within informal logic. Either way, it is important to be aware as to how the case is constructed through understanding its logical inferences. Lastly, implications. Reasoning leads somewhere and has implications and consequences, thinking that leads nowhere has no value. Reasoning starts somewhere and takes us somewhere else to a new conclusion on an issue and these conclusions have implications. The human beings are thinking governs what we say and do which in turn has implications in the world. When we reach new conclusions, these will have new implications. For example, if someone constructs an argument that there are for sure aliens on a nearby planet and convinces others then the implications of this is that people will invest their time and energy in searching for them. If we construct an argument for history as a linear process leading to ever greater progress then we will expect the future to be such and act accordingly. The point being that thinking always has implications. We often construct arguments and theories that are designed specifically to achieve certain outcomes that we desire without considering what other implications are entailed within that reasoning and what would happen if it was generalized at all. Being responsible for our thinking and actions means tracing out the implications and consequences that follow from one's reasoning taking things to their natural conclusions and asking would that lead to a rational outcome for all? In tracing out the implications of our reasoning it is important to actively search for negative as well as positive implications in the consideration of all possible consequences.