 Thank you, good morning everybody, just lower the microphone because I'm not on the tall side. Okay. Hope you can hear me. So, multilingual coin inscriptions in pre-Roman East Anglia. Pre-Roman East Anglia was a peninsula in the North Sea with extensive wetlands and tidal marshes around many offshore islands. Mae'r gwaith yn ystod â'r cymorth unwaith o'r fwyfwyr ac mae'r gweithio'r wahanol gan cyd-fawr Cymru. Mae'r cyfrannu Llywodraeth wedi'i'n bwysig o'r Brytun hefyd wedi'i'n gweldio rhai allan o'r cyd-fawr cyd-fawr. Mae'r ffaith cerdd wedi bod yn cael ei bod yn cael ei fod yn cael ei bod yn ei gweldio'r gwaith ac yn hybyddu o'r cyfrannu, ond byddwn ni'n gwybod dweud yn cael ei bod yn ystod yn y same. Ond ydy werth ydyn ni'n fudio'n gweinio ffagorio llifonol hynny sydd coronavirusiaeth amser yn eiheadfyn yn y rhan hynny'r llyffyr mewn ei ddysgu fel deod. Ond a phobl hwnnw, reinforce yn ymarferio, iddo newid mewn ei ddylau i ymddi, a hwnnw fe gallai garun i'r llynol hefyd yn awrthau cyffredinol iawn, i ddugmoreg mewn ar y ddweud. Mae gamwyswyl, ranlluniau a gwriadau i gael eu rhan yw'r rhain. Mae'r gwahaniaethau sydd wedi gwneud o'i rhaglen taeth hynny fod yn yrydd cyflwynt fel Llanて, ac trafnodd a'r gwahaniaethau sydd yn ymwybod, ac mae'r rhaglen o'r bodn amlwg, yn ymgyrchau你有an, rwy'n ei wneud yma i fawr i dda, i bob tynw i'r wneud i gael i'r rhaglenol. Mae'r llwyddi wedi'i gwybod, Rang wrth Yndo, rwy'n bwysig i newydd. university'r Argyflwr Newydd y Llanthag, a Llanthog yr Britain wedi'r drwrdd y meddwl yn y ffintroducaeth lwystog rhysbrygol yr widgets yng Nghymru yn Llanthog, ac yn celtychol Llinwgistol yn gyntaf yma ddwygold Gŵr Llanthog yr William Bellgwick diseasell yn gyllud o'r Llantig yng Nghymrith yw'r Llanthog, gyda'r pwyllwer ynglynig o'i gyfnod mwyaf o Gŵr i Llanthog ynglynig i'r Llanthog yn Llanthog ar gyfer Llanthog ar gyfer Llanthog, a Llanthog rwyntgen i Brefwyn rydych i Llyfrgell Cymru? Efallai rhan o ffryd rôl Bryn-Rôl, rhan o'r hynod dod i ddiddordeb ar ysgol, oherwydd, oherwydd o'r rhan o'r hyffordd rôl, rwy'n gyfer yma yn ei ddiddordeb a bydd yn ei ddatblygu. A yn y Prifysgol Angliann Pynynsula, mae'r llyfr gennymol ysgol yn cyfaint o'r rhan o'r rhain o'r rhan o'r rhan o'r rhan o'r rhun o'r ad. Rhyf Bryn Rôl Bryn o'r rhain o'r llyfrion rôl, grwunio ar hyn o'r oriwn, o'r gyfarwyr sy'n werth o'i hyfforddiad cyngor honno i gyfrifiadau o armsod yn yrheirion iawn, gan oedd mae'r amserio ein ffordd yn Brytwunau, a'r amserio yn Llair Cyfrifiadau. A byddai ddechrau'n llwbodaeth cysylltiwn i'r lle i Norferg a'i sefydlu gweithio'r eich dynnu meddwl – ym Ysgrifennu, a'i Gweithle – a'r ym 47 ac 60 wedi'u cysylltiyn i gweithio'r llwyddiad, mae hi gan rhaid i gweithio'r eich dynnu. Wrth fy ffawr may have read a paper I wrote on this in 2011, more has come to light since then, and much of what is new is thanks to John Talbot' heroic study of over 10,000 Icanian coins for his doctoral thesis in 2015. His work has informed the maps and chronologies I am using and I am very grateful for his help although I still come to some different historical conclusions. First a quick word about these people. Everything about them from early prehistory onwards, and there is no sign of discontinuity anywhere along the line, suggests a prosperous, clan based, regional structure of homesteading, stock raising farmers. Heads of clan and other nobles would have maintained personal retinues of warriors and horsemen. A rich equestrian elite controlled the entire northern stretch of the busy long range trackways that have always connected the North Sea with the Dorset coast and the Thames estuary. They were patrons of some of the finest craftsmen anywhere in their world on either side of the water. They had many important shrines that must already have been places of pilgrimage. They interacted with their neighbours, continental associates and the Roman Empire very much on their own terms. They spent absolute fortunes making scrupulously regulated silver and gold coins for which they hammered to death hundreds of pairs of coin dies and banged out many thousands of coins. Dr Talbot estimated that they got through 2,000 kilos of gold and over 11,000 kilos of silver in a century, none of which show any sign of abrasion from use. If you think about this, whatever it was used for, this can never have been a cash in a market economy. Besides, these people had no known towns or dedicated market centres. They ran all their affairs from elite estates and ceremonial places. Instead, coins either went straight to the ground in sacrificial deposits of various sorts or back into the pot for recycling. This, I think, suggests that right to the end these people's coins must have been made primarily to service an unending round of very precise social transactions previously conducted otherwise, for instance in livestock or bullion. We don't know the tariffs they set, but we can be absolutely sure that they knew them and regulated their coinage accordingly. These essentially administrative functions will have been performed at peripatetic assizes and assemblers by judges, priests and community leaders, including the people actually named on coins. This, I think, may also account for the formula seen on several issues, which reads, this was made by so-and-so under the orders or supervision of someone else. In such a world, if people did obtain anyone's coins in payment or exchange and they obviously did, and if the rich gave treasure to reward retainers and clients, which they obviously did, recipients would tend to save what they get to enable themselves to hand it back or in effect destroy it again when they needed to make religious sacrifice or pay fines and compensations to injured parties for personal insult, accidental injury, or for the animal theft, kidnapping and homicide that herdsmen and young warriors in all such stock-raising societies seem to practice almost as a sport. Destructive cycles of revenge and honour killings generally bedevil this sort of world and require constant mediation to prevent generalized violence. There was speedy and seemingly constant turnover at Icanian mints. This must be why most of their inscribed coinage has such complex overlapping sequences from several simultaneously active shifting mints. Some issues were rather localised but by far the most widespread were two in the name of a pair of overarching authorities who minted copious silver and initially also some gold that appears in parallel, interrelated and overlapping series. This looks very like the work of a dual administrative system. Icanian territory did have a formally twinned structure and paired rulers are often found in early Europe, usually with different functional or territorial remits. The leading pair here might for instance have represented different constituent interests in an ethnically mixed tribal union. One, Antedzios, has a Bretonic name that means governor or literally one who sits in front and coins that show a slight distributional bias to the east of the territory. While the other, Ekhen, later abbreviated as Ekhe, is named on a vast and varied coinage that was issued over an exceptionally long period. He was probably the senior partner in the pair. His coin distribution is biased towards the north and west and his name was Germanic, built on the word for oak, a tree of iconic significance in that area. One group of Ekhe coins was associated with others marked Saiviu and Esu, also both Germanic names. Saiviu, which seems intended by the inscription, is a close insular match for the Gothic Siwars, which means sea or lake or marsh, and named a senior member of the Fen edge elite. Esu names the High God known as Esus in Bretonic and Gaulish. This was everybody's deus maximus, a mercury type, woden type patron of people's fortunes in this life and guide on their journeys after death. He had important shrines in ancient Norfolk. His name has an impressively long history in Europe, but this particular spelling with its initial Ae is the earliest evidence so far of a step in the development of the God's Germanic name that may actually be peculiar to Britain, where it occurs several times in different places between the 1st and 4th centuries AD. This might support the view that an insular Germanic vernacular had coexisted with Bretonic long before the Roman era. Next, in perfect Latin, sub esuprasto esico fake it, under esuprastus esico made, probably the coins themselves perhaps from his own treasure. This sentence is the only fully articulated Latin inscription in any medium in pre-Roman Britain, and you can see that at the bottom of the slide there. Both names in it contain the Latin-friendly Bretonic form esu, of the same high God just mentioned. One, esico, is in fact the earliest recorded instance anywhere of what was later a widespread, even popular Germanic name. Esuprastus, under whom esico made the coins, has a name that combines esu with prastus, which is probably an east coast vernacular form of the Latin pristis, meaning efficient or priest. Priest of Esus suggests a sacral function within the Federal League and tallies with other details on these coins. He is generally identified with Tacitus' friendly king Prasutagus, a linguistically hybrid title for the chief magistrate of a tribal assembly, whose death in AD 60 triggered Nero's annexation of his people. If so, esuprastus probably knew Claudius personally, and as a young hostage would have had a Latin education, maybe even in the imperial household. His portraits certainly show both Julio-Claudian haircuts and a long Germanic ponytail looped up behind his neck. Two inscriptions remain. The first has a short version of the same Latin formula that we have just seen. Ale made something for or under Skavas. Nothing much can be said about the first truncated name. Skavo, however, is West Germanic again, with close parallels in the old Saxon verb to see, and an identical Germanic personal name, Skawa. Finally, Caniduro. It's second element is Bretonic. It's first is intermediate, but perhaps Bretonic, and taken together on the same side of a coin. This does look very like a Bretonic place name in the Latin locative. If it does indeed mean at Cano's domain, perhaps on the Fen edge, then at least we do have one estate owner's name without knowing what else this unusual coinage signifies. So, where does this leave language use in pre-Roman East Anglia? All the people represented on coins were members of a ruling elite. Some of their names were Bretonic, as you might expect in Britain. Others had Germanic titles or names or titles of office. Many other parts of the ancient world had multilingual, multi-ethnic populations, including Belgium Gaul and the lower Rhineland across the water. The Ikenu, too, over many centuries, had forged a highly distinctive regional identity that held up under determined pressure, first from aggressive neighbours, then from the advancing Roman Empire. By around AD 15, they had made a cohesive tribal league under essentially sacral leadership. Hence the formula on some of their coins, someone did this sacrificially expensive thing under someone else with a sacral name. This even hints at one motive for introducing Latin in public life, long before conquest obliged them to. Like many other northern peoples, and with the likely exception of Prasutagus himself, there is every reason to think that the Ikenu didn't like or particularly admire the Romans. Using Latin was in fact almost the only Roman artefact they seemed to have wanted, even after Claudius conquered their troublesome neighbours. They didn't want wine or other luxuries, they melted down all the silver coins they got by selling things that Romans wanted, and they didn't imitate Roman architecture or social customs. Using Latin in the public sphere did, however, advertise the special status of the territory's designated leader as an official friend and trading partner of the Roman state, whose terms and conditions will have obliged all clan leaders to enforce the peace as best they could, if need be by making liberal use of obligatory fines in freshly coined silver or gold. Latin, identified with neither resident linguistic community, may have been very useful when asserting authority in tense and divisive situations within the league. Thank you very much.