 We have been looking at words right, we will continue looking at it before we reach sentences. Now we are looking at parts of language which are becoming more and more abstract okay which is again underlying patterns okay these underlying patterns are part of our these generative apparatus which is to say we can look at these things or we understand these things when we try to understand generative apparatus or vice versa. So yesterday we looked at certain underlying patterns rules which work as a template for formation of words where we have some templates which give us lot of words and then the more constraints are heavier the fewer the words okay with clusters of two consonants we have fewer words with the cluster of three consonants we have way too fewer words that are handful of them and with the cluster of four in the beginning of a word we have none in any language whatsoever okay we have looked at these things. Now we want to look at certain more processes which add grammatical meaning to words and we want to see how they work. I have a question from yesterday somebody asked about syllables the person here no okay so I will discuss that part later so let me take you through more on how to make words okay I want to give you some examples of Hindi okay and at the same time while I am discussing these examples I want you to look at languages that you speak okay and see how such rules are going to apply in those languages keep in mind these rules are not going to apply verbatim okay however once you see the underlying pattern of these rules they will help you understand underlying patterns of rules in the languages that you speak and finally you will see how language specific rules are how language specific rules have to say about about generic rules of language and how these rules really work in our minds okay. So let me show you some of these things now what is this about this is about a singular word right and a plural counterpart right everybody knows about singular and plural counterparts right so how do we make plurals in languages in general now the basic point is every language will have plural counterparts of singular nouns okay we have nouns that we make that become plural and I am going to kind of rush through these things I am not taking you through every single step okay I am going to show you like I said I am going to show you some of these from Hindi and then I want you to apply them to English and to more specifically to your languages right now have you heard these words before even some people who may not be speaking in the have you heard these words before right and you have heard their plural counterparts as well we if we speak in the we use these words quite often the and these are just few examples so what what is going on in this singular and plural counterpart how is it working how is this working sorry we add another sound in the world in the at the end of it do we just add or do we do something else too so if we have a if we have two words one is let us say gamala right or camera and the plural is come a are we simply adding a sound to the end of the word or we are doing something else with that we are we are removing one and only then we are adding the other one see this thing so if someone asks someone looks at the word come a day right and you try to tell them the you see the end of this word and the marker at the end of the word is actually plural marker that we have added right this is one way to describe but how why should anybody believe you if if I am not a speaker of Hindi I would simply say look this word sounds like just one word to me why should I believe you that the sound a at the end of this word is an addition of a sound do you understand my question why should we believe that this is an addition of a sound this looks like a word to me no not necessarily how is it happening with the other word I have given you only four of them here and it is not happening with even four of them not necessarily that I can tell you for sure they are not necessarily it happens with every single word now let before we go to that let us focus on my question that I asked you you understand the question the question is why should I believe that something has been added to the word it looks like just one word to me how will you convince someone that something has been added to it then the answer to that question is we need to look at the singular counterpart right and then you can show systematically that the sound a is dropped right and only then in place of that there is another sound right and on the top of that this addition of a sound has a meaning do you see if I simply write a word write a sound let us say ah okay or a do these sounds have any meaning without looking at these words do they have any meaning no right but when they are added to a word they have a meaning understand this when they are added to a word they have a meaning there are names for these categories but without without those names let me go ahead and talk about them what's the meaning of this sound in this word in these words the meaning of this sound is what singular the meaning of these this sound is plural now everybody understands what singular is and what a plural is right now see how how when we are learning languages or a language or language itself how languages specific rules get triggered with the input so no once again to to remind you about the things that I have promised you that I will keep reminding you time to time that when we when a child is learning a language the child comes across with the words like camera and comedy and nobody tells them or at least at the time when this input is coming to the child child is not in a position or at the age to be told these things that look ah that you see at the end of it is a singular marker a at the end of another word is a plural marker do you agree with me it's difficult for us to see these things even now right so much so that we have to put these things in colors to see them clearly right so it's not possible for anyone to tell a child or for a child to see these things however what a child is figuring out or the or the mind is figuring out by itself is these things okay there is absolutely no confusion in the mind of a child after the child has acquired the language that this is the plural formation pattern see this thing this is why if I without giving you this thing if I ask you can you write down in 5 minutes the plural formation rules of Telugu or Tamil take 20 nouns and see how nouns are changing in plural and give me a rule or summary of rule or a set of rules which will apply to all the nouns across the boat a it's not it could not be done in 5 minutes and b it's very difficult to figure those things out however you know every single noun of your language and you also know the underlying plural formation pattern of every single word of your language that consists of knowledge of language and then the on the other side it confirms that when we acquire language these are the underlying rules of principles and parameters which are part of universal grammar are that are getting triggered by languages specific inputs okay now what are what are such rules unless we look at these these words we don't even know that a particular sound may also have a meaning in a word a particular sound may not have an independent meaning elsewhere that is outside of a word but in a word it may have a specific meaning also and we don't stop here also we know for sure that if this is the plural marker in English in in a language like Hindi this is not the plural marker across the boat this is a plural marker in only some words right for example if you see word number 3 what's the word and what's the plural marker so plural of Pani remains Pani nobody has any confusion of that now not only plural the plural form remains the same but we know that the plural marker is zero no plural now someone can argue someone can tell you there are there are descriptive grammars given to us which describe things like every a ending word will change to a how many of you have taken Hindi classes anybody some of you at least very nice were you told about plural formation rules what what were you told any idea others right words and rules words and their plural forms so you were given every single word and their plural rules do you see the problem with that at least now if I if you are learning a language like Hindi or I am learning a language like Telugu or Malayalam how many words can I learn what's the length of a semester 40 hours right which is if you if you put it in terms of continuity it's less than two days see this thing that we do over a period of let's say 13 or 14 weeks how many words do you think I can learn if I am taking Telugu in a semester or for that matter even if I take it for a year two semesters including summer if I need to learn every single word and then its plural marker plural form how many words do you think I can learn answer clearly is not all you can learn as many as you want every day but definitely it's never going to be an exhaustive list get this now what else were you told anybody remembers whatever is what else were you told is admitting that we were given certain words and its plural forms were you also told about the rule underlying it no so somebody was given let's say a word like camera and told the plural is coming in right something like this anybody else some words which do not have plural were also taught as an exception right so the one of the things that I remember from such classes is there is a rule that is taught that if you see a word ending in R it changes to A and if they don't then they are exceptions right if they don't work that way then they are exceptions the idea of here is not to show you the problems of teaching and the idea is also not to blame the teachers the idea is to show you there cannot be exceptions if language is part of generative apparatus then there cannot be exception to rules because we are not talking about rules which okay let me put it this way we are not talking about some generic rules we are talking about the rules that already exist remember what I have told you about what already exists what is it that I have told you that I already exists which is if in a layman's term you have to describe universal grammar how will you describe that right we know those things intrinsically but also that's a set of rules of all the languages of the world if that if it's that kind of innate rule how could such rules generate exceptions see my point the strength of a rule is such that it should not be able to generate generate exceptions if if you are generating exceptions then if a rule is generating exceptions then it's a weaker rule okay you will you will learn about this particular aspect in your respective disciplines when you move ahead any rule that generates lot of exceptions any rule that has lot of patches is called a weak rule okay so the third and fourth will be examples of exceptions right that these things are exceptions but that's not true if you we are calling them exceptions only when we are looking at it not very carefully if you look at them carefully then you see that there is absolutely no exception to rules and the rule is the following the rule is first we have to look at if if we are talking about a language like Hindi then we have to look at two types of its gender you know that there are only two types of genders in Hindi which is every word can only be either masculine or feminine now this intuition about a word and mind it I am calling it intuition this intuition about a word is innate is inbuilt for example I will give you this example in a moment every single word in Hindi in a language like Hindi must have a gender and that gender must manifest in sentence okay so if I if I say a word like let's say give me any word in Hindi that you know aurat it's a which what's the gender feminine gender because that's that's a natural gender applies there hava so hava is what gender you see that feminine gender shirt what gender shirt kameez now probably this is an unfair question to ask you okay now my point is a shirt is masculine in Hindi and if we use for the same object a different word let's say kameez have you heard the these words shirt kameez the word kameez is feminine sorry go ahead not only not only salwar kameez any shirt in Hindi is called kameez shirt is English word right in Hindi it's called kameez right now that word is feminine so another point to notice is there is when we say every word must have it must have a gender which is either masculine or feminine we are not talking about the gender of the object we are simply saying there is a gender associated with every word which is arbitrary association but it's it's inbuilt intuition and this is also identification of someone being native speaker of that language they will immediately figure it out without any training you just give a word to a Hindi speaker or just listen to them speaking nobody needs to tell them that hawa is feminine right or a table feminine or masculine nobody needs to tell them what it is however you know that there is nothing masculine about table and there is nothing feminine about hawa right this is intuition intuition now based on that if you look at the words of masculine gender you find two types of words one type which end with a okay only such word will change to a masculine words which do not end in a like pun or gar they do not have their plural forms across the boat and this r to a rule applies only to masculine words see my point applies only to masculine word because look at this example that he gave you what's the what's the what was the example hawa does this word end in a what's the plural of this do we see it as a kamre or gamle we are not doing the my point is we are not changing this word the way we are changing kamre and gamle clearly tells you that that's not a masculine word see the thing now if you look at these two rules then there is absolutely no exception similarly if you look at feminine nouns of Hindi okay there are only going to be two types of feminine nouns one that ends in long e am I making sense to you we don't need to learn Hindi or we don't need to look at it I am only trying to show you the underlying pattern right words that end in long e such as larki or gadi and the words that do not end with long e there are only two categories either they end with long e or they don't end with long e if we are talking about masculine nouns either they end in a or they don't end in a please pay attention to the second part we are not saying they end in a consonant or a vowel or a particular type of consonant or a particular type of vowel nothing of that sort we are only saying one type of masculine noun ending with a and the other type not ending in a one type of feminine noun ending in e that's a long vowel and the other type not ending with e and so that way we get four way classification and for each type there is a specific rule and then that rule does not generate any exception okay so a word like hava will fit where sorry feminine noun which doesn't end with long e right and similarly if there is a word which ends in long e okay imagine there is a word which ends in long e but it's not a feminine word okay which is if it is not a feminine word then it's going to be masculine so can you give me can can you think of an example of such word pani I already gave you this word pani a word which ends in long e but doesn't have a is not feminine is not going to change there is another word that I can give you I only picked up few to make a point you don't need to have look at exhaustive list of them dobi another very generic word everybody must have heard this word dobi means someone who washes clothes right is a masculine or feminine masculine word it doesn't but it ends in long e what do you expect will not change in plural form neither it's going to work the way feminine nouns work but there are only four types and four simple rules for them if they end in a then change to a if they don't end in a no change if they end in when we talk about feminine nouns if they end in long e they change in a particular way right and this is where I said I don't need don't want to take you through every single step because we don't need to learn these things we only need to see a particular point now the second part of second part of a feminine noun which is words that do not end with long e they change in a particular way right can you see the rational that in this category we cannot say words that do not end in a that do not end in long e will not change we cannot say that because if they don't change then then there will be no difference between masculine and feminine nouns and that will create again again confusion now do you see how systematically they are classified and why they they generate no exceptions and creates no confusion here this is one particular rule which is language specific now it's about Hindi now I invite you to look at the underlying pattern of plural formation of your language okay this is I am giving you this thing as a as a as an assignment which is optional assignment you don't have to submit it okay but I promise you usually people will not tell you what's going to be on the exams do people tell you what's going to be on the exam on record on camera I am telling you this question will be on one of the exams okay so please work on that if you need my help I am ready to work with you but for that you need to bring me examples please look at the underlying pattern of plural formation and the only thing that I am not telling you it's going to be on the coming exam but on one of them this question is going to be there okay so see how categorically I have shown you the rules now I had a plan to show you rules of at least one more language which is English but I leave that for you to figure that out also because English is one language which everybody has studied which everybody has learned as second language or I remember some of you telling me you started learning English and kindergarten right remember A for apple and B for a boy you haven't forgotten that yet what how did you learn plural formation I just want you to think about that and then tell me how it works I want you to do this definitely for English and tell me how it works and also I want you to do for the language that you speak which is language that you grew up with mother take some examples and see the plural pattern of that language okay that will be one application of something that you are learning we I am not going to give you such assignments every now and then because we are going to move very fast and it's difficult in a semester in a short period of class for me to tell you to apply every rule to your language however you will get a taste of how it works when you need to when you are asked to look at your own language if your own language looks difficult to you just look at the language of your neighbor and see how it how it works by neighbor I mean if you speak Tamil and Tamil sounds difficult you can look at Malayalam or Canada or Telugu whatever you like but everybody is definitely going to look at English and and I also ask you feel free to consult any internet any library any resource at your disposal people that you know teachers you may have interacted with just feel free to to interact with anything consult anything but please do work on this thing get my point all right now this is this was just one underlying rules that languages operate with and I wanted to wanted you to see any questions so far before I move any any confusion about what I have just described what you need to do no no so you promise that you will do it I don't see don't see commitment in your promise go ahead yes and why am I saying so on the simple the simple reason of me saying so not that I know all the languages underlying rules of language are such that they are not supposed to generate exceptions suppose we still find exceptions that simply means we haven't looked at the rule hard enough but see I think you asked me this question yesterday or somebody asked me this question do we have first words and then we are sorry do we have first sounds and then we apply them in a format and get words right or do we have words and then we see them either way the point is we have rules and if we haven't come up with a rule of this type I'm giving I have given you a rule which I am convinced that there is no exception I want you as a Hindi speaker whether you speak Hindi or not I want you to find one single example which doesn't work this way which which forms exception to these four way categorization and it is these rules such as Kamro is not plural Kamro is not plural I mean it's it's a it's a plural but it has something else on it now I I I don't want to start in the class with you here however you are I that that's a very genuine question very genuine concern Kamro has more than plural and if you are interested in this look at some materials what you will find is people use this word Kamro only when there is something following it which is called a post position right like Kamro me or Kamro K Bahar we we never use this word Kamro or Kamro without a post position so it's the effect of the following post position on the previous word which turns it into the into Kamro they wrote as masculine for plurals yes no larkio Kamro havau Dhobi all of them work the same way so that that's something more than singular plural masculine family that's that's all I can I can tell you about plurals and singular only what I have told you are you are you convinced that Kamro is something else okay so that that's a different exactly very true and and I am convinced that you can see patterns very well at least and I am trying to show you patterns which are easy to see right already anything else sir if sir if language was natural outcome Hindi has got this issue of like the nouns changing with the post position whereas other languages probably many would do many many languages would would work that way not all so what what is important here is languages will have two way categorization let's say singular and plural this is part of universal set of principles singular and plural okay however language what was the other part of your part of your question how come Hindi how come some land like Hindi has got this post position post position and its its effect English on right so when we say on table there is no change in the word table whereas if we say on table or on tables when you say on the table you don't see any change in singular what's in Hindi phrase on the table on the table singular single table per and when we say on the tables table no per same same thing is added that you were trying to add to what come around or garon or larko or lurky now coming back to your your question this effect is restricted only to Hindi you you are right this is not in not in English now this is exact example of what we say parameters that some rules are parametric in nature where they will apply only to some languages and will not apply to others this is what becomes responsible for differences in languages right otherwise if if there were no parameters take it this way if there were no parameters then we will have we will end up with one language see this thing this is why both together principles and parameters help us understand what we say language the underlying rules of language we won't be able to see underlying rules of language only with the help of principles we need to see that also with parameters making sense now one more thing which I discussed with you yesterday which is important for word formation rules and then we move ahead in the in remaining few minutes now are you familiar with these words I thought you will be familiar familiar with lot of them therefore I haven't even added meanings to these words anybody who is not familiar with all the words so what are what are the words can you read them now there are two of them after panja the first one is anda andha and Mumbai right have you heard Mumbai everybody andha andha means a blind man or or blind andha heard this one punja it means palm punja means a palm I should have given meaning of these things but nonetheless I can tell you that and kanga is a com with which we set our hair right now I want to show you something else that is the I have shown you a rule which is a morphological rule where we add something to the words and they are they give a new grammatical meaning which is plurals right right now I am I am trying to show you something which happens word internally okay this rule works internal to word all right to to wind up the story of word and move to sentence I need to wind this up now remember the story of clusters what was the story of cluster two consonant sounds will form a cluster in which way one will lose the first one will lose its vowel quality and then form the cluster true now if we apply the same thing to the clusters where a nasal sound is a part of part of the clusters okay the first consonant happens to be a nasal sound are you with me first consonant happens to be a nasal sound then how does it work if you see the first one what's the what's the sound which is following the nasal which is what's the place of articulation of this back of course which one vealum right the next one ja what's the what's the place of articulation for that palette right the next one is duh duh it's a retroflex sound right in our language it's a retroflex and then the next one duh a dental right and the next one is ba which is bilabial do you see the example of all the five of five places of articulation in these words now in each of these words the first sound is a nasal that is in each of these clusters the first consonant of that cluster is a nasal sound right right now the way it works is if the following consonant is a labial then the nasal is also labial if the following consonant is dental then the nasal is also dental okay if the following consonant is a retroflex one the nasal is also retroflex if the following consonant is palatal the nasal is palatal and if the following consonant is velar then the nasal is velar so in a word like kangha right kangha do you hear a nasal sound where do you hear this nasal sound right before ga right now what if if we need to talk about it what which type of nasal is this right this is this can only be a velar nasal and how do we know that this is a velar nasal because the following sound is a velar one in the second one it can only be palatal nasal because the following sound is palatal and likewise in all of them now besides being little bit fancy and interesting what does this tell us that if we if there are two sounds forming cluster and the first one is nasal right that nasal and the following consonant must share same place of articulation a nasal from a different place of articulation and the following consonant from a different place of articulation will not be allowed okay which means in a word like let's say Mumbai in a word like Mumbai we have ma and ba this consonant is a nasal and it must only be bilabial nasal in other words a dental nasal na and ba this is not going to be a warranted sequence in a word okay this is not going to be a warranted sequence in a word are you with me are you do you follow this thing then the nasal sound must match I am using non-term non-technical term the the technical term for this is assimilation that is these two sounds assimilate each other's quality this because this is bilabial this must be bilabial and not anything else therefore not warranted see this thing no the examples that you see on screen these examples are from which language Hindi right however this rule is not a specific to Hindi what's the rule the rule is when we talk about a nasal sound and its following consonant they must come from same place of articulation right this rule is not a specific to Hindi alone all right now I can give you some examples from English right if I give you a word you I want you to write that word let's say the word is possible okay possible and patient only only two words right I want you to negate this what's the negative of this these two words impossible and impatient right did you write both right next to one next to each other now one more example consistent consistent must have heard this word before consistent English word the negative is I want to hear the word now how do you write that let me let me first go to the writing how do you write that you can only tell me the first part I am do you write I am find out in the previous one we just saw it was I am in the following one it becomes I am right why is this I am in the previous one because the per sound is labial the if the negative is coming before that that must be a labial nasal which is ma we cannot say impossible okay we cannot say that we cannot say impatient we have to say impatient rather we can put the same thing in the following way it's really not it's really not a point that how we say that this is how it is said this is how it becomes because the following if the following one is a labial it's easier to have the previous nasal also as labial one moment before I come to you now the second example that I have given you which type of nasal is that you have written them as I am right and then only you write something consistent right now what's the sound the sound is which is a wheeler wheeler sound the nasal must be a wheeler nasal so it's it's not really inconsistent it sounds different or it is supposed to sound different it is inconsistent where the nasal is a wheeler nasal see that and and you can find tons of examples in English or in other languages which is going to follow this rule now this was just an just a language internal rule the other one that I showed you is which is sorry this was word internal the other was applying at the word boundary what is that present it's unpleasant well that then it's a different thing the see we are you are you are absolutely right let me first say that now why am I saying that's a different thing is I am saying the following if it must be nasal then it has to be this way okay now an is a different kind of prefix which now then for to understand that we need to look at negative prefixes in English and there then we will be looking at language specific rules of English right which will fall in a different domain now I am not taking a shortcut I am not trying to avoid their thing I am only trying to show you that there are some rules which may not be which may not be part of principle this assimilation of nasals is a principle which works across language right so so we are we are looking at word internal and things at word boundary we are looking at rules that may not may not really change the meaning of a word if we are looking at Hindi and we have looked at some Hindi examples where some addition to the word changes the meaning of the words but these are the rules which help us understand structure of words right likewise we are going to see tomorrow rules that are going to be underlying but significant information of sentences okay and then we will come to once we understand such rules from sentences with that we will conclude the story of sounds words and sentences and then I will take you to see more more generic principles of language that apply across the board okay thank you